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The Edible Oil & Ghee Sector

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Environmental Report
DRAFT

Table of Contents
Preface Executive Summary 1.
1.1 1.2 1.3 5.2.2 Use of Tankers with Internal Coils to Minimise Sludge 5.2.3 Increased Recycling of Nickel Catalysts 5.2.4 Recovery of Oil from Spent Earth 5.3 Soil Contamination Prevention 5.4 Air Emissions Control 5.4.1 Recovery of FFA at Deodoriser 5.4.2 Recovery of CO2 from Gas Cracking Plant 5.4.3 Optimisation of Combustion at Boiler 5.5 Safety and Health (S&H) 5.5.1 Exhaust Combustion Gases out of Gas Cracking Building 5.5.2 Improvement of Noise Abatement and Protection 5.5.3 Improvement of Working Conditions at the Tin Shop 5.5.4 Use of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) of Raw Products 5.6 Energy 5.6.1 Recovery of Heat from Cooling Water Used during Hydrogenation 5.6.2 Pre-heating of Incoming Oil with Outgoing Oil at Hydrogenation 5.6.3 Pre-heating of Incoming Oil with Outgoing Oil at Deodorization 5.6.4 Improvement of Steam Pipes Insulation 5.6.5 Increasing Temperature during Deodorization 5.6.6 Installation of a Cogeneration Plant 5.7 General Recommendations 5.7.1 Inert Atmosphere after Deodorization 5.7.2 Covering of Lye Preparation Area 5.7.3 Insulation of Chilling Rooms Doors 5.7.4 Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

Introduction
Environmental Technology Program for Industry (ETPI) Demonstration Project Environmental Problems of Edible Oil Industry of Pakistan

2.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

The Edible Oil Industry

Raw Material Process Chemicals Utilities Process Description 2.4.1 Vegetable Ghee 2.4.2 Cooking Oil 2.4.3 Acid Oil 2.4.4 Carbon Oil 2.4.5 Soap

3.
3.1

Environmental Stresses and their Quantification

Wastewater 3.1.1 Sources and Disposal 3.1.2 Quantification 3.1.3 Characterisation 3.1.4 Pollution Load Solid Waste Soil Contamination Air Emissions Noise Emissions Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) Energy Inefficiency

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

3.7 4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

Impacts
Impacts Associated with Wastewater Impacts Associated with Solid Waste Impacts Associated with Soil Contamination Impacts Associated with Air Emissions Impacts Associated with Noise Implication Associated with Occupational Health and Safety Impact Associated with Energy Wastage

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Table 2.2: Table 2.3: Table 3.1: Table 3.2: Table 3.3: Table 3.4: Table 3.5: Table 5.1: Table 5.2: Table 5.3: Table 5.4: Edible Oil Local Production and Imports (1995) Process Chemicals and their Usage Utilities and their Consumption Daily Wastewater Discharge Wastewater Analysis Daily Pollution Load Details of Solid Waste Air Emission from Different Sources Design Data of Primary Treatment System Cost Estimates for Primary Treatment System Design Data of Secondary Treatment System Cost Estimates for Secondary Treatment System

5.
5.1

Recommendations
Wastewater Reduction & Treatment 5.1.1 Size Optimisation of Separation Chambers 5.1.2 Recycling of washing water after neutralisation 5.1.3 Replacement of Gravity Settling by Centrifuge after Neutralisation 5.1.4 Use of Pressurised Water for Floor Cleaning 5.1.5 Improvement of Foam and Soap Removal from Fat Traps 5.1.6 Reorganisation of Water Systems 5.1.7 Use of Flow Meters 5.1.8 Construction of a Wastewater Treatment Plant

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Figure 2.2: Figure 5.1: Figure 5.2: Figure 5.3: Figure 5.4: Ghee Process Flow Sheet Cooking Oil Process Flow Sheet Gravity Settling Tank Chemically Enhanced Dissolved Air Flotation Process Flow Diagram of Activated Sludge System Proposed System for Pre-heating of Incoming Oil with Outgoing Oil at Hydrogenation

5.2 Solid Waste 5.2.1 Improvement of Waste Management and Land Filling

Preface
This report is a part of the ETPI demonstration project component. The purpose of this report is to address the environmental problems of edible oil sector. The report has been prepared on the basis of the findings of the environmental audits of three edible oil mills which were conducted by ETPI in February, 1998. The study was jointly carried out by two leading firms of the ETPI consortium i.e. National Environmental Consulting (Pvt.) Ltd. and Haskoning Royal Dutch Consulting Engineers and Architects, The Netherlands. This report is a step towards the dissemination of information, about the environmental problems of the edible oil and ghee manufacturing facility along with the possible solutions and investment required to mitigate these April, 1999 problems and to comply environmental legislation. the present and future

It is envisaged that this effort will help to enable edible oil mills to initiate efforts to combat the environmental problems to produce environmentally clean products. In addition it is hoped this report would also support the efforts of R&D institutions, environmental equipment and chemical suppliers, and environmental researchers/students working towards the betterment of the environment. We acknowledge the participation of PVMA and edible oil mills in the program and for extending their co-operation in all aspects of the study and thank them for their continuous support and encouragement.

Acronyms
BOD COD CT dB EOP FFA GCP IHI MP MT NCS NEQS NG O&G OH&S PM PPM RBD TDS th TSS VOC Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Cleaner Technologies Decibel END-OF-PIPE Free Fatty Acids Ghee Corporations of Pakistan In-House Improvements Melting Point Metric Ton National Conservation Strategy National Environmental Quality Standards Natural Gas Oil and Grease Occupational Health and Safety Particulate Matter Parts per Million Refined Bleached and Deodorized Total Dissolved Solids Thermies = 1000 calories Total Suspended Solids Volatile Organic Carbon

Executive Summary
Environmental degradation by the industrial sector is a matter of serious concern in Pakistan. The Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FPCCI) with the assistance of the Government of the Netherlands has undertaken the Environmental Technology Program for Industry (ETPI) to facilitate the industrial sector in implementing environmental control projects in Pakistan. This occurs by initiating measures to combat pollution, thereby, enabling the industries to comply with the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) and the forthcoming ISO 14000 certification. ETPI aims at the implementation of demonstration projects of environmental cleaner technologies. ETPI defines demonstration project as a project under which those environmental technologies will be implemented which offer both technological solutions for pollution abatement and economic benefits for the industry. At the same time, the solutions should suit the local conditions for successful implementation." ETPI is being implemented in alignment with the National Conservation Strategy (NCS). It will be implemented in 20 industrial sectors in two successive phases. Six priority industrial sectors including edible oil and ghee sector are included in the first phase. This study focuses on environmental problems caused by edible oil industries and recommends measures to abate them. There are around 160 small and medium sized vegetable oil and ghee plants in Pakistan with a total capacity of over two million tons. Most of the mills have integrated facilities of manufacturing soap as a by-product. The major raw material used is raw oil extracted from different botanical species. Pakistan imports 70-80% of the raw oil, mostly from Malaysia. Water, electricity and natural gas are the major utilities consumed. The main processes for cooking oil refining include: degumming, neutralisation, bleaching and deodorization. For ghee manufacturing, hydrogenation is also carried out in addition to these processes. An edible oil industry generates large quantities of wastewater. On average, for every ton of oil produced, the discharge of wastewater is about 30 m3. The wastewater of edible oil mills can be categorised into process wastewater and non-process wastewater. Process wastewater contributes to most of the pollution load in the effluent being drained by the industry; while non-process wastewater constitutes the major portion of total wastewater quantity. The process effluent is high in BOD, COD, TSS, TDS, oil, phosphate, sulphate and chloride. Concentration of these pollutants in the process effluent is much higher than allowable NEQS limits. These pollutants need to be removed from the effluent to prevent the damage being done to the environment, as well as to avoid paying the Environmental Improvement Charges (EIC). Spent fullers earth, spent nickel and filter cloth are the major solid wastes of oil mills. Spent fullers earth and nickel are sold for down-stream use. Spillage of oil on uncovered ground around oil storage tanks results in soil contamination, which can further lead to contamination of groundwater. Major sources of air pollution are boiler and generator exhausts, and emission from the gas cracking unit. From these sources, carbon monoxide (CO) is emitted in very high concentration. NOx emission is high in the generator exhaust. CO and NOx have been suggested by Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (PEPA) for selfmonitoring and reporting and emissions exceeding NEQS will be liable for EIC. In some industries gas cracking unit also emits huge amount of carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas. In general, occupational health and safety (OH&S) situation is very poor in the edible oil mills. Use of any protective gear by employees is almost non-existent. Inefficient and obsolete processes consume and waste much energy as compared to modern technologies. The recommendations to improve environmental performance are categorised as in-house improvements, cleaner technologies, and end-of-pipe treatment. In-house improvements and cleaner technologies will not only result in the improvement of economical and environmental performance of the mill, but will also reduce the cost of the end-of-pipe treatment. Oil losses in the effluent can be reduced either by increasing the size of the separation chambers beneath the pre- and post- neutralisation vessels or by replacing gravity settling by centrifuge separators. This measure will also reduce BOD and COD of the effluent. Water consumption as well as discharge can be reduced significantly by reusing/recycling the cooling water and vacuum water after proper treatment. End-of-pipe treatment options, which include oil skimmers and biological treatment of the process wastewater, are the ultimate solution for compliance with the NEQS. The oil concentration in the effluent can be reduced either by gravity settling or chemically enhanced dissolved air floatation. Aerated lagoons or activated sludge are the recommended biological treatment options to remove organic pollutants. The solid waste management system can be improved by good working practices. By applying solvent extraction, the oil content in spent earth can be reduced to 5%. Paving the area near oil storage tanks and collecting spills will reduce the risk of soil contamination. Air emissions can be reduced by optimising the combustion at boiler and recovering CO2 from the gas cracking plant. Installation of a stack on the gas cracking exhaust, use of protective gears such as gloves, goggles, ear muffs, etc., will improve the working conditions in the plants. The wastage of energy can be minimised by efficiently performing the processes, such as preheating of incoming oil with outgoing oil at hydrogenation and deodorization. The edible oil industry is an energy intensive industry and the industrys normal working is effected because of power failure. The new concept of producing electric as well as heat energy together at the plant, known as Cogeneration, has been developed recently in developed countries. It is a very efficient and cost-effective way to generate electricity and heat for the industry. To improve the overall environmental conditions of the industry Environmental Management System (EMS) should be implemented. This is also a requirement of ISO 14000.

1. Introduction
This report aims to address the environmental pollution problems of the Edible Oil sector. It has been compiled on the basis of the findings of three environmental audits, conducted in three edible oil mills under the Environmental Technology Program for Industry (ETPI). The objective of this report is to assess the nature and extent of environmental problems caused by an edible oil industry and to recommend solutions to mitigate their impacts. The limitation of this report is that the information has been generalised on the basis of the data obtained from three environmental audits for the whole sector. This limitation has been minimised using substantial national and international secondary information available for the edible oil sector. demonstration project component. Hence, this report will focus mainly on this component. As discussed above, physical interventions in the form of demonstration projects are an integral part of ETPI, which is defined as a project under which those environmental technologies will be implemented which qualify both the technical and the financial feasibility criteria, and at the same time are relevant to the local industrialists. Improvements in processing practices will also be an essential part of the demonstration projects. Objectives of the demonstration project include:

1.1 Environmental Technology Program for Industry (ETPI)

The Environmental Technology Program for Industry (ETPI) is a joint project of the Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FPPCI) and the Government of The Netherlands. The primary objective of ETPI is to promote the use of environmentally safe technologies for the production of environmental safe products by Pakistans manufacturing/industrial sector. To provide the required technical expertise and support to industries, a consortium of local and foreign consulting firms has been hired to execute ETPI. The members of the consortium are.

To establish live examples in the major industrial sectors of Pakistan for the direct dissemination of environmental technologies in the country. To prepare a representative database in the shape of an industry specific Environmental Audit for establishing the environmental policy implication, financial and institutional support requirements. To create a more aware and committed constituency of industrialists for undertaking environmental investment. To identify industry sector specific research and development areas in the discipline of environment and industry for local and international research institutions.

National Environmental Consulting (NEC), Pakistan; the lead consultant;

(Pvt.).

Ltd.

HASKONING, Royal Dutch Consulting, Engineering and Architects, The Netherlands; KRACHTWERKTUIGEN (KWT), The Netherlands; Management for Development Foundation (MDF), The Netherlands; and Hagler Bailly, Pakistan.

For the implementation of a demonstration project, a comprehensive procedure for the selection of industries in each sector has been developed. According to this procedure, three industries are selected for an environmental audit from each sector. Subsequently one of these three is selected for the demonstration project.

1.3 Environmental Problems of Edible Oil Industry of Pakistan

The biggest problem faced by an edible oil industry is wastewater, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Wastewater generation in an edible oil industry can be divided into two categories:

This five year project began in 1996 and works with Pakistani industries and their associations in identifying those pollution prevention and abatement technologies which are economically most feasible, and in implementing these solutions. The five components of the program include the development of a user-friendly database of relevant information, institutional networking within and between key industrial institutions of the country, dissemination and communication to promote cleaner industrial production, institutional support and training to create in-house environmental capability within chambers and industrial associations and demonstration projects in 20 selected industrial sectors to demonstrate the economic feasibility and environmental efficacy of environmental technologies.

Wastewater generated directly from processes e.g. neutralisation washings etc. Wastewater generated from auxiliary systems e.g. cooling and vacuum systems etc.

Wastewater generated from both these sources varies greatly in pollution load and concentration. Process wastewater contains high amounts of BOD, COD, oil & grease, TSS, TDS, and nickel etc. Wastewater generated from the auxiliary systems is huge in quantity and relatively higher in temperature. It sometimes contains traces of VOCs. Boiler condensate recovery system is not efficient in some, and practically non-existent in most. Apart from liquid waste, solid waste and air emissions are also generated. Solid waste generation is mainly in the form of spent earth, filter cloth, and spent catalyst. Spent earth and spent catalyst are in slurry form and are combined together to extract what is known as Carbon Oil before their final disposal. After carbon oil extraction, the left over slurry is sold to contractors.

1.2 Demonstration Project

Each component of ETPI has been given specific definition, and carries its own objective, scope of work and methodology. The present study is part of the

Soil contamination can be seen around oil storage tanks in oil mills due to spillage on uncovered ground. This also poses risk of contaminating the groundwater. Air emissions are generated mainly from boiler and generator stacks. Besides, process emissions may also be present, comprising of volatile organic substances from bleaching, deodorization, etc. In some cases, air emissions have pollutants higher than the limits mentioned in the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS). Noise and odour levels at many places in every mill are high. Temperature of the working areas is generally acceptable during winter season, but it becomes quite high during summer. General rating of the lighting and ventilation arrangements is on a scale of satisfactory to poor. A variety of chemicals are used in edible oil processing. While other chemicals also contribute, use of nickel as catalyst during the hydrogenation process is the most important concern from an environmental point of view. Chemicals used pose a twofold problem. Firstly, they come in the wastewater or as waste products of chemical processes. Secondly, they might come into direct contact with the persons handling them. Generally, practices for handling of chemicals in oil mills are poor and need drastic improvement. Open air storage and transportation, manual feeding, and dripping of chemicals is common. In most of the mills, workers are improperly attired. Use of protective gears is very rare, and most of the workers work without shirts. Edible oil processing requires quite an intensive use of energy. It is due to the fact that for different processes and operations, different temperatures have to be maintained. The most common modus operandi is to heat up water either to steam, or to higher temperature, and then to transfer the energy contained by this water to the material

being processed. Some amount of this energy is consumed during the processes, while the remaining is lost either during the cooling of the product for the subsequent process, or in terms of heat contained by the wastewater. In almost all cases, an efficient arrangement of heat transfer to save this energy does not exist. Though some edible oil mills have acquired ISO 9000 certification and some are passing through the implementation phase of ISO 9000 standards, others still lag far behind. A lot more could be achieved from the occupational health and safety (OH&S) perspective. The management is keen to undertake environmental initiatives in many cases. Still, the awareness level in workers and line staff is dismally low, making the implementation of better in-house management practices difficult. This, however, does not liberate the management from the responsibility and the resulting consequences. Since it is perceived that environmental protection calls to a large extent for investments with low or nil payback, it is natural that most of the industries tend to postpone environmental protection projects for as long as possible. This perception is not true in every situation, and often is a misperception. With the promulgation of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997, the Pakistani edible oil industry will be required to comply with the regulations for environmental protection. The Pakistan Environmental Councils Environmental Standard Committee has proposed certain Environmental Improvement Charges to be imposed on the industries not complying with NEQS. A formula for calculations of these charges has already been devised. Therefore, every edible oil mill would have to thoroughly investigate its existing operations with the aim of identifying opportunities for containing the environmental impacts through implementation of appropriate in-plant measures.

2. The Edible Oil Industry

Pakistani society has traditionally been consuming butterfat Desi Ghee prepared from butter by heating, as a cooking medium of choice. However, this product has been in short supply for a long time due to numerous reasons. Therefore, the past few decades have witnessed an increasing dependence on the vegetable oil, and products derived from it. Until the mid-seventies, domestic production of edible oils was sufficient to meet 75% of the domestic requirements. A high rate of growth in vegetable oil consumption afterwards due to population growth, increase in per capita income, and decrease in the real price of vegetable ghee, created a gap between production and demand. The share of imported oils and fats has thus been increasing gradually to fill up this gap. Presently, the per capita consumption of vegetable oil/ghee is 16-18 kg per annum. The average demand growth is projected at 4.4% per annum between 1988-2000, and the domestic production is expected to increase by 7.3% during the same period. Pakistans Edible Oil industry was nationalised in 1972 and a public sector organisation i.e. Ghee Corporation of Pakistan (GCP) was created to run this industry. Since 1988, private sector has been allowed to emerge and grow. Most of the units under the control of GCP have been privatised. At present 94% of the sector is under private sector control. A total of around 160 small and medium sized vegetable oil and ghee plants are operational with a total capacity of over two million tons. Two institutions in Pakistan represent the edible oil industry. The Pakistan Vanaspati Manufacturing Association (PVMA) is an association of over 100 mills which import refined crude oil, process and package it, and market it. The total installed capacity of these units is around 1.8 million ton. The All Pakistan Solvent Extraction Association (APSEA) is an association of five mills. These mills process oil from raw oil seed through solvent extraction process. The total installed capacity of these units is around 550,000 tons.

2.1 Raw Material

The edible oil industry uses a variety of raw oils such as RBD soft and hard1, palmolein, soybean oil, corn oil, cottonseed oil, rapeseed oil, sunflower oil, and canola oil. The last five raw materials are used occasionally, either due to the shortage of the soybean supply, or because of specific requirement of the product.
1

RBD soft oil is refined, bleached, and deodorized oil with no hydrogenation. RBD hard oil is refined, bleached and deodorized oil with hydrogenation.

The local production and imports for 1995 is shown in Table 2.1. Cottonseed, corn oil, and canola (recently) are purchased from the local market. The local oil seed production caters to only 20-30% of the requirement, whereas the rest is imported. Palm oil, which has 80% share in the imports of oil and fat, is being imported from Malaysia, while sunflower and soybean are imported from the Eastern European Block. In fact, by importing over a million ton of palm oil, Pakistan has become worlds largest importer of palm oil from Malaysia.

Table 2.3: Utilities and their Consumption

Utility Water (m3) Electricity (kwh) Quantity 12 - 45 Usage Washing of oil, cooling & vacuum systems, steam production, etc. Process house operations, vacuum pumps, water pumps, natural gas cracking unit, boiler house. H2 gas manufacturing, soap manufacturing, boilers, etc. Process house, gas cracking unit, heating of oil in storage tanks, decanting.

45 130

Table 2.1: Local Production and Import of Edible Oil (1995)

S. # Type Quantity (Ton) Local 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Cottonseed Oil Sunflower Oil Rape Seed Oil Butter Fat Soybean Oil Palm Oil Palm Kernel Oil Tallow Total 374,400 30,000 66,000 379,900 850,300 Imported 14,000 24,600 200,000 1,059,000 5,800 57,000 1,360,400

Natural Gas (Mcf) Steam (tons)

3 25 1.4 3.4

Source: ETPI surveys Note: The quantities are based on 1 ton of oil or ghee produced.

2.4 Process Description

The major process being carried out in the oil mills is the refining of raw vegetable oil to render it edible. Hydrogenation is also carried out for ghee manufacturing. Apart from cooking oil and ghee, soap, acid oil, carbon oil, and bottled carbon dioxide are also produced as byproducts. The unwanted material, removed during the oil refining process, is utilised either for soap or acid oil manufacturing.

Source: PORIM Karachi

Oils mainly consist of triglycerides, however, some impurities such as gummy matter, pigments, and long chain free fatty acids (FFA) are also present in them. These unwanted substances are removed from the oil during various refining processes.

2.4.1 Vegetable Ghee

Vegetable ghee is produced by blending and processing different raw oils. A detailed process flow sheet is shown in Figure 2.1. De-Gumming The first step is the removal of gummy matter such as phospholipids and lipoproteins etc. from raw soybean or cottonseed oil. It is accomplished by exposing the oil to water and adding the phosphoric acid at 50oC. As a result precipitate of gum is generated which is removed from the oil. Pre-Neutralisation Pre-neutralisation process is done to remove FFA from raw oil. Caustic Soda solution proportionate to FFA is mixed with oil. This results in the neutralisation of the FFA. The resulting soapstock is allowed to settle and then drained out from the refining kettle. Three hot water washings are given to remove residual soap. Pre-Bleaching The purpose of oil bleaching is to eliminate its colouring pigments through the adsorption on bleaching earth. Fullers earth is used for bleaching because of its excellent adsorption power. The bleached oil containing fullers earth is passed through a series of filter presses to remove the spent earth. Hydrogenation Hydrogenation process is the hardening of oil to reduce its un-saturation. At the same time, it improves the stability of the product against its oxidation. Chemically, the degree of un-saturation decreases by passing hydrogen gas through oil in the presence of nickel catalyst at 150oC.

2.2 Process Chemicals

Various chemicals are used at different stages of the refining process. A list of these chemicals, and their utilisation is shown in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 : Process Chemicals and their Usage

Chemicals Phosphoric acid Caustic soda Usage De-gumming FFA removal, oil extraction from fullers earth and soap manufacturing Pre- and post-bleaching Catalyst in hydrogenation Odour Removal To improve nutritional value of oil For flavouring the ghee For stability of the product For acid oil production. For soapstock graining and for the regeneration of cation resin To absorb CO2 in the purification of H2 gas.

Fullers earth Nickel sulphate Citric acid Vitamins ( A, D &E) Butyric acid & Ethyl butyrate Antioxidant BHT Sulphuric acid Common salt (NaCl) Monoethanolamine (MEA)

Source: ETPI primary & secondary surveys

2.3 Utilities
The consumption of different utilities in oil mills is presented in Table 2-3.

Figure 2-1: Ghee Process Flow Sheet

RAW OIL MAIN STORAGE Phosporic Acid + Lye + Water DEGUMMING / PRENEUTRALIZER / WASHING Soap Stock & Wastewater to Soap Pits Fullers Earth PRE-BLEACHER Vacuum Wastewater

Spent Fullers Earth

PRE-FILTER PRESS

Fresh Ni

HYDROGENATION

Ni Recycle H2

CO2, CO, NOx FILTER PRESS

Spent Ni

NATURAL GAS CRACKING UNIT

HARD OIL TANK DEODORIZER Vacuum Waste W ater POLISH FILTER Spent earth + Oil + Filter cloth washing

HARDENING STORAGE

POST NEUTRALIZATION INCLUDING WASHINGS Soap Stock Waste Water to Soaps Pits

Effluents SEAMING MACHINE

Vacuum Wastewater

POST-BLEACHING

CHILLING SECTION

Spent Fullers Earth

POST FILTER PRESS

WARE HOUSE / DESPATCH

Post-Neutralisation Post-Neutralisation is performed in the same way as preneutralisation, except that dilute lye is used because hard oil has a low FFA content at this stage. Post-Bleaching Post-bleaching is performed in the same way as prebleaching. Deodorization Most of the odorous substances along with FFA, sterols, tocopherols, saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons and pesticides are stripped out by injecting dry steam into oil at 235 245oC. Citric acid is also added to remove the odour. After deodorization, the deodorised oil is cooled in the decooler to about 85oC. The remaining odorous substances are removed during the de-cooling under vacuum. After cooling the hard oil is passed through a final filter press called Polish Filter, which removes undissolved citric acid, remaining particles of the fullers earth or nickel catalyst, and any other fine impurities. It also reduces the intensity of the final colour of the oil/ghee. Fortification Before sending to the filling section, vitamin A+D, and vitamin E are added. Antioxidant BHT is also added for stability and for the taste of the product. Some flavours are also added like butyric acid and ethyl butyrate, in a ratio of 88:12. The finished product after packaging is stored in a chilling room at a temperature of 0oC for 8-12 hours. This process converts the hard oil from the molten state into fine granules and improves its appearance. Afterwards it is sent to the warehouse.

2.4.3 Acid Oil

Production of acid oil is mainly concerned with the disposal and treatment of soapstock. Soapstock is generally treated with excess alkali to enhance saponification of any remaining neutral oil present in it. Later, it is boiled for 3045 minutes through steam coils fitted inside the vessel. Sulphuric acid is added which reacts with soapstock to form acidulated soapstock or acid oil.

2.4.4 Carbon Oil

Carbon oil is extracted from the spent fullers earth through the alkali reaction. Spent catalyst is also mixed with spent earth for carbon oil extraction. The spent earth collected from both pre-and post-filter presses is sent to the soap section. Caustic soda is added in it and the slurry is heated through steam coils fitted inside the vessel.
Water is also added to facilitate the decanting of oil from the spent earth. Continuous stirring enhances the skimming of oil at the upper surface of the slurry. After stirring, the decanted oil floating above the surface of the slurry is skimmed manually and is collected in a large drum. Most of this oil is used in the preparation of soap. Fullers earth after carbon oil extraction is sold to contractor for final disposal.

2.4.5 Soap
Raw materials used in soap manufacturing are soapstock, oil/ghee spills, soap foam collected from fat traps/soap-pits, and acid oil or carbon oil. Caustic soda solution is added to a batch of raw material and saponified by boiling with live steam. After fatstock has been saponified, common salt is added to it and boiling continues. At a certain stage of salt concentration, when soap becomes insoluble boiling is stopped and the soap is allowed to settle overnight. It settles to form four layers. The uppermost layer is foam below this is neat soap, the third layer is of dirty soap or nigre and at the bottom is some spent lye. After settling, foam is pushed aside and neat soap is pumped out and filled in frames for solidification.

2.4.2 Cooking Oil

Manufacturing of cooking oil is similar to ghee manufacturing except that hardening (hydrogenation) of the cooking oil is not required. Therefore, hydrogenation, postneutralisation, post-bleaching, and post-filtration are not performed. Generally, pure soybean oil (100%) is used in the cooking oil manufacturing. Cottonseed, canola, sunflower or corn oil are also occasionally used for this purpose. A process flow diagram is shown in Figure 2.2.

3. Environmental Stresses and their Quantification

The edible oil industry is one of the many chemical process industries, which contribute to environmental pollution. In the following sections pollution from edible oil industries through various sources have been discussed in detail. Process wastewater Cooling water Vacuum water Boiler and softening plant

3.1 Wastewater
Generation of large amounts of wastewater is the biggest environmental problem faced by the edible oil industries. Wastewater is generated through various sources, varying greatly both in quantity and quality.

Detail of these sources is given in the following section: Process wastewater Following processes contribute to process wastewater:

3.1.1 Sources and Disposal

The wastewater generation sources from an edible oil mill can be broadly divided into four categories:

Neutralisation Generation of wastewater from the pre-/postneutralization process is periodic. Wastewater containing soapstock is transferred into a separation chamber, with generally three compartments. Soapstock,

Figure 2-2: Cooking Oil Process Flow Sheet

DECANTING UNIT RAW OIL

MAIN STORAGE TANK

Phosphoric Acid

* DEGUMMING

Good Oil DRYING

Lye + H2O

NEUTRALIZATION INCLUDING WASHING

Waste Water & Soap Stock to Soap Pits Effluent

Fullers Earth

BLEACHING

Vacuum (wastewater)

FILTER PRESS

Spent Fuller Earth (to Soapry & Oil)

HOT OIL TANKS

DEODORIZER

Vacuum (Condensate)

COOLERS

Vitamins + BHT (30 g. + 20 g.)

POLISH FILTER

SEAMING MACHINE

WARE HOUSE / DESPATCH

Cotton Seed / Sunflower Oil

10

oil, and water are separated in the successive compartments. Wastewater goes to the fat trap after separation of soap stock and water. Acid Oil Production Acid oil production is another source of wastewater. Wastewater stemming from this source is small in quantity but qualitatively it is significant. During this process acidulated soapstock or acid oil rises upward in the reaction vessel due to its low density, while the acid water, containing remaining acid, sodium sulphate and water-soluble impurities, settles down. The acid water is drained out to the fat trap from where it is discharged into the sewer.
Soap Manufacturing The brine water from the graining process during soap manufacturing is drained out after settling. This wastewater goes to the soap pit and after decanting oil and soap, it is discharged into the sewer. Filter Cloth Washing The filter cloths, used in the filter press, are washed using caustic soda, water, steam and detergents. The caustic bath, which is very small in quantity, is retained and is drained once every three months. Water bath is drained every month and detergent washing is intermittent. All the above three streams go into the final trap and after decanting oil, wastewater is discharged into the sewer. Cooling Water Water is used for equipment/product cooling purposes in hydrogenation, deodorization, gas cracking unit and ammonia compressors. The cooling water is recirculated after dissipating its heat by spraying. The capacity of spraying system is generally insufficient to dissipate enough heat quickly, hence most of the water is drained out. Vacuum Water Water is used in the vacuum system to provide vacuum for certain operations. Vacuum water having relatively high temperature (average 35oC) is cooled through spraying and then is re-circulated. As the spraying system does not have the required efficiency in most cases, a portion of water has to be discharged to maintain the temperature to the desired level. Boiler and Softening Plant The boiler generates wastewater as blowdown. Some wastewater is also generated during the regeneration of the softening plant. The pattern of wastewater generation is periodic, however it is distributed almost evenly over 24 hours. Disposal Edible oil industries usually dispose off all their effluent into nearby receiving water bodies, such as canal, river or sea, without any treatment.

Table 3-1: Daily Wastewater Discharge

Source Processes Auxiliary Systems Total
Source: ETPI survey

Wastewater Quantity m3/100ton of oil/ghee 50 - 80 1400 - 3600 1450 - 3680

3.1.3 Characterisation
Wastewater of an edible oil mill can be divided into two separate classes i.e. process wastewater and non-process wastewater. The process wastewater was found to be highly polluted as compared to non-process wastewater. The characteristics of process wastewater and non-process wastewater are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Wastewater Analysis

Process Wastewater 11 12 40 50 450 700 1300 2100 2000 16500 3000 20000 100 180 2 - 2.5 10 20 10000 - 15000 1525 - 5300 30 - 1400 6000 - 22200 Cooling & Vacuum Wastewater 6-8 350 - 10000 0-5 -

Parameter pH Temp (oC) BOD5 COD TSS TDS Oil & Grease Nickel Phosphate Sulfate Chloride Conductivity Total Alkalinity

Source: ETPI survey, 1998 Note: All values are in mg/l, except pH, Temp. (oC) & conductivity (ms/cm).

3.1.4 Pollution Load

The pollution load generated daily by edible oil mills is presented in Table 3-3. This has been calculated by multiplying quantity of wastewater with the concentration of each parameter.

Table 3-3: Daily Pollution Load

Pollution Load Parameters BOD5 COD TSS TDS O&G Ni PO4 --SO4 ClTotal Alkalinity Mill-1 60 170 280 3,750 15 0.05 4.2 200 304 1,150 Mill-2 230 380 130 960 0.8 0.5 --1,530 1,000 Mill-3 1,600 3,000 3,100 5,400 15 0.5 --95,000 1,800

3.1.2 Quantification
The quantification of wastewater was done on the basis of water balance, flow monitoring, and water consumption. Based on the information of audited mills, the typical ranges of wastewater generation are tabulated in Table 3-1.

Source: ETPI survey Note: All quantities are in Kg per 100 tons of oil/ghee

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3.2 Solid Waste

Solid waste generated by edible oil mills can be classified in the following general families: - General waste - Tin scrap - Filter cloth - Sludge from settling ponds, fat traps and raw oil tanks - Spent earth - Spent catalyst - Spent lubricants General type of waste produced usually contains pipes, mild steel (MS) sheets, iron angles, wires, cans, bottles, and waste paper. Some of this solid waste is sold to a contractor on monthly basis, while the remaining is disposed off at municipal garbage dumps. Tin scrap consists of rejected tin containers, lids and waste from tin can manufacturing area. Tin waste is temporarily stored inside the mill and afterwards is sold for recycling. The quantity of scrap is estimated to be 2-10% of the total tin used. Filter cloth is used in the filter press. Once the filter cloth is fixed in a filter press, it could serve for 4-6 batches after which, the filter press is dismantled and filter cloths are washed. One piece is used twice or thrice before it is discarded. After rejection, filter cloths are used for floor cleaning and general cleaning purpose. When water ponds are cleaned the sludge is produced. The quantity is dependent on the quality of water stored. Sludge is also produced in the fat trap, where the oily wastewater from pre- and post- neutralisation is stored. This sludge is used for

soap manufacturing. Wastewater from the filter cloth washing, acid oil production, soapstock tanks and soap manufacturing goes to another fat trap. The sludge from this trap is also used to make soap. Raw oil tanks are emptied twice a year for cleaning purposes. Raw oil storage tank also produces sludge. The sludge that is settled at the bottom is salted and heated. The upper layer of oil is skimmed to be used in the process. The rest is sent to the soap section for soap production. Fullers earth is used in the pre-and post-bleaching process. Oil content of spent Fuller's earth after filtration of the oil coming from bleaching is about 40% by weight. This earth is scraped from the filter clothes and processed to extract carbon oil. Afterwards, it is sold to outside vendors. The cleaning is done manually and needs considerable labour force, as spent earth is put into used fullers earth bags and taken out of the building by workers. Nickel (Ni) is used in hydrogenation process as a catalyst. The general practice is to recycle some of the used nickel and to add fresh catalyst for the total required quantity. The ratio of recycling to fresh varies from mill to mill. After about 5 batches, the spent Ni is completely replaced by fresh Ni. Spent Ni is mixed with spent earth and treated for carbon oil extraction. Afterwards it is disposed off, generally with spent earth. Spent lubricants come from the machinery and equipment maintenance. These are sold for reuse or for burning in cement kilns or brick furnaces. The details of solid waste generated by edible oil mills, with its per annum quantities, are tabulated in Table 3-4.

Table 3-4: Details of Solid Waste

S. No. 1 2. 3. 4. Category General Tin Scrap Filter Cloth Sludge Type/Source Pipes, MS sheets, iron angles, wires, cans, broken glass, bottles, paper, plastic, etc. Tin workshop Filter press From water ponds From small fat trap From big fat trap From raw oil storage tanks Pre-bleaching, post-bleaching, carbon oil making Hydrogenation Quantity Sold or disposed off Sold for recycling Mostly used for cleaning etc. Finally thrown with garbage Disposed off at solid waste disposal sites Used for soap making Used for soap making Used for soap making Sold after Carbon oil extraction Mixed with spent fullers earth and carbon oil is extracted from the mixture. Afterwards, the spent mixture is sold to contractors for down stream uses Sold to contractors for burning in kilns or furnaces. Fate

0.1 - 0.2 m

5. 6.

Spent Fullers Earth Spent Nickel

6 - 9 kg 20 - 160 g

7.

Spent Lubricants

From machinery

Source: ETPI Survey Note: Quantities of wastes are based on per ton of oil/ghee produced.

3.3 Soil Contamination

Soil contamination in an edible oil industry is due to oil spillage. Oil spillage on soil can be found, in the following areas: Underground furnace oil deposit: Uncovered soil near underground furnace oil deposit gets highly polluted with furnace oil spillage.

Raw oil tanks: Uncovered soil near raw oil tanks gets highly polluted with raw oil spillage. Carbon oil manufacturing area: Bags containing spent earth are stored on unprotected soil and in the open air. This means that polluted rainwater and leachates from this area go into the soil.

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3.4 Air Emissions

In general, vegetable oil refining processes does not have significant air emissions. In the refining process, materials are volatilised, but in every case the volatilised material is condensed either for recovery or to maintain low pressures in the systems. Vents from storage tanks of raw oil and products that have a certain vapour pressure can be a source of vapours. This

emission occurs principally on the filling of the tanks. However, the vapour pressure of vegetable fats and oils is such that the contribution is not significant. Air emissions emitted by an edible oil mill come chiefly from the auxiliary systems, i.e. boiler, gas cracking plant, and power generator etc. Samples from these sources were analysed. The results of these analyses are presented in Table 3-5.

Table 3-5: Air Emission from Different Sources

S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Emission CO, mg / Nm3 CO2, VOL % NOx, mg/Nm SO2, mg/Nm
3 3

Boiler 40-130 2 205 60-125 --3

Generator 2060 0.8 1300 110 5 275

Gas Cracking Plant 3000 18 -----

NEQS 800 400 400 2 300

Smoke, Ringlemann Scale Particulate Matter, mg/Nm

--

Source: ETPI survey

3.5 Noise Emissions

Industrial equipment and machinery create high noise levels during operation. The main noise sources in edible oil industry include: Steam ejectors at the roof of main process building Tin can manufacturing Gas cracking plant Boiler Hydrogen compressor Ammonia compressor

Because of poor ventilation in the process area, fumes emitted from different processes stay inside for longer time. Floors get slippery because of oil spills in refining area. Also industry uses detergent to wash the floor after every shift, which makes the floor even more slippery.

3.7 Energy Inefficiency

Refining of edible oil includes a number of heating and cooling operations where the transfer of thermal energy takes place. This transfer of energy is not efficient in most of the edible oil mills of Pakistan. Wastage of energy is due to following reasons in oil mills: Cooling of oil after hydrogenation and deodorization. Improper insulation of steam pipes. Prolonged deodorization at low temperature.

The noise levels in the above mentioned areas are quite high, although they were not measured. The allowable noise level under NEQS is 80 dB.

3.6 Occupation Health and Safety (OH&S)

In edible oil mills OH&S hazards are due to the following reasons: Improper handling of chemicals. Poor ventilation Slippery floors High noise levels

Steam distributing pipes without proper insulation results in decrease of steam temperature hence more steam is required. In some industries deodorization of edible oil is carried out at 190oC for a period of 1.5 hours. However, in the literature it is reported that the process is carried out at 235245oC, which is accomplished only in 25 minutes. The low temperature deodorization, not only reduces the production rate, but also increases the oil losses in terms of polymerisation.

The use of protective gears in handling of chemicals is nonexistent. Workers were found bare handed working with chemicals such as caustic soda.

4. Impacts
The major adverse impacts of environmental pollution caused by the edible oil mills are discussed in this chapter. These impacts have been described with respect to the local and global environment, workers health & safety and deviation from the NEQS.

4.1 Impacts Associated with Wastewater

Pollution of water is the most important environmental impact of edible oil mills. Impacts of wastewater generated from edible oil mills are evaluated while keeping in mind the

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final destination of wastewater. Adverse effects of pollutants on the ecosystem as well as on the surrounding population are also taken into account. These impacts are discussed pollutant wise in the following sections. pH Most of the processes discharge highly alkaline (pH >10) wastewater but some processes such as acid oil production discharge highly acidic effluent. Aquatic life is severely effected by the pH of the water and a larger deviation from neutral pH could alter the natural biological activities. Also, acidic or basic wastewater does not facilitate the biodegradation of organic pollutants. Wastewater with a high pH value is also corrosive to the sewer system of the area. Organic Pollutants The COD value is the amount of oxygen required to degrade the pollutants present in the wastewater through chemical degradation. COD indicates the chemically degradable pollutants. Similarly BOD indicates the biodegradable organic pollutants. BOD and COD cause the depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water body. Deficiency of oxygen in receiving water could cause adverse effects on biological activity in the water environment. In the worst case this can result in the total depletion of oxygen in the receiving water, causing an anaerobic environment. This would be fatal to aerobic life and would also create odour problems. High COD/BOD ratio indicates the persistence of chemicals present in effluent. Persistent chemicals always pose risk of entering into the food chain. Phosphates Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for algae and other biological organisms. A high concentration of phosphates, if discharged into the surface water, can result in the growth of undesired aquatic life such as algae. This can lead to the eutrofication of the receiving water body. In most of the countries, the phosphate concentration allowable for discharge in water bodies is less than 1ppm because of these characteristics. Presently NEQS do not have any limit for phosphate in wastewater but it is likely that phosphate limits will be imposed in near future. Sulphates Under anaerobic conditions sulphate is reduced to sulphide and can form hydrogen sulphide. H2S is highly malodorous gas and toxic at high concentration. Offensive odour can cause poor appetite for food, impaired respiration, nausea, vomiting and mental perturbation. Also, H2S can be oxidised biologically to sulphuric acid which is corrosive to drain pipes. Chlorides Chloride concentration in wastewater is not significantly reduced by conventional wastewater treatment methods, hence finds its way into the receiving water. High concentration of chloride in the water may convert the agricultural land into saline land and unfit for agriculture if the receiving water is used for irrigation purpose. Particulate and Sediments Suspended solids present in process wastewater are partially organic in nature. Upon settling in the bottom of

the water body, they decompose aerobically as well as anaerobically, depending on the prevailing condition. In aerobic decomposition, dissolved oxygen of the water body is consumed, creating a potential for adverse effects on the ecological system of the water environment. Anaerobic decomposition of organic compounds will generate odour. Suspended solids also reduce the aesthetic value of the receiving water body. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) Process effluent from the edible oil mills also contains large quantities of TDS. Most of the dissolved solids are undesirable in the receiving water. Dissolved minerals and organic constituents may produce aesthetically displeasing colour, tastes and odour. Some chemicals may be toxic and some of the dissolved organic constituents are known to be carcinogens. Quite often two or more dissolved substances combine to form a compound whose characteristics are more objectionable than those of the original matter. Oil and Grease The concentration of oil and grease in process effluent is many times higher than allowable limits of NEQS. High amount of oil present in the wastewater may reduce absorption of oxygen by the receiving water body, hence resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen. This may endanger aquatic life as discussed earlier. Also, oil films on the surface of water result in reduction of light transmission through surface water, thereby reducing photosynthesis by aquatic plants. Oils may also form suspension or emulsion in the water, which could be harmful for fish and other aquatic life. Nickel Nickel is a heavy metal and is used as a catalyst in the hydrogenation process of ghee manufacturing. Some of the nickel is discharged into the effluent while most of the spent nickel is disposed off as solid waste. Nickel is an essential element in animal nutrition in trace quantities but toxic and carcinogenic in higher concentration.

4.2 Impacts Associated with Solid Waste

Dumping of rubbish and waste inside the plant causes unhygienic conditions. The sludge that is formed at the water ponds decreases the ponds capacity, its recycling capability, and the quality of water. Having large amounts of sludge in the fat traps affect the treatment capacity, as the water flows from one basin to the next underneath the concrete baffles. Burning spent nickel in kilns may result in the emission of nickel compounds in the air. As nickel dust is a possible carcinogen, producing respiratory cancer, hence its entry into the air can pose a problem to the population living near the kilns. Burning spent oil and lubricants without any control about the composition of the oil and the flue gases from combustion is a source of air pollution.

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4.3 Impacts Associated with Soil Contamination

Soil contamination can cause ground water pollution that may afterwards affect surface water. Soil contamination nowadays is an important issue in industrialised countries, and companies are very concerned about its grave environmental impacts. In the past, industries did not take into account the importance of soil contamination, but this has drastically changed in the last few years, as the price of land can decrease, or even become nil, when the soil where the industry is located is polluted.

report, the fine particles of carbon from burning fuel are considered. Adverse effects of the particulate matter on human health are reported in relation to the diseases of the respiratory system. Lowering of the aesthetics value of a place and loss of general visibility may also be attributed to PM at high concentration. The general corrosion reactions on building materials, due to the presence of NOx and SOx in the air, may also get catalysed due to the presence of particulate matter. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Carbon dioxide is generated in large quantities during natural gas cracking in edible oil mills. In some mills this is collected and sold to beverage industry. While in others this gas is exhausted into the atmosphere. Laboratory results of gas cracking plant exhaust show that the concentration of CO2 in the exhaust is about 500 times of its concentration in clean air. CO2 is a green house gas and its higher concentration in the atmosphere is responsible for the phenomenon of global warming.

4.4 Impacts Associated with Air Emissions

Impacts associated with possible air emissions from edible oil industries are given in the following sections. Oxides of Nitrogen Oxides of Nitrogen are emitted from boiler stack and the generator exhaust. Continuous or intermittent exposure of humans to NOx may cause certain illnesses, such as irritation in the respiratory tract and abnormal accumulation of fluid in the lungs leading to pulmonary edema. Direct exposure of NOx to soil causes necrosis, causing vegetation loss and may lead to inhibition of plant growth. NOx undergo various photochemical and chemical reactions in the atmosphere leading to the formation of photochemical smog and acid rain. Although, emissions of NOx from generator are for short period of time, still the cumulative effects of NOx at global scenario should not be ignored. Depletion of ozone at stratosphere level, formation of photochemical smog and acid rain may occur due to this. Oxides of Sulphur Oxides of Sulphur are emitted in oil mills due to the burning of fuels in the generator, and also from gas cracking. Direct exposure to these oxides can be very harmful to human health, plants and vegetation. The harmful effects are dependent on the concentration and exposure duration. Indirectly SOx reacts in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog and acid rain. Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide is a colourless non-irritating gas, which is generated due to incomplete combustion. At high concentrations exceeding 5000 ppm with an exposure of few minutes, this gas can be fatal for human or animal lives, by reacting with haemoglobin to form carboxyheamoglobin. At much lesser concentrations, buut with a high duration of exposure, this gas may still be dangerous for human beings, as it may cause damages to visual perception, manual dexterity and the ability to learn. Concentration of CO from the methane cracking plants and the generator exhausts of the audited mills are very high. Therefore its long-term impacts can not be ignored. Particulate Matter (PM) Particulate matter covers a large variety of particles, varying in size and chemical composition, however in this

4.5 Impacts Associated with Noise

Noise is considered as an interference to and imposition upon comfort, health and the quality of life. Given the conditions like exposure limit and time, noise may have both physiological as well as psychological effects on human health. Physiological effects include dizziness, nausea, unusual blood pressure variation, physical fatigue, loss of hearing, etc. While reduced mental capability and irritations may attribute to psychological effects. Very high noise levels were observed in the surrounding of the generator room and the boiler house. As these operations require almost full attention from the workers all the time, therefore each worker is expected to be exposed to high noise for at least 8 hours in 24 hours. This condition may lead to a permanent hearing loss for workers as well as physical and mental fatigue, which consequently may lower their manual and mental dexterity.

4.6 Implications Associated with Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S)

In edible oil refineries major issues related to OH&S are handling of chemicals, improper ventilation in process building, slippery floors and exposure to high noise. Workers in Pakistan are habitually prone to work with bare hands and feet. This puts them at the high risk of contracting skin disease, such as chemical burns, irritations, ulcers, etc. Handling of hazardous chemicals such as caustic soda, sulphuric acids, nickel oxides, etc. without protective gears poses serious health as well as safety hazard. In some industries fumes and exhaust gases emitted from different processes stay in the process building because of improper ventilation These cause discomfort to workers and also reduces their output. Some processes also emit VOCs which may be carcinogenic.

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Slippery floor of the process building due to oil spills on the floor, always poses risks of injuries to employees.

4.7 Impacts Associated with Energy Wastage

Environment is nowadays understood as a wide and comprehensive field that includes not only avoidance of pollution, but also efficient use of energy and natural

resources. Inefficient usage of energy has the following disadvantages: Wastage of money, as more natural gas or electricity is consumed. Wastage of non-renewable natural resources, as the fuels required to produce the energy are limited natural resources. Higher emissions of air pollutants such as carbon dioxides, as more natural gas and fuel are burnt.

5. Recommendations
A number of recommendations, aimed at the improvement of environmental conditions of edible oil industries, have been formulated on the basis of the findings of the three audits by ETPI, and information available through various secondary sources. Each recommendation has been developed and worked out on the basis of the present state of information. For further development and cost estimation of each recommendation, more specific data would be necessary. This can be undertaken at the implementation stage. main sources of process wastewater and a future treatment plant would be meant mainly for treating process water, a reduction on pre- and post-neutralisation wastewater means a reduction in the investment and operational cost of such a plant.

5.1.3 Replacement of Gravity Settling by Centrifuge after Neutralisation

Soapstock and washing water are separated from the oil, after pre- and post-neutralisation, by means of gravity settling. The separation of soapstock and water from oil can be improved by means of centrifugal separators, in which centrifugal force is applied to separate fractions as it forces the heavier particles towards the periphery, while the light phase flows toward the centre of the separator. The separation efficiency of centrifugal separators is much higher than of gravity settling. This results in the following positive effects: Reduction in oil losses Because of better separation caused by the centrifugal force, less oil is lost with soapstock and washing water. It has been reported that the use of centrifugal separators instead of gravity settling can reduce the loss of oil during neutralisation to more than 25%. Reduction of washing water When centrifugal separators are used, only 2 washes (with an amount of water of about 10% of the oil weight each) are required. According to the information received from equipment supplier, normal process water consumption when using centrifugal separator is about 50% of present consumption. Also it will mean a reduction in the investment and operational cost of the treatment plant. Reduction of water content in oil The use of centrifugal separators will also reduce the amount of water that remains in the oil after neutralisation by 50%. As this water must be evaporated before bleaching, the decrease of water content of the oil will mean a reduction in the amount of steam required and the time used for this purpose. Improvement of oil quality: Another benefit of using centrifugal separators is the improvement of the oil quality after neutralisation. The following oil quality can be achieved after neutralisation if centrifugation is applied: Switching from gravity settling to centrifugal separation means a drastic change in the neutralisation process. It is not possible to carry out this step by means of some new equipment and some small modifications to the present

5.1 Wastewater Reduction & Treatment

In the following sections, the detailed description for the relevant recommendations formulated for wastewater reduction and treatment is given.

5.1.1 Size Optimisation of Separation Chambers

Due to the small size of separation chambers beneath the preand post neutralisation vessels, a proper retention time is not being given to the washing effluent containing the soapstock and oil etc. This results in incomplete separation of soapstock, oil, and wastewater. It is recommended that the size of these chambers be optimised. This would give the following advantages: Oil losses would be minimised and the recovery of good oil would be enhanced at this stage, leading to economic benefits. The pollution load in the outgoing water would be minimised, leading to size optimisation of the end-ofpipe treatment.

5.1.2 Recycling of Washing Water after Neutralisation

Usually six to seven washes of about 1 m3 each are applied after pre-neutralisation and four washes of 1 m3 each after post-neutralisation to remove soapstock from oil. The pollution load transferred to washing water decreases from the first wash to the last wash. Therefore, it seems feasible to reuse the water coming from the last wash in the first wash of the oil. In this sense, it is recommended to make some trials to check the possibility of using a counter current washing scheme after post-neutralisation. If the results achieved in post-neutralisation are encouraging enough, the same trial could be made for pre-neutralisation. Counter current washing is a normal practice in many industrial processes. The importance of decreasing the amount of water used for washing after neutralisation is not based on the intake water savings, but on the reduction of the wastewater treatment plant size. Since pre- and post-neutralisation are the two

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process. First of all, it means a change from batch process to continuous process. Secondly, a complete new installation has to be purchased and installed.

chamber. The slot is left at the top normally. When it is desired to skim fat, the pipe is turned until the slot is below the fat surface. The oil flows into the pipe to a sump at the end. The investment required is very low (about Rs.25,000) and daily operation will benefit as well as the environment. Such fat removers may be even fabricated locally at the industrys own workshop.

Table 5.1: Oil Quality due to Centrifugation

Characteristics Max. FFA content Max. Phosphatide content Max. soap content Max. impurities content Max. moisture content
Source: Equipment suppliers

Incoming Oil 5% 200 ppm 0.1% 0.5%

Product 0.05% 5 ppm 100 ppm 0.5 %

5.1.6 Reorganisation of Water Systems

Total water consumption can be minimised by means of reorganising the water scheme. This reorganisation consists mainly in segregating the water according to its use and pretreating, recirculating and finally treating/discharging each separately. Though, there is a certain segregation of water in industry, it could be improved, as some of the water types are mixed up. This would result in a decrease in water consumption hence in a smaller size wastewater treatment facility. Recommendations on how to maintain the quality of each type of water with the aim of keeping the cycles as close as possible and with minimum addition of fresh water are given below: a) Process water: The food industry is generally subjected to strict requirements regarding quality of water that is in contact with the product. In the previous sections, recommendations to reuse and reduce the consumption of process water have already been outlined. The final treatment for process water is discussed in section 5.1.8. b) Cooling and vacuum water: Presently, edible oil mills either discharge the cooling water into the drain or recirculate it in the vacuum system. It is recommended to establish two separate semi-closed systems, for cooling and vacuum water, providing both of them with cooling towers to dissipate heat. By maintaining proper water quality it is possible to operate the cooling and vacuum systems in a closed loop, requiring low make-up water addition and decreasing the water consumption considerably. For the vacuum water system an indirect cooling system is recommended. Vacuum water should be cooled in a heat exchanger with cooling tower water before being recycled to the vacuum system. Thus, there is no direct contact between the two water systems, and the problem of odour and/or presence of any organic compounds is avoided. The heat exchanger will need some cleaning, therefore it is advisable to have two heat exchangers, one in operation while the other is on stand-by. For long lasting and smooth operation and efficiency of the cooling system it is necessary to avoid corrosion, scale formation and micro-organism and bacteria development. These problems are normally avoided by means of using water of an appropriate quality, applying some treatment (such as filtration) and by dosing some additives. Because of evaporation, there is an increase of salt content in water, which results in the scale formation. This is normally mitigated with a continuous blowing down of certain amount of water, which is replaced by fresh water.

The investment cost of a new refining plant of 187 ton/day capacity is estimated at Rs. 33,000,000. Annual savings achievable due to process improvement can be summarised as follows: Decrease of oil losses: approx. Rs 4,100,000/year Steam savings at bleaching: approx. Rs 160,000/year Personnel cost savings: a modern continuous refining process is fully automatic and needs minimum of personnel attention. One worker, with a part-time job, can operate this installation (including necessary cleaning and maintenance works). Savings in chemicals: with high efficiency equipment (mixers, reactors, separators), reactive and chemicals consumption is reduced when implementing a continuos centrifugal separation system. Increase in energy consumption: centrifugal separators have high electricity consumption. Thus, the implementation of centrifugal separators will mean an increase in the electricity demand of the mill. An installation as described above, has a typical electricity demand of 12 kWh per ton of oil.

Comparing the investment cost with estimated annual savings, the payback period of implementing a centrifugal separation system can be estimated to be about 5 years.

5.1.4 Use of Pressurised Water for Floor Cleaning

It is recommended to use hoses with automatic shut down and pressurised water nozzles (water flow stops automatically when the hose is left on the floor) to clean the floor, in order to increase the efficiency of washing and save the water.

5.1.5 Improvement of Foam and Soap Removal from Fat Traps

Soap and foam is removed from the fat traps manually after closing the outlet of the last fat trap and raising the water level. As outlet of the last fat trap is closed, the water rises and overflows from the last trap to the drain. The skimming soap and foam is, therefore, discharged in the drain. It is rather simple to provide the fat trap with a mechanical or manual system that can take out the fat from the traps without the need of raising the water level. The simplest form is a pipe of about 6 diameter positioned across the water surface and mounted at the ends in slip bearing. The pipe has a slot cut in it lengthwise. The pipe is equipped with a means of rotating and sliding arrangements so that the slot may be positioned at the desired elevation and the pipe can be moved along the

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c) Recovery of steam condensate at boiler: Presently, edible oil industries recover only about 15-50% of the steam as condensate. The rest is drained as water or sent to the air at deodoriser. Following are the advantages of recirculating the condensate: Energy savings, as temperature of condensate is higher than the intake water Less water consumption Less cleaning cycles of the ion exchange resins Less chemicals consumption

The treatment will comprise of two main steps i.e. primary treatment and secondary treatment. Primary Treatment The purpose of primary treatment is to remove the floatable oil and grease and suspended solids. This will also reduce the BOD and COD concentration. This can be achieved either by gravity settling or by dissolved air flotation. Both options are discussed below, and the pertinent design data and costs are given in Table 5-2 and Table 5.3:

With a good piping system, 80% recirculation rate of condensate is possible. A good piping system means high quality materials at heat exchangers and a good preventive maintenance program (to avoid leakage and contamination of water with oil). 80% recovery of condensate means water consumption in the boiler will be less than half of present consumption. Besides, much attention must be put on boiler water quality, as it influences directly the life, performance and maintenance requirements of the boiler. Problems of corrosion and scale formation are also present in boiler water with even more influence on the system life. It is of high importance to remove oxygen and CO2 from condensate in order to avoid corrosion. This is normally done by injecting steam at the degasifier and by dosing some additives.

Table 5.2: Design Data of Primary Treatment System

Parameter Flow No of Tanks Surface area Depth Chemical Mixing Tank Depth Area Capacity of air pump BOD TSS Oil Gravity Settling Tank 100 1 4 2.5 Chemically Enhanced DAF 100 1 0.75 1 1 1 0.5 1.5 Units m3/day No. m2 m No. m m2 bars

5.1.7 Use of Flow Meters

Presently, none of the measuring system or device is in use in the process and water systems. The use of flow meters to measure the quantities of various material and water streams could prevent the unnecessary excessive dosing, thereby saving the resources.

Removal Efficiencies 35 35 65 65 up to 50 up to 30

% % ppm

5.1.8 Wastewater Treatment

After all in-process recommendations have been undertaken, the only way to improve the quality of the wastewater discharge is by means of an end-of-pipe treatment. Knowing the potential and limitations of in-house improvements and cleaner technologies, ETPI has adopted an approach based on both types (in-house and end-of-pipe) of environmental solutions. The approach is two-phased. In the first phase, cleaner production technologies (CP) will be implemented. Once the industrial unit has stabilised the pollution and hydraulic loads, then end-of-pipe (EOP) treatment facilities will be designed and will be implemented in the second phase. It is anticipated that by adopting this strategy two benefits will be secured. These are: (a) during implementation of CP the understanding of the management and technical teams about the environmental problems and solutions will improve, and (b) the EOP environmental solutions will be much smaller and more cost effective. In case of edible oil industries, end of pipe treatment will be different for process wastewater and non-process wastewater. Process Wastewater Treatment Although process wastewater is small in quantity as compared to non-process wastewater, but it is highly polluted with oil and has high BOD, COD and suspended solid. After segregation, the estimated quantity of this stream will be in the range of 500-800 litre/ton of production. The average values of pollutants in process water will be: BOD TSS Oil 600 mg/L 2400 mg/L 100 mg/L

Table 5.3: Cost Estimates for Primary Treatment System

Components Screen Civil work Piping, mechanical & electrical equipment Contingencies @ 15 % Total Operational and maintenance per annum Cost In Rs. Option 1 Option 2 70,000 70,000 60,000 40,000 150,000 250,000 42,000 322,000 70,000 54,000 414,000 150,000

Option 1: Gravity Settling: The principle behind this process is the same as used by the industry to separate water, oil and soapstock in soap pits. The objective of gravity sedimentation or flotation is to achieve a slow, smooth, tranquil and uniform passage of the liquid stream from the inlet end to effluent end. During this process the oil particles rise to the surface because of lower density and are removed by skimming them from the top. Suspended solids will settle at the bottom of the tank and will be removed in the form of sludge. The details with schematic diagram are shown in Figure 5.1. Option 2: Chemically Enhanced Dissolved Air Flotation

In this process air is dissolved in the wastewater under a pressure of several atmospheres. When the solution is depressurised, the dissolved air is released as fine bubbles. Additives such as aluminium and ferric salts are used to bind the oil droplets together and in doing so, create a structure (floc) that can easily entrap air bubbles. A few air bubbles on a floc will rapidly buoy it to the surface.

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In principle DAF resembles gravity settling but the surface overflow rates are four times or even more, as the rise rate of particles is greater with attached air bubbles. Also the oil removal efficiency is very high in case of chemically enhanced air flotation. The details with schematic diagram are shown in Figure 5.2. Secondary Treatment The remaining oil in wastewater after gravity settling or dissolved air flotation is in a dispersed state or in solution. Removal of the dispersed oil and other biodegradable organic compounds can be accomplished by biological treatment such as activated sludge process or aerated lagoons. Both processes require high capital investment. Aerated lagoons require a large area of land but operational costs are much lower than activated sludge. Option 1 Aerated Lagoons An aerated lagoon is a basin in which wastewater is biologically treated on a flow-through basis. A large surface area is required because of high retention time. Oxygen is supplied by means of surface aerators. In an aerobic lagoon most of the solids are maintained in suspension by mixing while some of the solids settle at the bottom and decompose anaerobically. The soluble products of the anaerobic decomposition would, in turn, oxidise in the upper layer of the lagoon. If groundwater pollution is not an issue than this method will be low-cost because of mainly earthwork construction. Option 2 Activated Sludge The activated sludge process is an aerobic, biological oxidation process in which wastewater is aerated in the presence of a flocculent, mixed microbial culture, known as activated sludge. Essential elements in this process are: the aeration tank in which the activated sludge and incoming wastewater are thoroughly mixed (the mixture is known as mixed liquor) and an abundant supply of dissolved oxygen is provided; a final settling tank for separating the activated sludge from the treated effluent; a return sludge system to recycle the settled activated sludge solids back to the influent; and a sludge digester. Operationally, biological waste treatment with the activated sludge is typically accomplished using a flow diagram such as that shown in Figure 5.3.

Table 5.4: Cost Estimates for Secondary Treatment System

Components Civil work Piping, mechanical & electrical equipment Contingencies @ 15 % Total Operational and maintenance per annum Non process wastewater Cost In Rs. Option 1 Option 2 1,660,000 900,000 250,000 430,000 300,000 200,000 2,210,000 1,530,000 150,000 300,000

By observing good housekeeping this water can be kept free of all pollutants, except for TDS. TDS can only be removed by reverse osmosis (R.O), and the water can be recycled but R.O. treatment is very expensive.

5.2 Solid Waste

Measures, which could be taken to reduce and properly handle the solid wastes, are given in the following sections:

5.2.1 Improvement of Waste Management and Land Filling

There are a number of possibilities available for improving the present waste management system. The investment involved in such improvements is limited, as many of them are related to good working practices. It is of the utmost importance for a food industry to offer a clean and hygienic surrounding. In order to guarantee this, waste management procedures should be issued out and implemented. Furthermore, the management should ensure that the procedures are regularly followed by workers. The behaviour of each type of waste and the potential risks to environment and human health differ very much, therefore, they must be managed, stored and disposed off separately. The control measures that can be implemented to improve the present situation are stated below. a) Domestic/General waste:: It is recommended that containers should be provided to avoid uncontrolled dumping of waste inside the plant. Closed containers should be used to prevent the spillage of waste and to avoid odour nuisance. Furthermore, it is recommended to increase the awareness of employees regarding waste by arranging a certain number of short and informal training sessions for all employees and by placing posters in strategic places, such as: canteen, tea shop, near the waste containers, etc. The containers must be regularly collected and emptied at a local landfill, to avoid over spillage and dumping of waste in the containers surroundings. b) Tin scrap: The management for tin waste can be improved to get more tidy and organised storage in the factory. In order to get a better price for the recycled tin, it is recommended to avoid mixing it with other kind of waste and avoid longer storage time.

Table 5.4: Design Data of Secondary Treatment System

Parameter Option 1 Option 2 Flow 100 100 Aeration Tanks/Lagoons No of 2 1 Tanks/Lagoons Surface area 120 20 Depth 2.5 3 Air Requirement 47 47 Blower / Surface 25 25 Aerator Capacity No of Blowers / 2 2 Aerators Secondary Sedimentation Tanks No of Tanks 1 Surface area 4 Depth 2.5 Sludge Digester No of Tanks 1 Surface area 48 Depth 6.5 Sludge Drying Beds No of Tanks 2 2 Surface area 12 12 Depth 1 1 Units m3/day No. m2 m CFM. CFM No No m2 m No. m2 m No. m2 m

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Figure 5.1: Gravity Settling Tank

Figure 5.2: Chemically Enhanced Dissolved Air Flotation

Figure 5.3: Process Flow Diagram of Activated Sludge System

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c)

Sludge from water ponds, fat traps and raw oil tanks: Water ponds: It is recommended to clean the water ponds once every two months, and to dispose off this sludge in a municipal waste landfill. Fat traps: It is recommended to clean the fat traps regularly (once every 3 months). The sludge generated as a result of this cleaning process can be used in the soap section. Raw Oil Tanks: It is recommended that raw oil tanks be cleaned every 3 months, so that the layer of sludge at the bottom of the tank is as thin as possible. By keeping the sludge layer thin, the degradation of oil is minimised and the formation of sludge is, therefore, minimised.

Injection of compressed air and/or steam:

Once the filtration process has finished and before the spent earth is removed from the filter it is possible to extract some oil by means of injecting compressed air, or steam or compressed air followed by steam injection in the filter. This way, oil content in the spent earth can be reduced from 40% to 30%, if only compressed air is used, and to 20%-25% if compressed air plus steam are used. The recovered oil can be reintroduced in the process at bleaching. Considering this last option (with final oil content of 22%), possible savings can be estimated to be about 0.18 ton of oil / ton of spent earth or about Rs. 4840 per ton of spent earth, after accounting for the money received for the oil content of earth from the contractor. Solvent extraction:

d) Spent earth: Cleaning activity of the scraped earth from process building can be simplified by installing an external vertical chute and a storage area down the chute, so that the spent earth can be discharged out of the building through a window and the chute. It is recommended to cover the area where the spent earth is piled with a simple roof to avoid getting it wet during rains and dispersion by wind and water. e) Spent lubricants: Spent oil and lubricants are considered hazardous waste and should only be sold to an authorised waste dealer, who is responsible for its correct treatment.

By means of solvent extraction the total oil content of the spent earth can be decreased to only 5% by weight. Hexane is used as a solvent to extract oil from the spent earth. The colouring substances remain in the spent earth, while the oil is separated and is extracted forming a miscella with the solvent. The spent earth can be sent back to the supplier and can be used, as a raw material for the preparation of new fuller's earth. Hexane and oil can be separated by distillation. The oil can be re-processed and the hexane can be stored for reuse in future extractions. Annual savings by industry by means of solvent extraction of oil can be roughly calculated assuming that the oil content in the spent earth would be reduced from 40% to 5%, thus resulting in a 35% of oil recovery (on the total spent earth weight). It gives a saving of about 0.35 ton of oil /ton of spent earth which is equivalent to Rs. 13300. Solvent extraction could also be performed for oil extraction from spent nickel catalyst.

5.2.2 Use of Tankers with Internal Coils to Minimise Sludge

To avoid oil losses and to minimise sludge formation, the tank trucks must be provided with proper insulation and internal heating coils. This could reduce the oil losses during storage and handling by 50 %. This reduction can be estimated as total oil loss savings of about 0.05% of the oil processed. Providing internal coils to tank trucks would be a difficult task to be performed by a single mill, and it is very difficult to force the carrier to make the investment needed for that. However, this is something that could be discussed and done on a sectoral basis.

5.3 Soil Contamination Prevention

Prevention of soil contamination is usually a matter of good working procedures, thus not expensive, while soil remediation is a very costly activity. Soil contamination near underground furnace oil deposit and raw oil tanks can be avoided by taking care while unloading of oil and by paving this area with concrete, providing a proper draining system to collect spillage and rainy water polluted with oil. Collected furnace oil can be sent to a closed deposit to recover furnace oil and raw oil could be used at the soapery. For carbon oil manufacturing area it is recommended to pave the soil with concrete and construct a cover (or a completely closed area) to avoid rain water getting into the spent earth.

5.2.3 Increased Recycling of Nickel Catalysts

Nickel catalyst is presently being recycled at a ratio of 90% fresh to 10% recycled in some industries. This recycling ratio is very low. Normally, edible oil mills reuse up to 80% of recycled catalyst. It is recommended to perform some trials with increased catalyst recycling in order to see what is the maximum recycling ratio that can be achieved. Another possibility for improving nickel catalyst recovery is the use of centrifugal separators instead of filter press.

5.2.4 Recovery of Oil from Spent Earth

Oil mills are presently producing carbon oil from spent earth by adding caustic soda and heating. This way the oil content in spent earth is used to make a by-product, while at least part of this oil content can be recovered as a product, i.e. edible oil. This can be done in two ways:

5.4 Air Emissions Control

Air emissions are of minor importance in the edible oil sector. Following recommendations are made to reduce the emissions:

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5.4.1 Recovery of FFA at Deodoriser

Presently FFA and odorous volatile compounds stripped during deodorization are condensed in a trap drum to recover FFA. These FFA are then recycled into the soap section. An improvement to the present situation is the installation of a condensate recirculation, cooling and spraying system. In this system the condensate is taken out of the trap drum, cooled in a plate heat exchanger with water and sprayed back inside the trap drum to increase the FFA recovery, which will act as a kind of scrubber. Most of the distillate is condensed and recovered in this way.

Use of equipment with low noise emission level: new equipment and machinery are designed to have low noise emission level. Noise should be taken into account, as additional requirement for suppliers, when purchasing new machinery. Installation of noise insulation/barriers: noisy equipment must be insulated as much as possible. For this, physical barriers and building insulation are the common procedures. Protection of workers: in those areas where it is not possible to reduce the noise below reasonable levels, 8085 dB(A), employees should wear protective gears, ear plugs/muffs being the most common, and have periodical medical reviews. Prior to taking any actions it is recommended that a noise study, with measurement of noise levels in all places where high noise values are to be expected, be undertaken.

5.4.2 Recovery of CO2 from Gas Cracking Plant

In some industries, CO2 that is formed at the cracking plant is released in the air. Normally, edible oil mills recover this CO2 and confine it into cylinders to be sold to other industries. According to the information received from other mills, it is profitable enough to payback the initial investment.

5.5.3 Improvement of Working Conditions at the Tin Shop

Following recommendations can be made to improve the working conditions of workers at the tin shop: Provide them with appropriate gloves to avoid injuries caused by the sharp tin foils. Provide employees with welding goggles when working in spark welding section. Provide the tin shop building with forced ventilation to improve inside air quality. Provide employees with masks when working in melted tin welding section.

5.4.3 Optimisation of Combustion at Boiler

A monitoring system for the exhaust gases is required to optimise the combustion process. It is recommended to monitor O2, CO and temperature. By monitoring O2 and temperature and controlling combustion according to the measured values it is possible to optimise combustion. For this purpose, measuring equipment connected to a control device should be installed. This will avoid having too little air during combustion (lack of oxygen), and thus high values of CO and unburned compounds (low combustion efficiency) and will also avoid too much air into the boiler, which means that the heat is blown out of the boiler and, therefore, lost. It is also important to measure CO. Concentrations of CO above 0.1% v-v are dangerous because of an explosion risk. Modern boilers are provided with a CO measuring device connected to an alarm and emergency stop system. There are more refined methods to optimise combustion, as low NOx emission burners, but these can be considered once the basic improvements have been made.

5.5.4 Use of Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) of Raw Products

The MSDS contain information such as a complete list of risks of the product, as well as indications about how to proceed in case of any incident/accident that may occur. These sheets are very useful for industrial customers to take proper measures when storing, handling and using the product. Furthermore, the MSDS can be used to make working instructions for workers about storing, handling and use of products.

5.6 Energy
There are good possibilities for increasing efficiency in the use of energy in edible oil mill. Any improvement in energy efficiency has the following advantages: Savings of money, as less natural gas or electricity is consumed. Savings of limited natural resources, as the fuels required to produce the saved energy will be saved too. Air emission reduction, as less natural gas will be burnt.

5.5 Safety and Health (S&H)

Some recommendations about S&H have been developed and are presented below:

5.5.1 Exhaust Combustion Gases out of Gas Cracking Building

In the cracking unit, natural gas is burned inside the gas cracker to provide the necessary heat for cracking reaction. The exhaust gases coming from the natural gas combustion are evacuated at the top of the gas cracker inside the building and thus affect the working conditions. It is recommended that a stack be installed that takes the exhaust gases outside the building.

Some recommendations for improvement in energy efficiency are discussed in the following sections.

5.6.1 Recovery of Heat from Cooling Water Used during Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation is an exothermic reaction, therefore, cooling water is required to keep the temperature under control. By using boiler quality water at the cooling system of the autoclave, it is possible to send the outlet of the cooling water to the feed water tank of the boiler. In this way, the energy content of the hot water can save natural gas and money.

5.5.2 Improvement of Noise Abatement and Protection

There are three main measures that can be taken in order to minimise noise nuisance to workers:

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The amount of natural gas that can be saved per ton of boiler feed water (at 90C instead of normal intake water temperature of 30C) is approx. 7.6 Nm3.

5.6.4 Improvement of Steam Pipes Insulation

The steam distribution system needs to be properly insulated. Pipes without insulation or with partly damaged insulation result in energy losses, which means not only loss of valuable resource but also higher air emissions than necessary.

5.6.2 Pre-heating of Incoming Oil with Outgoing Oil at Hydrogenation

Oil is heated up with steam before hydrogenation, and is cooled down with water after hydrogenation. This results first in energy consumption and wastage afterwards. There is a more efficient way to perform the same process i.e. heating incoming oil with outgoing hydrogenated oil, as shown in Figure 5.4. The installation is provided with a steam heater placed after the oil-oil heat exchanger to supply any additional required heating. The same is done with the hydrogenated oil, by placing a cooler after the oil-oil heat exchanger to cool it down further. This would also reduce the amount of cooling water required. Assuming the temperatures that are shown in the figure, approx. 6 % of total annual natural gas consumption and approx. 2% of total annual water consumption can be saved. The cost of a plate exchanger of this characteristics is around Rs 350,000, plus installation cost (piping, valves, etc.), which means that the investment would have a payback period of less than 12 months.

5.6.5 Increasing Temperature during Deodorization

It is recommended to perform deodorization at 235-245oC to reduce the process duration as well as oil losses during deodorization.

5.6.6 Installation of a Cogeneration Plant

Producing electricity by means of cogeneration plants has several advantages, both economical and environmental, not only for the industry, but also for the country. Some advantages for the industry include: A cogeneration plant is the most efficient way at the moment to produce energy, as heat and power generated are near the facility and both are used in the process. This means a reduction in the energy cost for the industry. With cogeneration, the industry has a secure power source, avoiding stops in production due to power failure. In this case, the power from the grid is only consumed in case of failure or maintenance stop of the cogeneration plant. Normally the heat requirements exceed the power requirements of the factory, there is generally a surplus electricity which can be sold to nearby industries, translating into extra income for the company. Energy efficiency of cogeneration means savings of limited natural resources (fuel) of the country. Energy efficiency means less air emissions due to less fossil fuel combustion.

Figure 5.4: Proposed system for Pre-heating of Incoming oil with outgoing oil at Hydrogenation
Steam

HYDROGENATION
Hydrogenated Oil O 170 C 160 C
O

150 C

TANK

Heat Exchanger 90 C
O

100 C 90O C To PostNeutralization 90 C

O

The main disadvantages of a cogeneration plant are the large investment cost and the intensive maintenance care required for them. The two main schemes of a typical cogeneration plant are: a) Cogeneration with gas turbine b) Cogeneration with an alternative motor: In principle, according to energy requirements of different processes, cogeneration with alternative motors is more suitable than with gas turbine. Provided that the industry is allowed to sell surplus electricity to nearby industries, the typical payback period for cogeneration plants is between 3 to 5 years. Investment cost of a cogeneration plant, using alternative motors, can vary from Rs 30,000 to Rs 35,000 per installed kW.

Incoming Oil Cooling Water 30 C

O

Filter Press

5.6.3 Pre-heating of Incoming Oil with Outgoing Oil at Deodorization

The same system that has been described for hydrogenation can be used for deodorization. Assuming the temperatures that are shown in the figure approximately 7% of saving on annual natural gas consumption and approximately 5% of total water consumption can be saved.

5.7 General Recommendations

Some recommendations for an overall improvement in the processes which would subsequently improve the quality of products and working environment, are discussed below:

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5.7.1 Inert Atmosphere after Deodorization

When the deodorised oil is subjected to the de-cooler which is not maintained with inert atmosphere (absence of oxygen), oxygen from air enters the oil and facilitates oxidation reactions causing formation of odoriferous compounds. Therefore, it is recommended to have N2 blanketing after deodorization till filling and packing which will result in prolonged stability and taste of the finished product. It will also result in the reduction of the moisture content entrained in the oil.

5.7.4 Environmental Management Systems (EMS)

It is time for the Pakistani industry to start considering environmental management aspects into the general strategy and management of companies. First steps that could be taken in this regard are: Identification of all environmental impacts of the industry Collection of legislation that affects the company Comparison of environmental situation of the company with the legislation and, if necessary, identification of measures to improve the environmental situation and to comply legislation. Implementation of measures to improve the environmental situation and to comply with legislation. Awareness of top management of the company about the importance of environmental aspects in terms of: Image and reputation of the company Elimination of potential risks for the company (fines, court actions, etc.) Impact on business of accidents and failures Cost savings as a result of better environmental performance Competitiveness Jumping over international trade barriers based on environmental performances, etc. Appointment of an environmental manager or coordinator Training and awareness improvement of all personnel, so that environment becomes a new aspect to be considered in any decision making process (design of new products, changing of processes or utilities, changing of legislation, etc.)

5.7.2 Covering of Lye Preparation Area

Lye to be used in pre- and post-neutralisation is prepared in some tanks placed on the ground floor, manually by skilled employees. These tanks are not covered to provide protection from the sunlight, rain-water, or harsh weather. Adverse weather conditions can affect their capability to prepare a good lye, thus affecting the quality of the neutralisation process. Moreover, this method of handling poses serious occupational health and safety dangers. For this reason, it is recommended to cover this area. An investment of a few thousands rupees will improve the lye preparation conditions. It is also recommended that the management should arrange for proper information dissemination through posters etc., indicating standard working instructions in the area.

5.7.3 Insulation of Chilling Room's Doors

In chilling rooms the final product is stored before dispatch. These chilling rooms are insulated to avoid heat transmission and to save energy, but in some industries the doors of the room are normal wooden doors. A minor improvement, with a little cost, would be to provide the chilling rooms with a double foiled door with an inner chamber, between 2 foils of wood, filled with insulation material. The investment required for providing the chilling rooms with insulated doors would be promptly paid back by means of energy savings.

Consideration of all these points is the first steps for the introduction of environmental management as a part of the general management programme of the company. A further step is to organise everything into a system, which means to start the implementation of an EMS (according to ISO or any other official standard).

References
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. A. Karleskind, Oil and Fats Manual, Volume 1, 184, (1996) B. Braaee, J. Am Oil Chem. Soc. 53, 353 (1976) D. Barnes, P. Bliss, B. Gould and H. Vallentine, Water and Wastewater Engineering Systems, Pitman (1981) D. Gunn and R. Horton, Industrial Boilers (1988). E. R. Sherwin, J. Am. Oil Chemists Soc., 55, 809814 (1978) E.A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III (eds.) Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th Edition (1987). Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, pp 728, (1983) G.T. Austin, Shreves Chemical Process, Industries, 5th Edition McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1962). 9. 10. J. Davidson, E.J. Better, A. Davidson, Soap Manufacture Volume - 1 Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York. J.W. Bodman, E.M. James, and S.J. Rini in K.S. Markley, Ed., Soyabeans and Soyabeans Products, Volume - 2, Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 1951, Chapter-17. J.W. E. Coenen, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 53, 382 (1976) L.I. Pinkers, Practical Boiler Water Treatment, Including Air Conditioning Systems (1962). McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 7th Edition (1983). Metcalf & Eddy, Wastewater Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 3rd edition (1991). Moe, Chemical Engineering Program, 58 (3), 33 (1962). Tomas H. and Applewhite in Bailys Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Volume - 3 4th Edition Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1982, Chap-4.

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

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