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Vehicle System Dynamics: International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility

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A study on mechanical mechanism of train derailment and preventive measures for derailment
X Jun & Z Qingyuan
a

Civil and Architectural Institute, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410075, People's Republic of China Version of record first published: 06 Aug 2006.

To cite this article: X Jun & Z Qingyuan (2005): A study on mechanical mechanism of train derailment and preventive measures for derailment, Vehicle System Dynamics: International Journal of Vehicle Mechanics and Mobility, 43:2, 121-147 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0042311041233132201

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Vehicle System Dynamics Vol. 43, No. 2, February 2005, 121 147

A study on mechanical mechanism of train derailment and preventive measures for derailment
X. JUN* and Z. QINGYUAN

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Civil and Architectural Institute, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410075, Peoples Republic of China

The research status of train derailment is summarized. Major problems existing in current derailment research are pointed out. By applying system dynamics stability concepts, the mechanical mechanism of train derailment is described. The theory of random energy analysis for train derailment is then further expounded and preventive measures for train derailment and a calculation method for an anti-derailment safety coecient (of train track time variant system) are introduced. Finally, some train derailment cases are analysed. Six train track time variant system vibration cases are calculated, four of which derailed and two that did not. The conclusion compares the results of the theoretical analysis with that which actually occurred.

1. Introduction Since the inception of the railway in England in 1825, train derailment has been a problem troubling railway scientists and technologists alike. Train derailment, which occurs frequently in China and other countries of the world, has become a centennial problem. In the authors opinion, this is due to an insucient understanding of the mechanics of derailment, which means feasible precaution measures are not taken. Since the launch of the speed-up campaign in the Chinese railways, the operation speed of the freight trains has increased from 50 60kmh 7 1 up to 70 80 kmh 7 1. Proportionately, more and more derailment accidents have taken place, particularly on straight lines, constituting a grave threat to safety and a serious interference to the normal order of railway transportation. As a result, the Ministry of Railways is under pressure to take measures such as speed limitation to secure the safety of train operation. However, speed limitation is in conict with the objectives specied in the tenth ve-year plan of railway development of science and technology, which clearly denes that by 2005, rapid freight trains shall achieve a speed of 120 kmh 7 1, a rapid

*Corresponding author. Email: jxiang@mail.csu.edu.cn

Vehicle System Dynamics ISSN 0042-3114 print/ISSN 1744-5159 online 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals DOI: 10.1080/0042311041233132201

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freight transport network shall take shape; normal freight trains shall achieve 90 kmh 7 1 and track capacity will improve. Speed limits have acted as a bottleneck restraining the railway transportation economy, severely hindering the tenth ve-year plan, and longer term plans. Therefore, there is a pressing need to study the train derailment mechanism and seek measures to prevent derailment of freight trains and to reduce, and ultimately even eradicate, derailment accidents.

2. Current status of studies on derailment 2.1 Study on critical derailment coecient In 1896, Nadal, a French engineer, put forward an equation to calculate the critical derailment coecient Q/P according to the relationship of normal force N and tangential friction T with transverse wheel-rail force Q and vertical wheel-rail force P, as shown in gure 1 [1]. He then regarded the following equation as the basis of commencement of derailment: Q tga m P 1 mtga 1

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where m is the dynamic friction coecient of the wheel-rail contract and a is the ange angle [1]. Japanese scientists take standard wheel ange angle a = 608, friction coecient m = 0.3, Q/P = 0.95 according to equation (1). The estimated safety coecient is 1.2, so the critical derailment coecient (start of derailment) Q/P = 0.8. Building upon Nadals equation (1), scientists around the world have investigated the value of the critical derailment coecient in terms of calculation and test (e.g. [2 5]). Japanese scholars use the single wheelset calculation model as shown in gure 2a, and vertical load W = 2P0, where P0 is static wheel load. The wheel load is presumed static and the waveform of the transverse force acting on single wheelset is as shown in gure 2b. Without consideration of the rail action, the relationship between Q/P and wheel lift value is as shown in gure 2c. We can see from gure 2c, when Q/P = 0.8, the wheel lift value is very small, satisfying the conception of Nadals critical derailment coecient and being very close to the calculated Q/P value from equation (1). In America, scientists measure the vertical and transverse anti-action force of wheelset by using track loading vehicle functioning on normal vertical force and gradually

Figure 1. Wheel-rail action at the start of derailment.

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Figure 2a. Single wheelset model for calculation of derailment in Japan. Figure 2b. Curve of lateral force on single wheelset supposed in Japan. Figure 2c. Calculation relationship of derailment coecient and wheel lift value.

increasing the transverse force on bogie. The critical derailment coecient is measured by tests on the wheel lift of the single wheelset. Additionally, taking the load to be the same as the test load, the wheel critical derailment coecient Q/P of the single wheelset is calculated with the NUCARS software. The calculated result is close to the tested result, Q/P 1.0 (new rail) and 1.4 (old rail) as shown in gures 3a and 3b. The fact that Q/P of the new rail is dierent from that of the old rail presents the eect of the friction coecient. The friction coecient of the new rail is large Q/P is lower while the friction coecient of the old rail is small Q/P is higher.

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Figure 3a. The relationship between the tested and calculated derailment coecient Q/P with new rail and the impact angle fw. Figure 3b. The relationship between the tested and calculated derailment coecient Q/P with old rail and the impact angle fw.

2.2 Research on wheel load reduction rate DP/P0 As shown in gure 4, the wheel load at the wheel-rail contact point is reduced due to the action of transverse force F and the moment M. The reduction of wheel load DP = P0 Pd over the static wheel load P0 is the wheel load reduction rate DP/P0, and Pd is the measured wheel load value. According to physical concept, the bigger the DP/

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Figure 4. Lateral force F and torque M on wheelset.

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P0, the more likely the chance of derailment. Japanese scientists have conrmed the standard value of static wheel load reduction rate is 0.6 according to the calculations of single wheelset derailment and the results of derailment tests. The explanation given by Japanese scientists for static wheel load reduction is that on a transition curve, the irregularity of rail face, the twist action of the vehicle, the unbalanced load of passengers and goods, and excessive cant curve will lead to a mitigatory change of the wheel load, i.e. the change as a result of the static load. Experience shows that the standard value of dynamic wheel load reduction rate is 0.8.

2.3 Specication standards for derailment prevention in various countries 2.3.1 Japan. Q/P 0.8, continuous action time of Q/P is less than 0.015 s, which is determined by the relationship between tc (the continuous action time when the car model passes a curve, wheelset has a certain impact angle and horizontal action , Q/P 5 0.8 ) and wheel lift value, as shown in gure 5. DP/P0 = 0.6 (static), 0.8 (dynamic). 2.3.2 Western Europe. Q/P 5 0.8 (Q/P average movement distance 2m). 2.3.3 North America. Q/P 5 1.0, DP/P0 5 0.9. 2.3.4 China. Q/P = 1.0 (allowable limit), 1.2 (danger limit) and DP/P0 = 0.60 (allowable limit), 0.65 (danger limit).

2.4 Geometric rules of derailment The China Academy of Railway Sciences (CARS) has carried out a full-scale wheel derailment course simulation test on a single wheelset rolling rig and measured the curve of derailment course of wheel ange [6]. The test results show that when the wheel lift value mmax(t) = 25mm, and the relative transverse displacement of the wheelset ymax(t) = 54 mm, a derailment occurs. In Japan mmax(t) = 30 mm and ymax(t) = 70 mm determined by wheel and rail top prole. According to the mmax(t) and ymax(t) and ange and rail top prole in China, the following derailment geometric rules can be obtained [7]: when wheel lift value m(t) = mmax(t) = 25 mm, and the transverse displacement of wheel to the rail y(t) = ymax(t) = 54 mm, a true derailment will occur.

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Figure 5. Relationship between Q/P continuous action time tc and wheel lift value Z.

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2.5 Principle problems in criteria of evaluation for train derailment Specied derailment coecient Q/P and wheel load reduction rate DP/P0 cannot control the maximum Q/P and DP/P0 that can possibly occur within the specied limit. Both the actual measurements and calculations prove that the values of actual maximum Q/P and DP/P0 are much larger than the specied limit value [7 11]. The reason for this is both that the existing criteria are made according to the experiments and calculations of a single wheelset under the assumed lateral force, and the criteria lack statistical regularity. It is very dicult to measure and calculate the actual Q/P and DP/P0 when the wheels start oating, and it will be even more dicult to obtain statistical regularity. Hence, the current criteria cannot assure that derailment will not occur. However if the possible maximum Q/P and DP/P0 is within the specied limit, derailment will not happen.

3. Mechanical mechanism of train derailment 3.1 Train derailment is the result of losing stability from transverse vibration status of train track system If wheel anges move in a snake-like way between two rails from beginning to end, the wheel anges will be laterally restricted by the rails and move in the wheel-rail clearance in the lateral direction, and the anges will not climb to the rail top, the wheels will not drop o the rails and the train will not derail. Such snaking movement status of the wheel anges is stable, and for the train track system, this means that the transverse vibration of the system is stable. However, once the wheel anges climb to the rail top, the transverse movement of wheels will be relieved from the restriction of the rail and the wheels will run out of the track and derail. As a consequence of the transverse movement status of the wheels between rails losing stability, the transverse vibration status of the system loses stability. For example, the movement status of bicycle wheels running vertically is stable, but once the wheels incline, movement status of the wheel on vertical plane loses stability. From concepts of physics, the stable system status withstands interference whereas the unstable one cannot. The stable system status can generate resistant force increment upon interference, which will exceed or balance the load increment generated by interference to maintain the former system status. When the unstable system status

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Figure 6. Drawing of stability analysis of balanced status of a wooden board in water.

Figure 7. Drawing of stability analysis of balanced status of a pressed bar.

is interfered with, the resistant force increment is smaller than the load increment and the former system status will be destroyed. Interference exists and is inevitable. In order to protect the system status the system must have stability instinct. Hence the mechanical mechanism of train derailment is as follows: derailment is the result of transverse vibration status of the system losing stability; the transverse vibration status of the system must be stable in order to ensure that the train will not derail. The concept of the stability of system movement status comes from the simplest movement, the static state stability (which can be considered as movement of innite period).

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The balanced status of the board, as shown in gure 6a, is stable since its resistant force increment after interference is Fe and the increment of load is zero, as shown in gure 6b. The balanced status of the board as shown in gure 6c is unstable as its resistant force increment of the board after interference is zero, and the increment of load is Fe, as shown in gure 6d. Supposing the rigidity constant of the spring is b, gure 7b shows that upon interference, the top point B of the pressed bar is deviated al laterally, the pressure P is deviated al, and a torque Pal is generated at point A. This is the load increment generated when the balanced status of the pressed bar is interfered with. At the same time, the torque bal2 of point A from the spring tension bal is its resistant force increment. If

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bal2 4Pal

the resistant force increment is bigger than the load increment. When the interference disappears, the spring will draw the bar to its original balanced status as shown in gure 7a. Therefore, the balanced status of the bar in gure 7a is stable. If bal2 5Pal 3

the resistant force increment is less than the load increment, the pressed bar will incline. Therefore, the balance status of the bar in gure 7a is not stable. According to the dAlembert principle, when a dynamic issue of a system changes into a dynamic balance issue, the inertial force, resistant force, elastic force and interfered force of the system at any moment are balanced. Thus, the dynamic status of the system can be regarded as balanced. The stability of the system at dynamic status is its stability at balanced status (viewing from the force it received). The above concept of static balanced status stability is also applicable for judgment of dynamic balanced status stability. Take gure 8 as an example: An aeroplane is ying horizontally on a A A straight line. If the aeroplane is disturbed (as impacted by up-going turbulence), it will y along track B moving up a bit at the beginning, and gradually returning to its original horizontal line. In this situation, the dynamic status of the aeroplane ying along the straight line horizontally is stable. When disturbed, the aeroplane will y along track C, deviating from the straight line, meaning its ying status along the straight line is not stable.

3.2 A standard rule judging the balanced status stability of a system From the above ideas, we can have: (1) Standard rules for resistant force increment and load increment of a system Resistant force increment 4 load increment stable balanced status Resistant force increment 5 load increment unstable balanced status

Figure 8. Drawing of stability analysis of balanced status of an aeroplane ying horizontally on a A A straight line.

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balanced status is at the border between the stable and unstable status, i.e. critical stability loss status. (2) Criterion for the resistant force working increment and input energy increment of the system When a/2 is multiplied by equations (2) and (3), we obtain: 1=2b al2 41=2 Pla2 1=2b al2 51=2 Pla2 : 4 5

Resistant force increment = load increment

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Obviously, 1/2b(al)2 is the strain energy increment after the system is disturbed. 1/2Pla2 is the working increment of the pressure P. As shown in gure 7a, when the top point B of the pressed bar deviates al, the vertical displacement of point B is l (1 7 cosa) & 1/2la2. Additionally, the strain energy of the system is equal to the work done by internal force of the system. Thus, 1/2b(al)2 is also called the working increment of the system resistant force. When the work done by external force is turned into strain energy of the system, 1/2Pla2 is the increment of the system input energy. Therefore, according to equations (4) and (5), criterion for the resistant force work increment and input energy increment is: Resistant force work increment4input energy increment Resistant force work increment5input energy increment Resistant force work increment input energy increment the system is at critical stability loss status 4. Introduction to the theory of random energy analysis for train derailment The theory of random energy analysis for train derailment was proposed in [10] and [11] but it was not expounded enough. This theory is now further expanded. From the mechanical mechanism of train derailment, the key to calculating whether a train derails lies in the calculation of the resistant force work increment and input energy increment of the train track system. The following work should be done: (1) Set up a spatial vibration equation set of the system, which can reect the actual contact status between wheel and rail. (2) Determine the transverse vibration exciting source of the system. (3) Develop the calculation method of random transverse vibration of the system. (4) Formulate the criteria of energy increment for judging whether a train derails or not. The above four items make up the theory of random energy analysis of train derailment, which will be detailed in the following sections. stable balanced status 6 unstable balanced status 7 8

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4.1 Establishment of vibration equation set of the train track system We regard the train and track as an integral system, and take into account the clearance between wheel and rail and the wheel-rail displacement connecting conditions, that is, the wheel displacement (transverse, vertical) is equal to rail displacement (transverse, vertical) plus rail irregularity (transverse, vertical) plus wheelrail relative displacement (transverse, vertical). According to the principle of total potential energy with the stationary value in elastic system dynamics and the rule of set-in-right-position for formulating system matrices [12,13], the spatial vibration equation set of the system can be established.

4.2 Determining the exciting source of transverse vibration of the train track system

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When wind load is not considered, the transverse vibration equation set of the system is as follows: _ g Kfdg 0 Mf dg C > fd 9

where [M], [C] and [K] are the mass, damping and stiness matrix of transverse _ g and (d) are the acceleration, vibration of the system, respectively, and f dg, fd velocity, and displacement vector of the system, respectively. If k vibration responses are known and, n responses unknown, then through equation (9), we obtain: Mkk Mnk Mkn Mnn !& dk dn ' Ckk Cnk Ckn Cnn !& _k d _n d ' Kkk Knk Kkn Knn !& dk dn ' 0: 10

To expand equation (10), we have: n o n o n o _ n Knn fdn g Mnk _ k Knk fdk g dn g Cnn d dk Cnk d Mnn f 11

n o n o n o _ k Kkk fdk g Mkn _ n Kkn fdn g 0: 12 dk g Ckk d dn Ckn d Mkk f Equation (12) is a non-independent equation set which is to be crossed out. All the items on the right side of equation (11) are known. With this, n unknown transverse vibration responses can be obtained. Thus, k known vibration responses becomes the exciting source of the transverse vibration of the system. The items on the right side of equation (11) become the equivalent self-exciting force causing transverse vibration of the system and the items on the left side of equation (11) become the resistant force of the transverse vibration of the system. Which displacement parameter should be set as a known number? The most direct approach is to measure out the transverse vibration displacement oscillogram of the wheelset with no distribution of sensors on it. In 1984, Professor Zhentao P from the Shanghai Railway Administration Bureau rst tested the transverse vibration acceleration oscillogram of the

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midpoint in longitudinal position of bogie frames of passenger and freight cars (we usually call this a hunting wave). We take the actually tested hunting waves of the car bogie frames as the exciting source for conrmative analysis of transverse vibration of the system. The calculated responses are properly close to the actually tested responses [10,11]. Therefore, we come to realize that the hunting wave of the car bogie frame can be treated as the exciting source of transverse vibration of the system. The following points should also be mentioned: (1) the measured hunting waves of car bogie frames accurately reect the inuence of all factors which give rise to transverse vibration of the system. This is impracticable when the transverse track irregularity is taken as the exciting source of vibration. Being deterministic itself, the measured hunting waves of car bogie frames can only be used in deterministic analysis of the transverse vibration of the system. (2) The transverse vibration of the system is caused by many factors and all these factors are at random. So random analysis for transverse vibration of the system must be made.

4.3 Random energy analysis method for transverse vibration of the train track system According to the principle of energy conservation and conversion, the input energy of the train track system generates a vibration response; the greater the input energy, the greater the vibration response; the volume of the input energy corresponds to the size of the vibration response. In this way, the randomness of the response of the system can be regarded as that of its input energy. Then a random analysis of the multi-factor system response can be conversed to a random analysis of the single-factor input energy. Nigeme [14] says if random variant x(t) is the displacement of a spring, x2(t) will be directly proportional to the deformation energy of the spring; if x(t) is the speed of a

Figure 9. Relationship curve between sp, the standard deviation of the hunting acceleration wave of the coach bogie frame, and v, the train speed (based on calculation and statistics of the measured data of a rail inspection car on the Guangzhou Shenzhen line and the measured data of the transverse wheelset force of the German high-speed locomotives) [12,13].

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Figure 10. Relationship curve between sp, the standard deviation of the hunting acceleration wave of the bogie frame of the loaded wagon, and v, the train speed (based on calculation and statistics of the data measured on the Changsha Guiyang railway line) (Qingyuan and Xiangrong 1999, Qingyuan 2000).

Figure 11. Relationship between sp, the standard deviation of the hunting acceleration wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon, and v, the train speed (based on calculation and statistics of the data measured on the Beijing Tonghua railway line) [16].

rigid body, x2(t) will be proportional to the kinetic energy of the rigid body. Sinkoson [15] also says the mean-square deviation value is the mean work done in unit time. It is known from these theories that the mean-square deviation of the measured hunting wave of the car bogie frame is the mean work done in unit time, which is the energy input to the transverse vibration of the system. The root value of the mean-square deviation is the standard deviation sp. The following random simulation of x(t), the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame, uses only sp. For the purpose of simplication, sp expresses the energy of transverse vibration input to the system. It is necessary to start with random analysis of sp before we carry out random analysis of the transverse vibration of the system. Therefore, from a number of hunting waves of bogie frames of various cars under dierent speeds on mainlines, we take an oscillogram per kilometer as a sample and make statistics on the oscillograms of

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Figure 12. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of locomotive on straight section with good track condition.

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Figure 13. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of empty wagon on straight section with good track condition.

Figure 14. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of loaded wagon on straight section with good track condition.

Figure 15. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of locomotive on straight section with poor track condition.

Figure 16. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of empty wagon on straight section with poor track condition.

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Figure 17. Measured hunting wave of bogie frame of loaded wagon on straight section with poor track condition.

Table 1. Comparison of standard deviation of hunting wave of bogie frame of locomotive, empty wagon and loaded wagon on straight line sections with good or poor track status.

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Sections in good track condition K252 + 100*K253 + 550 Number Maximum/(mm) Prole Gauge Alignment Cross level Twist Locomotive sp/(cms72) Empty wagon sp/(cms72) Loaded wagon sp/(cms72) 16 28 6 7 4 28 49 41 12 15 11 10 11

Sections in poor track condition K433 + 234*K434 + 684 Number Maximum/(mm) 24 12 11 25 10 39 91 68 17 27 27 14 12

tangent lines and curve lines respectively. According to the engineering probability analysis method [12], we obtain relationship curves between the standard deviation sp of 99% probability and the train speed v as shown in gures 9 11. Further, by the Monte-Carlo random simulation method, we obtain the hunting wave of the car bogie frame with 99% probability, which follows the articial earthquake wave and is called the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame. The base frequency of the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame is taken from the measured data at random. Each measured base frequency is taken to simulate an articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame. By taking it as an exciting source, a sample of each response of the system is calculated. A number of samples can be calculated in this way. Finally, according to the engineering probability analysis method [12], the transverse vibration responses of the system with required probability are obtained. Such a calculation requires tremendous workload. Calculation has proved that the measured base frequency of the hunting wave of the car bogie frame has quite an eect on the transverse vibration responses of the system [12]. Through trial calculation, we can obtain the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame that could generate the maximum responses. With this wave, we can obtain the maximum transverse vibration responses of the system in one calculation. The maximum responses of bridge calculated with this random analysis method are properly close to the maximum responses measured many times [12,13]. The standard deviation of the hunting wave of the car bogie frame sp is used to reect the input energy of the system. This is supported by the measured results. In July

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2001, in cooperation with Shenyang Railway Administration, we carried out actual tests on the hunting wave of the bogie frame (gure 12 to gure 17) of a 60 kmh 7 1 locomotive, an empty wagon and a loaded wagon on track sections in good and poor smoothness on the Beijing-Tongliao railway line. Table 1 shows their standard deviations [16]. Figures 12 17 and table 1 show: (1) When the track is in good condition, sp is small and the hunting wave hump of the car bogie frame is small. This means the input energy is small and so is the system vibration response. When the track is in poor condition, sp is big, the hunting wave hump is big. This means the input energy is big and so is the system vibration response. By improving the track condition, the standard deviation of the hunting wave of the car bogie frame can be lowered. This is benecial for derailment prevention.

(2) (3)

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Train derailment is the result of drastic transverse vibration of the system. Since the transverse vibration of the system is strongly random, so is train derailment. Furthermore, the fact of derailment also proves this. So the above energy analysis method of transverse vibration of the system is also applicable to derailment random analysis. But in random analysis of train derailment, the calculated standard deviation of the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame when wheel ange crawls on the mid-point of the rail top, is the standard deviation of the hunting wave of the car bogie frame when the train derails, which is recorded as se. The calculation is carried out by trial calculation according to derailment geometrical rules mentioned above, since the hunting wave of the car bogie frame is very dicult to measure when the train derails [7].

4.4 Criteria of energy increment for judging train derailment The above-mentioned equation (11) has shown the equivalent self-exciting force and the resistant force of the transverse vibration of the system, but it cannot describe their increment. So the above-mentioned criteria of resistant force and load increment cannot be used for judging the derailment of wheels. Only the criteria of the resistant force work increment and input energy increment of the system (hereinafter refered to as energy increment criteria) shown in equations (6), (7) and (8), can be used for judging train derailment. Equation (11) has conrmed that the measured hunting wave of the car bogie frame is the exciting source of the conrmative analysis of the transverse vibration of the system. Equation (11) and the random energy analysis method for transverse vibration of the system has conrmed that the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame is the exciting source of the random analysis of the transverse vibration of the system. The standard deviation sp of the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame is the input energy of random transverse vibration of the system. It is the function of the train speed v as shown in gures 9 11. When v changes, the input energy increment is D sp. So we can calculate the input energy increment of transverse vibration of the system as follows. Let us assume that the values of corresponding input energies of the system of two adjacent speeds v0 and vr are spo and spr respectively, and we get the input energy increment at the speed of vr is Dspr = spr7pv. In many derailment cases, we set

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vr7v0 = 10 kmh 7 1, that is, if vr = 70 kmh 7 1, we get v0 = 60 kmh 7 1. All the results conrm the reality [7,11,17]. There is one important concept that needs to be explained. Figures 9 11 are based on the measured hunting wave of the car bogie frame with limited times. They show the relationship between sp and v when the train has not derailed. And sp is not the input energy when the train derails. Because the measured times are limited, we cannot get the data when the train derails. Imagine that we carry out many tests on train oscillation, enough to make derailment happen, so we can get the hunting wave of the car bogie frame with a very large input energy when the train derails. And moreover we can get the maximum input energy sp,max and the relationship between sp,max and v. Therefore, the input energy increment of the system at the speed of vr is Dsp,max = sp,max7spo,max. The dierence of generating conditions between spo and spo,max and that between spr and spr,max are the test times (the former is based on statistics of tests with limited times and the latter is based on statistics of a large number of tests). The other conditions are the same. The dierence of test times has an eect on the input energy sp, which lies in the dierence between the statistics probability of spo and spr, and that between spo,max and spr,max. (spr7spo) and (spr,max7spo,max) reect the eect of speed change Dv = vr7v0 on the (spr7spo) and (spr,max7spo,max). According to the physical concept, Dv should have the same eect on them, so we get: Dspr;max spr;max spo;max spr spo Dspr : 13

The standard deviation sc of the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame when a train derails is the standard deviation sp that moves the wheel ange onto the rail top. If sp 5 sc, the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame is impossible to move the wheel ange on to the rail top. Since sp is the energy input to the transverse vibration of the system, from equations (6), (7) and (8), sc is the work done by the system when it is resisting against the transverse vibration. This is similar to the case of a pressed bar: when pressure P on the pressed bar is smaller than Euler critical force Pcr, the stability status of the pressed bar will not be destroyed. The eect of sp and sc on the system is similar to that of P and Pcr on the pressed bar. Since sc is the only function of train speed v, if we subtract sco from scr, we get the increment of work done by the resistant force of the system, that is, Dscr = scr7sco. From equations (6), (7) and (8) we can get the criteria of energy increment to judge whether a train derails as below: Dscr ! Dspr Dscr 5Dspr no derailment derailment: 14 15

5. Preventive measures for derailment and calculation of the anti-derailment safety coecient K of the system 5.1 Prevention measures (1) (2) Lowering the transverse rigidity of the primary suspension can increase sc, the work done by the resistant force of the system (to be approved by calculation). improving the irregularity of the track (to prevent derailment on tracks).

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(3)

improving the transverse and vertical rigidity of the bridge (to prevent derailment on bridges).

5.2 Improvement parameter criteria When the parameters are improved, the objective that trains operate safely and normally (there is no wheel lift and the train has the stability specied in the specications) can be realized.

5.3 Calculation of the safety coecient K against derailment

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Before the parameters are improved, when the train derails at speed vr, the minimum work done by the resistant force of the system is scr,min, the maximum input energy is spr,max. When the train is at critical derailment status, spr,max = scr,min. After the parameter is improved, spr,max is lowered by l times so that the train runs normally. Then the maximum input energy under the normal train operation is: sprs spr;max lspr;max scr;min lscr;min scr;min 1 l: In addition, after the parameters are improved, the minimum work done by the resistant force of the system increases and becomes scrs. According to the critical derailment status, after the parameters are improved the work done by the resistant force scrs of the system should be equal to the maximum input energy when the train runs under normal, safe conditions, and multiplied by the anti-derailment safety coecient K, i.e. scrs Ksprs Kscr;min 1 l So K scrs scrs : sprs scr;min 1 l 16

To prevent derailment on tracks, l in equation (16) may be determined by the sp, obtained from statistics on the measured hunting wave of the car bogie frame on tracks

Figure 18. Time history curve of the wheel lift value of the derailment wheel.

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Figure 19. Time history curve of lateral force of the derailment wheelset.

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Figure 20. Time history curve of derailment coecient of the derailment wheelset.

Figure 21. Time history curve of the reduction rate of wheel load of the derailment wheel.

in good or poor irregularity; to prevent derailment on bridges, l in equation (16) may be determined by trial calculations. Let us suppose sprs, and simulate the articial hunting wave of the car bogie frame, and calculate the vibration responses of the train-bridge system and the Sperling comfort index Wsp. When Wsp = 3.0, sprs is the required sprs.

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6. Analysis on derailment case 6.1 Case 1 On July 8, 1997, train number 2422 with a full formation of empty wagons derailed at K730 + 56 in a straight section south of Xuzhou on the Tianjin Pukou line. The train consisted of 61 empty wagons with 8A bogies and ran at a speed of 70 kmh 7 1. The track conditions of the section of the line conformed to the CARS (1997a)

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Figure 22. Time history curve of the wheel lift value of the derailment wheel.

Figure 23. Time history curve of lateral force of the derailment wheelset.

Figure 24. Time history curve of derailment coecient of the derailment wheelset.

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specications. It is required to calculate the possibility of derailment at 70 kmh 7 1 under the above conditions. Calculate the work done by the resisting force of the system when the train derails at 60 kmh 7 1 and 70 kmh 7 1, and obtain sc60 = 105 cms 7 2 and sc70 = 115 cms 7 2, respectively. Through actual tests and according to gure 11, the standard deviations of the hunting wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon at speed 60 kmh 7 1 and 70 kmh 7 1 are sp60 = 68.5 cms 7 2 and sp70 = 89.4 cms 7 2, respectively. Thus, Dsc = 1157105 = 10 cms 7 2, Dsp = 89.4768.5 = 20.9 cms 7 2, so Dsc5Dsp. According to equation (15), we can judge the freight train will derail at 70 kmh 7 1. The calculation coincides with the derailment accident. Figures 18 21 show the time history curves of calculation vibration response of derailment wheel.

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6.2 Case 2 On August 6, 1997, train number 2344 with full formation of empty wagons derailed at K692 + 408 in a straight section south of Xuzhou on the Tianjin Pukou line. The train consisted of 69 wagons with 8A bogies and ran at a speed of 62 kmh 7 1. The track conditions of the section of the line conformed to the CARS specications [8]. It is required to calculate the possibility of derailment at 62 kmh 7 1 under the above conditions. Calculate the work done by the resisting force of the system when the train derails at 52 kmh 7 1 and 62 kmh 7 1, and obtain sc52 = 98 cms 7 2 and sc62 = 105 cms 7 2,

Figure 25. Time history curve of the reduction rate of wheel load of the derailment wheel.

Figure 26. Time history curve of the wheel lift value of the derailment wheel.

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Figure 27. Time history curve of lateral force of the derailment wheelset.

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Figure 28. Time history curve of derailment coecient of the derailment wheelset.

Figure 29. Time history curve of the reduction rate of wheel load of the derailment wheel.

respectively. According to gure 11, the standard deviations of the hunting wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon at speed 52 kmh 7 1 and 62 kmh 7 1 are sp52 = 52.5 cms 7 2 and sp62 = 69.5 cms 7 2, respectively. Thus, 72 Dsc = 105798 = 7 cms , Dsp = 69.5752.5 = 17 cms 7 2, so Dsc 5 Dsp. According

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to equation (15), we can judge the freight train will derail at 62 kmh 7 1. The calculation coincides with the derailment accident. Figures 22 25 show the time history curves of calculation vibration response of derailment wheel.

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Figure 30. Time history curve of the wheel lift value of the derailment wheel.

Figure 31. Time history curve of lateral force of the derailment wheelset.

Figure 32. Time history curve of derailment coecient of the derailment wheelset.

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Figure 33. Time history curve of the reduction rate of wheel load of the derailment wheel.

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6.3 Case 3 On October 22, 1998, train number 2908 with full formation of empty wagons derailed at K711 + 220 in a straight section on the Beijing Kowloon line. The train consisted of 49 empty wagons with 8A bogies and ran at a speed of 73 kmh 7 1. The track conditions of the section of the line conformed to the CARS specications [8]. It is required to calculate the possibility of derailment at 73 kmh 7 1 under the above conditions. Calculate the work done by the resisting force of the system when the train derails at 63 kmh 7 1 and 73 kmh 7 1, and obtain sc63 = 114 cms 7 2 and sc73 = 130 cms 7 2, respectively. According to gure 11, the standard deviations of the hunting wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon at speed 63 kmh 7 1 and 73 kmh 7 1 are sp63 = 70.2 cms 7 2 and sp73 = 99.4 cms 7 2, respectively. Thus, Dsc = 130 114 = 16 cms 7 2, Dsp = 99.4 70.2 = 29.2 cms 7 2, so Dsc 5 Dsp. According to equation (15), we can judge the freight train will derail at 73 kmh 7 1. The calculation coincides with the derailment accident. Figures 26 29 show the time history curves of calculation vibration response of derailment wheel.

6.4 Case 4 On June 14, 1997, train number 2422 with a full formation of empty wagons derailed at K799 + 882 in a straight section south of Xuzhou on the Tianjin Pukou line. The train consisted of 54 empty wagons with 8A bogies and ran at a speed of 71 kmh 7 1. The track conditions of the section of the line conformed to the CARS specications [8]. It is required to calculate the possibility of derailment at 71 kmh 7 1 under the above conditions. Calculate the work done by the resisting force of the system when the train derails at 61 kmh 7 1 and 71 kmh 7 1, and obtain sc61 = 103 cms 7 2 and sc71 = 113 cms 7 2, respectively. According to gure 11, the standard deviations of the hunting wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon at speed 61 kmh 7 1 and 71 kmh 7 1 are sp61 = 66.5 cms 7 2 and sp71 = 92.6 cms 7 2, respectively. Thus, Dsc = 113 103 = 10 cms 7 2, Dsp = 92.6 66.5 = 26.1 cms 7 2, so Dsc 5 Dsp. According to equation (15), we can judge the freight train will derail at 71 kmh 7 1. The calculation coincides with the derailment accident. Figures 30 33 show the time history curves of calculation vibration response of derailment wheel.

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6.5 Case 5 In order to further verify the judgment of the derailment by equations (14) and (15), a forecast was made to ascertain whether the freight trains on straight lines derail at 50 kmh 7 1. We have calculated the work done by the derailment resisting force of the system at speed 40 kmh 7 1 and 50 kmh 7 1 and obtained sc40 = 85 cms 7 2 and sc50 = 98 cms 7 2, respectively. The standard deviations of the hunting wave of the bogie frame of the empty wagon at speed 40 kmh 7 1 and 50 kmh 7 1 are sp40 = 44.85 cms 7 2 and sp50 = 51.45 cms 7 2 respectively according to gure 11. Then, Dsc = 98 85 = 13 cms 7 2, CDsp = 51.45 44.85 = 6.6 cms 7 2, so Dsc 4 Dsp. According to equation (14), we can judge that the freight trains will not derail at 50 kmh 7 1. On the basis of investigation, we know that a number of freight train derailment accidents have occurred on major mainlines in China since the speed-up drive launched. Common features of derailment accidents appear to be: taking place on straight lines, on empty wagons, at the speed of 62 77 kmh 7 1, etc. [8,9]. We can see that freight trains running at 50 kmh 7 1 have never derailed. This coincides with our forecast.

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6.6 Case 6 Forecasts were made for the maximum responses in derailment site tests in order to further verify the theory of random energy analysis of train derailment. From May 9 to August 6, 1997, seven successive derailment accidents took place in the straight section between Shilibao and Taoshan south of Xuzhou on the Tianjin Pukou railway line. In order to nd out the causes of derailment on the line, CARS, the Jinan Railway Administration and the Xuzhou Railway Sub-Administration conducted derailment tests from October 28 to November 11 in the section between Chuzhuangji and Gaojiuing on the Tianjin Pukou railway line. No train derailed in the tests. A vibration response forecast was made for a train with full formation of empty wagons at a speed of 80 kmh 7 1 in view that empty wagons are of the maximum probability of derailment. Track conditions at the site of tests were: 60 kgm 7 1 rail, type 60 reinforced concrete sleeper, crushed stone ballast, CWR track, long stretches of straight lines; small longitudinal slopes; being of good condition. The results of track status inspection were: maximum prole 11.5 mm, maximum alignment 11 mm, maximum gauge error 7.5 mm, maximum cross level 6.5 mm, and maximum twist 8 mm [8]. Calculate the work done by the resistant force of the system at 70 kmh 7 1 and 80 kmh 7 1, and obtain sc70 = 15 cms 7 2 and sc80 = 165 cms 7 2, respectively.

Table 2. Comparison between the maximum calculated values and maximum measured values of the safety indices against derailment of empty wagon. Source of results Item Wheel lift (mm) Lateral wheelset force (kN) Derailment coecient Wheel load reduction rate Calculated value 16 50 5.9 1.0 Measured value [8] 17 56.11 4.98 1.0

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Table 3. Summary of derailment calculation for freight train running on straight line. Train derailment and preventive measures Case number 1 2 3 4 5 6 Time July 8, 1997 Aug. 8, 1997 Oct. 22, 1998 June 14, 1997 Oct. 28, 1997 Since speed-up Train number 2422 2344 2908 2422 Test train Derailment site Jinpu line K730 + 56 Jinpu line K692 + 408 Beijing Kowloon K711 + 220 Jinpu line K799 + 882 No derailment No derailment Speed (kmh 7 1) 70 62 73 71 80 50 Formation Full formation of empty wagon Full formation of empty wagon Mixed formation of loaded and empty wagon Mixed formation of loaded and empty wagon Full formation of empty wagon Full formation of empty wagon Dsc(cms 7 2) 10 7 16 10 50 13 Dsp (cms 7 2) 20.90 17.00 29.20 26.10 36.60 6.60 Result Derailment Derailment Derailment Derailment No derailment No derailment

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According to Figure 11, at speed 70 kmh 7 1 and 80 kmh 7 1, the standard deviations of the hunting wave of the empty wagon bogie frame are sp70 = 89.4 cms 7 2 and sp80 = 126 cms 7 2, respectively. Then Dsc = 1657115 = 50 cms 7 2, 72 Dsp = 126789.4 = 36.6 cms , so Dsc 4 Dsp. This is in line with the criterion of no derailment in equation (14). Thus, the train with full formation of empty wagons will not derail at 80 kmh 7 1. This coincides with the test result. According to sp80 = 126 cms 7 2 at 80 kmh 7 1 as shown in gure 11, simulate the articial hunting wave of the empty wagon bogie frame at 80 kmh 7 1 and then calculate the conditions of the freight train formed with 29 empty wagons hauled by a locomotive running at 80 kmh 7 1 on the 500 m long, straight track. The calculation shows that the left wheel with the rst axle of the third wagon behind the locomotive is of the maximum wheel lift value, up to 16 mm. Comparison of the maximum calculated values and maximum measured values of the wheel vibration response is shown in table 2. The calculated result is close to the measured result. Table 3 shows the summary of derailment calculation for freight trains running on the straight line, four of which are derailment cases and two are not. The calculation matches with the practical case. It can be seen from the six cases displayed in table 3 that the common features of train derailment are as follows: (1) The derailment coecient, wheel load reduction rate and transverse force of wheelset are very high when a train derails. These values are far beyond the specied ones. The derailment time is very short, within 0.2 seconds or so. Those derailed trains are mainly trains with full formation of empty wagons or trains with mixed formation of loaded and empty wagons. Wagons derailed are all empty wagons.

(2) (3)

7. Conclusions (1) On the basis of the concept of the system dynamic stability and a thorough understanding of the mechanical mechanism of train derailment, the loss of the transverse movement stability of the train track time variant system is regarded as the cause of train derailment. The core of train derailment analysis is to nd out the criteria for judging the stability of the system. According to the random energy analysis theory of train derailment, calculations are made for six vibration cases of train track time variant system, four of which are derailed, while two did not derail. The calculated results coincide with the practical case. This has proved that the energy increment criteria for judging train derailment are correct and reliable. The preventive measures for train derailment and calculation method for the anti-derailment safety coecient K are theoretically analysed for the purpose of ensuring the stability, normality and safety of train operation. They can serve as a reference for the departments of railway transportation and permanent way. The theory of train derailment analysis is a very complicated issue. So far an initial survey has been made. In regard to putting the theory and methods described in this paper into practise, there is still a lot of work to be done especially in respect to tests on the hunting waves of bogie frames of locomotives and cars.

(2)

(3)

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Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge that this research work has been supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No50078006) and Foundations of the Science and Technology Section of the Railway Bureau in China (2001G029, 2003G043) and Doctoral Research Foundation of the Education Ministry of China (20010533004).

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