Radioss Theory Manual: 10.0 Version - January 2009 Large Displacement Finite Element Analysis

RADIOSS THEORY MANUAL
10.0 version January 2009 Large Displacement Finite Element Analysis PART 2
Altair Engineering, Inc., World Headquarters: 1820 E. Big Beaver Rd., Troy MI 48083-2031 USA Phone: +1.248.614.2400 Fax: +1.248.614.2411 www.altair.com info@altair.com
RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
6.0 KINEMATIC CONSTRAINTS
6.1 RIGID BODY
6.1.1 RIGID BODY MASS 6.1.2 RIGID BODY INERTIA 6.1.3 RIGID BODY FORCE AND MOMENT COMPUTATION 6.1.4 TIME INTEGRATION 6.1.5 RIGID BODY BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
5
5
5 6 7 8 8
6.2 TIED INTERFACE (TYPE 2)

6.2.1 SPOTWELD FORMULATION 6.2.2 FORMULATION FOR SEARCH OF CLOSEST MASTER SEGMENT
8
9 13
6.3 RIGID WALL

6.3.1 FIXED RIGID WALL 6.3.2 MOVING RIGID WALL 6.3.3 SLAVE NODE PENETRATION 6.3.4 RIGID WALL IMPACT FORCE
16
16 16 17 18
6.4 RIGID LINK 6.5 SECTION
18 19
7.0 LINEAR STABILTY

7.1 GENERAL THEORY OF LINEAR STABILITY
22
23
8.0 INTERFACES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.1.1 LAGRANGE MULTIPLIER METHOD 8.1.2 PENALTY METHOD
26
26
27 28
8.2 INTERFACE OVERVIEW

8.2.1 SURFACE (SEGMENT) DEFINITION
28
30
8.3 TIED INTERFACE (TYPE 2) 8.4 AUTO CONTACTS

8.4.1 INTRODUCTION 8.4.2 MODELING OF CONTACTS 8.4.3 ALGORITHMS OF SEARCH FOR IMPACT CANDIDATES 8.4.4 CONTACT PROCESSING 8.4.5 CONTACT DETECTION
30 31
31 31 33 36 37
8.5 TYPE 3 - SOLID AND SHELL ELEMENT CONTACT - NO GAP

8.5.1 LIMITATIONS 8.5.2 COMPUTATION ALGORITHM 8.5.3 INTERFACE STIFFNESS 8.5.4 INTERFACE FRICTION 8.5.5 INTERFACE GAP 8.5.6 INTERFACE FAILURE EXAMPLES
39
39 40 40 42 44 44
8.6 TYPE 5 - GENERAL PURPOSE CONTACT

8.6.1 LIMITATIONS 8.6.2 COMPUTATION ALGORITHM 8.6.3 INTERFACE STIFFNESS 8.6.4 INTERFACE FRICTION 8.6.5 INTERFACE GAP 8.6.6 INTERFACE ALGORITHM
45
45 46 46 47 48 48
8.7 TYPE 6 - RIGID BODY CONTACT

8.7.1 LIMITATIONS 8.7.2 INTERFACE STIFFNESS 8.7.3 INTERFACE FRICTION 8.7.4 INTERFACE GAP 8.7.5 TIME STEP CALCULATION 8.7.6 CONTACT FORCE
52
52 53 53 53 53 53
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8.8 TYPE 7 - GENERAL PURPOSE CONTACT
8.8.1 LIMITATIONS 8.8.2 INTERFACE STIFFNESS 8.8.3 INTERFACE FRICTION 8.8.4 INTERFACE GAP 8.8.5 TIME STEP 8.8.6 DETECTION AND GAP SIZE 8.8.7 VARIABLE GAP 8.8.8 GAP CORRECTION FOR NODES WITH INITIAL PENETRATION 8.8.9 PENETRATION REACTION 8.8.10 FORCE ORIENTATION 8.8.11 INTERFACE HINTS
CONTENTS
54
54 55 55 57 58 59 59 59 60 61 62
8.9 TYPE 14 - ELLIPSOIDAL SURFACE TO NODE CONTACT

8.9.1 TYPE 14 INTERFACE: HINTS
64
64
8.10 TYPE 15 - ELLIPSOIDAL SURFACE TO SEGMENT CONTACT 8.11 TYPE 16- NODE TO CURVED SURFACE CONTACT 8.12 TYPE 17- GENERAL SURFACE TO SURFACE CONTACT 8.13 SOME COMMON PROBLEMS
8.13.1 INCORRECT NEAREST MASTER NODE FOUND 8.13.2 INCORRECT NEAREST MASTER SEGMENT FOUND - B1 8.13.3 INCORRECT NEAREST MASTER SEGMENT FOUND - B2 8.13.4 INCORRECT NEAREST MASTER SEGMENT FOUND - B3 8.13.5 INCORRECT IMPACT SIDE - C1 8.13.6 NO MASTER NODE IMPACT - D1
65 66 66 67
67 67 68 68 69 69
9.0 MATERIAL LAWS

9.1 ISOTROPIC ELASTIC MATERIAL 9.2 COMPOSITE AND ANISOTROPIC MATERIALS
9.2.1 FABRIC LAW FOR ELASTIC ORTHOTROPIC SHELLS (LAWS 19 AND 58) 9.2.2 NONLINEAR PSEUDO-PLASTIC ORTHOTROPIC SOLIDS (LAWS 28, 50 AND 68) 9.2.3 HILLS LAW FOR ORTHOTROPIC PLASTIC SHELLS 9.2.4 ELASTIC-PLASTIC ORTHOTROPIC COMPOSITE SHELLS 9.2.5 ELASTIC-PLASTIC ORTHOTROPIC COMPOSITE SOLIDS 9.2.6 ELASTIC-PLASTIC ANISOTROPIC SHELLS (BARLATS LAW)
72
74 76
76 79 82 83 93 97
9.3 ELASTO-PLASTICITY OF ISOTROPIC MATERIALS

9.3.1 JOHNSON-COOK PLASTICITY MODEL (LAW 2) 9.3.2 ZERILLI-ARMSTRONG PLASTICITY MODEL (LAW 2) 9.3.3 COWPER-SYMONDS PLASTICITY MODEL (LAW44) 9.3.4 ZHAO PLASTICITY MODEL (LAW 48) 9.3.5 TABULATED PIECEWISE LINEAR AND QUADRATIC ELASTO-PLASTIC LAWS (LAWS 36 & 60) 9.3.6 DRUCKER-PRAGER CONSTITUTIVE MODEL (LAWS 10 & 21) 9.3.7 BRITTLE DAMAGE FOR JOHNSON-COOK PLASTICITY MODEL (LAW 27) 9.3.8 BRITTLE DAMAGE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE MATERIALS (LAW 24) 9.3.9 DUCTILE DAMAGE MODEL 9.3.10 DUCTILE DAMAGE MODEL FOR POROUS MATERIALS (GURSON LAW 52)
99
99 103 104 105 106 107 109 110 113 114
9.4 VISCOUS MATERIALS

9.4.1 BOLTZMANN VISCOELASTIC MODEL (LAW 34) 9.4.2 GENERALIZED KELVIN-VOIGT MODEL (LAW 35) 9.4.3 TABULATED STRAIN RATE DEPENDENT LAW FOR VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS (LAW 38) 9.4.4 GENERALIZED MAXWELL-KELVIN MODEL FOR VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS (LAW 40) 9.4.5 VISCO-ELASTO-PLASTIC MATERIALS FOR FOAMS (LAW 33) 9.4.6 HYPER VISCO-ELASTIC LAW FOR FOAMS (LAW 62)
118
121 122 124 127 127 128
9.5 MATERIALS FOR HYDRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

9.5.1 JOHNSON COOK LAW FOR HYDRODYNAMICS (LAW 4) 9.5.2 HYDRODYNAMIC VISCOUS FLUID LAW (LAW 6) 9.5.3 ELASTO-PLASTIC HYDRODYNAMIC MATERIAL (LAW 3) 9.5.4 STEINBERG-GUINAN MATERIAL (LAW 49)
129
129 130 131 132
9.6 VOID MATERIAL (LAW 0) 9.7 FAILURE MODEL

9.7.1 JOHNSON-COOK FAILURE MODEL 9.7.2 WILKINS FAILURE CRITERIA
133 133
133 134
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9.7.3 TULER-BUTCHER FAILURE CRITERIA 9.7.4 FORMING LIMIT DIAGRAM FOR FAILURE (FLD) 9.7.5 SPALLING WITH JOHNSON-COOK FAILURE MODEL 9.7.6 BAO-XUE-WIERZBICKI FAILURE MODEL 9.7.7 STRAIN FAILURE MODEL 9.7.8 SPECIFIC ENERGY FAILURE MODEL 9.7.9 XFEM CRACK INITIALIZATION FAILURE MODEL
CONTENTS
134 134 135 135 136 137 138
10.0 MONITORED VOLUME

10.1 AREA TYPE MONITORED VOLUME 10.2 PRES TYPE MONITORED VOLUME 10.3 GAS TYPE MONITORED VOLUME
10.3.1 THERMODYNAMICAL EQUATIONS 10.3.2 VARIATION OF EXTERNAL WORK 10.3.3 VENTING 10.3.4 SUPERSONIC OUTLET FLOW 10.3.5 GAS TYPE MONITORED VOLUME EXAMPLES
139
140 140 140
141 141 142 143 143
10.4 AIRBAG TYPE MONITORED VOLUME

10.4.1 THERMODYNAMICAL EQUATIONS 10.4.2 ENERGY VARIATION WITHIN A TIME STEP 10.4.3 MASS INJECTION 10.4.4 VENTING: OUTGOING MASS DETERMINATION 10.4.5 POROSITY 10.4.6 INITIAL CONDITIONS 10.4.7 JETTING EFFECT 10.4.8 REFERENCE METRIC 10.4.9 TANK EXPERIMENT
145
145 147 148 149 151 151 151 152 153
10.5 MONITORED VOLUME TYPE COMMU

10.5.1 THERMODYNAMICAL EQUATIONS 10.5.2 VARIATION OF EXTERNAL WORK 10.5.3 MASS INJECTION 10.5.4 VENTING 10.5.5 SUPERSONIC OUTLET FLOW 10.5.6 JETTING EFFECT 10.5.7 REFERENCE METRIC 10.5.8 EXAMPLES OF COMMU TYPE MONITORED VOLUME
154
155 155 155 155 156 156 156 156
11.0 STATIC
11.1 STATIC SOLUTION BY EXPLICIT TIME-INTEGRATION
11.1.1 ACCELERATION CONVERGENCE
161
161
165
11.2 STATIC SOLUTION BY IMPLICIT TIME-INTEGRATION

11.2.1 LINEAR STATIC SOLVER 11.2.2 NONLINEAR STATIC SOLVER
165
166 166
12.0 RADIOSS PARALLELIZATION

12.1 MEASURE OF PERFORMANCE OF A PARALLEL APPLICATION 12.2 SMP : SHARED MEMORY PROCESSORS 12.3 SPMD : SINGLE PROGRAM MULTIPLE DATA
173
173 174 174
13.0 REFERENCES 14.0 APPENDICES

APPENDIX A - CONVERSION TABLES & CONSTANTS APPENDIX B - ME GRNEISEN EQUATION-OF-STATE APPENDIX C - BASIC RELATIONS OF ELASTICITY
177 183
183 188 191
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KINEMATIC CONSTRAINTS
Chapter
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6.0 KINEMATIC CONSTRAINTS

Kinematic constraints are boundary conditions that are placed on nodal velocities. They are mutually exclusive for each degree of freedom (DOF), and there can only be one constraint per DOF. There are seven different types of kinematic constraints that can be applied to a model in RADIOSS: 1. Rigid Body 2. Initial static equilibrium 3. Boundary Condition 4. Tied Interface (Type 2) 5. Rigid Wall 6. Rigid Link 7. Cylindrical Joint Two kinematic conditions applied to the same node may be incompatible.
6.1 Rigid Body

A rigid body is defined by a master node and its associated slave nodes. Mass and inertia may be added to the initial master node location. The master node is then moved to the center of mass, taking into account the master node and all slave node masses. Figure 6.1.1 shows an idealized rigid body.
Figure 6.1.1 Idealized Rigid Body
6.1.1 Rigid body mass

The mass of the rigid body is calculated by:
m = mM + mI
I
EQ. 6.1.1.1
The rigid body's center of mass is defined by:
xG =
mM xM + mI xI m
EQ. 6.1.1.2
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yG =
mM y M + mI y I m mM z M + mI z I m
EQ. 6.1.1.3
zG =
where
EQ. 6.1.1.4
m M is the master node mass

m I are the slave node masses
x G , y G , z G are the coordinates of the mass center.
6.1.2 Rigid body inertia

The six components of inertia of a rigid body are computed by:
M i I xx = J xx + m M ( yM yG ) + (z M zG ) + I xx + m i ( yi yG ) + ( zi zG ) EQ. 6.1.2.1
2 2 2
2
M i I yy = J yy + m M ( xM xG ) + ( z M zG ) + I yy + m i ( xi xG ) + ( zi zG )
2 2 2
) EQ. 6.1.2.2 )
M i I zz = J zz + m M ( xM xG ) + ( yM yG ) + I zz + m i ( xi xG ) + ( yi yG ) EQ. 6.1.2.3
2 2 2
2
M i I xy = J xy + m M ( xM xG ) + ( yM yG ) + I xy mi ( xi xG ) + ( yi yG ) i
EQ. 6.1.2.4
M i I yz = J yz + m M ( yM yG ) + (z M zG ) + I yz mi ( yi yG ) + ( zi zG ) i
EQ. 6.1.2.5
M i I xz = J xz + m M ( xM xG ) + ( z M zG ) + I xz mi ( xi xG ) + (zi zG ) i
) EQ. 6.1.2.6
where I ij is the moment of rotational inertia in the ij direction. J ij is the master node added inertia.
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6.1.3 Rigid body force and moment computation

The forces and moments acting on the rigid body are calculated by:
r r r F = FM + Fi
i
EQ. 6.1.3.1
r r r r r M = M M + M i + Si G F i
i i
EQ. 6.1.3.2
where
r F M is the force vector at the master node r F i is the force vector at the slave nodes r M M is the moment vector at the master node r M i is the moment vector at the slave nodes r G is the vector from slave node to the center of mass
Resolving these into orthogonal components, the linear and rotational acceleration may be computed as: Linear Acceleration
i =
Fi m
EQ. 6.1.3.3
Rotational Acceleration
I11 = M 1 (I 3 I 2 )23
EQ. 6.1.3.4
I 2 2 = M 2 (I1 I 3 )13
EQ. 6.1.3.5
I 3 3 = M 3 (I 2 I1 )12
where Ii are the principal moments of inertia of the rigid body
EQ. 6.1.3.6
i are the rotational accelerations in the principal inertia frame (reference frame) i is the rotational velocity in the principal inertia frame (reference frame)
Mi are the moments in the principal inertia frame (reference frame)
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6.1.4 Time integration

Time integration is performed to find velocities of the rigid body at the master node:
t +
t r t r = t + (t )t 2 2
EQ. 6.1.4.1
t +
t r t r = t + (t )t 2 2
EQ. 6.1.4.2
where v is the linear velocity vector. Rotational velocities are computed in the local reference frame. The velocities of slave nodes are computed by:
i = M + Si Gx
r r
EQ. 6.1.4.3 EQ. 6.1.4.4
i = M
6.1.5 Rigid body boundary conditions

The boundary conditions given to slave nodes are ignored. The rigid body has the boundary conditions given to the master node only. A kinematic condition is applied on each slave node, for all directions. A slave node is not allowed to have any other kinematic conditions. No kinematic condition is applied on the master node. However, the rotational velocities are computed in a local reference frame. This reference frame is not compatible with all options imposing rotation such as imposed velocity, rotational, rigid link... The only exception concerns the rotational boundary conditions for which a special treatment is carried out. Connecting shell, beam or spring with rotation stiffness to the master node, is not yet allowed either.
6.2 Tied Interface (Type 2)

With a tied interface it is possible to connect rigidly a set of slave nodes to a master surface.
A tied interface (Type 2) can be used to connect a fine mesh of Lagrangian elements to a coarse mesh or two different kinds of meshes (for example spring to shell contacts).
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Figure 6.2.1 Fine and coarse mesh
A master and a slave surface are defined in the interface input cards. The contact between the two surfaces is tied. No sliding or movement of the slave nodes is allowed on the master surface. There are no voids present either. It is recommended that the master surface has a coarser mesh. Accelerations and velocities of the master nodes are computed with forces and masses added from the slave nodes. Kinematic constraint is applied on all slave nodes. They remain at the same position on their master segments. Tied interfaces are useful in rivet modeling, where they are used to connect springs to a shell or solid mesh.
6.2.1 Spotweld formulation

The slave node is rigidly connected to the master surface. Two formulations are available to describe this connection: - Default formulation - Optimized formulation
6.2.1.1 Default spotweld formulation SPOTflag=0

When the flag is set to 0, the spotweld formulation is a default formulation: - based on element shape functions. - generating hourglass with under integrated elements. - providing a connection stiffness function of slave node localization. - recommended with full integrated shells (master). - recommended for connecting brick slave nodes to brick master segments (mesh transition without rotational freedom). Forces and moments transfer from slave to master nodes is described in the Figure 6.2.2. :
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Figure 6.2.2 Default tied Interface (Type 2)
The mass of the slave node is transferred to the master nodes using the position of the projection on the segment and linear interpolation functions:
i i mmaster = mmaster + mslave i (p)
EQ. 6.2.1.1
where p denotes the position of the slave point and equations.
is the weight function obtained by the interpolation
Figure 6.2.3 Transfer of slave node efforts to the master nodes (SPOTflag=0)
S: mslave M: mislave
h
Fn S
F Ft Fn * i(P) Ft * i(P)
M * i(P)
The inertia of the slave node is also transferred to the master nodes by taking into account the distance d between the slave node and the mater surface:
i i I master = I master + I slave + mslave d 2 i (p)
EQ. 6.2.1.2
The term
mslave d 2 may increase the total inertia of the model especially when the slave node is far from the
master surface. The stability conditions are written on the master nodes:
K master = K master + K slave i (p)

rotation rotation rotation K master = K master + K slave + K slave d 2 i (p)
EQ. 6.2.1.3
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10
The dynamic equilibrium of each master node is then studied and the nodal accelerations are computed. Then the velocities at master nodes can be obtained and updated to compute the velocity of the projected point P by the following expressions:
translation VPtranslation = Vmaster i ( p) i i
EQ. 6.2.1.4
rotation VProtation = Vmaster i i ( p) i
EQ. 6.2.1.4
The velocity of the slave node is then obtained:

translatio n V slave = V Ptranslatio n + V Protation PS rotation Vslave = VProtation
EQ. 6.2.1.5
With this formulation, the added inertia may be very large especially when the slave node is far from the mean plan of the master element.
6.2.1.2 Optimized spotweld formulation SPOTflag=1

When the flag is set to 1, the spotweld formulation is an optimized formulation: - based on element mean rigid motion (i.e. without exciting deformation modes) - having no hourglass problem. - having constant connection stiffness. - recommended with under integrated shells (master) - recommended for connecting beam, spring and shell slave nodes to brick master segments. This spotweld formulation is optimized for spotwelds or rivets. The slave node is joined to the master segment barycenter as shown in Figure 6.2.4. Figure 6.2.4 Relation between slave node and master node
Forces and moments transfer from slave to master nodes is described in Figure 6.2.5. The force applied at the slave node S is redistributed uniformly to the master nodes. In this way, only translational mode is excited. The moment M + CS F is redistributed to the master nodes by four forces Fi such that:
r Fi A CM i
EQ. 6.2.1.6
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11
CM
i
Fi = M + CS F
where
r A is the normal vector to the segment.

Figure 6.2.5 Optimized tied Interface (Type 2)
Fn S P C Fn / 4 Ft / 4 F3 S M C M+F^CS F1
F Ft
F4
F2
In this formulation the mass of the slave node is equally distributed to the master nodes. In conformity with effort transmission as described in 6.2.1.2, the spherical inertia is computed with respect to the center of the master element C:
Slave IC = I Slave + m Slave .d 2
EQ. 6.2.1.7
where d is distance from the slave node to the center of element. In order to insure the stability condition without reduction in the time step, the inertia of the slave node is transferred to the master nodes by an equivalent nodal mass computed by:
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12
m =
Slave
+m I
Slave
Yi 2 + Z i 2 .d , with I = X iYi i =1,..4 X i Zi

2
X iYi 2 2 X i + Zi Yi Z i
X i Zi Yi Z i 2 2 X i + Yi
EQ. 6.2.1.8
For this reason the formulation causes an increase of mass which may become very important especially when the node is far from the mean surface of the master shell element.
6.2.2 Formulation for search of closest master segment

The master segment is found via 2 formulations: - Old formulation - New improved formulation
6.2.2.1 Old search of closest master segment formulation Isearch=1

When the flag is set to 1, the search of closest master segment was based on the old formulation: A box with a side equal to dsearch (input) is built to search the master node contained within this box. Figure 6.2.6 Old search of closest master segment
The distance between each master node in the box and the slave node is computed. The master node giving the minimum distance (dmin) is retained. The segment is chosen with the selected node, (if the selected node belongs to 2 segments, one is selected at random).
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13
Figure 6.2.7 Old search of closest master segment
d2 < d1
m3 is chosen
m1
m2 d1
S d2 m3 m4
6.2.2.2 New improved search of closest master segment formulation Isearch=2

When the flag is set to 2, the search of closest master segment is based on the new improved formulation; a box including the master surface is built. The dichotomy principle is applied to this box as long as the box contains only one master node and as long as the box side is equal to dsearch. Figure 6.2.8 New improved search of closest master segment Nearest Master node Nearest Master segment
Slave node
To compute the minimum distance, dmin, we have two solutions: 1- The slave node is an internal node for the master segment, as shown in Figure 6.2.9. The slave node is projected orthogonally on the master segment to give a distance that may be compared with other distances. Select the minimum distance:
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Figure 6.2.9 Orthogonal projection on the master segment
slave node m2 d m1 m3 m4
The segment that provides the minimum distance is chosen for the following computation. 2- The slave node is a node external to the master segment, as shown in Figure 6.2.10. The distance selected is that between the slave node and the nearest master node. Figure 6.2.10 .Nearest master node
slave node d m3 m2 m1 m4
The segment is chosen using the selected node, (if the selected node belongs to 2 segments, one is chosen at random).
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15
6.3 Rigid Wall

Four types of rigid walls are available in RADIOSS: 1. Infinite Plane 2. Infinite Cylinder with Diameter D 3. Sphere with Diameter D 4. Parallelogram Each wall can be fixed or moving. A kinematic condition is applied on each impacted slave node. Therefore, a slave node cannot have another kinematic condition unless these conditions are applied in orthogonal directions.
6.3.1 Fixed rigid wall

A fixed wall is a pure kinematic option on all impacted slave nodes. It is defined using two points, M and M1. These define the normal, as shown in Figure 6.3.1. Figure 6.3.1 Fixed Rigid Wall Definition
6.3.2 Moving rigid wall

A moving rigid wall is defined by a node number, N, and a point, M1. This allows a normal to be calculated, as shown in Figure 6.3.2. The motion of node N can be specified with fixed velocity or with an initial velocity. For simplification, an initial velocity and a mass may be given at the wall definition level.
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Figure 6.3.2 .Moving Rigid Wall Definition
A moving wall is a master slave option. Master node defines the wall position at each time step and imposes velocity on impacted slave nodes. Impacted slave node forces are applied to the master node. The slave node forces are computed with momentum conservation. The mass of the slave nodes is not transmitted to the master node, assuming a large rigid wall mass compared to the impacted slave node mass.
6.3.3 Slave node penetration

Slave node penetration must be checked. Figure 6.3.3 shows how penetration is checked. Figure 6.3.3 .Slave Node Penetration
If penetration occurs, a new velocity must be computed. This new velocity is computed using one of three possible situations. These are: 1. Sliding 2. Sliding with Friction 3. Tied For a node which is allowed to slide along the face of the rigid wall, the new velocity V is given by:
v r r rr V =V V n n
( )
EQ. 6.3.3.1
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17
A friction coefficient can be applied between a sliding node and the rigid wall. The friction models are developed in section 8.6.4. For a node that is defined as tied, once the slave node contacts the rigid wall, its velocity is the same as that of the wall. The node and the wall are tied. Hence:
v V = 0
EQ. 6.3.3.2
6.3.4 Rigid wall impact force

The force exerted by nodes impacting onto a rigid wall is found by calculating the impulse by:
N r r v N r I = Fi t = mi Vi W i=I i=I
EQ. 6.3.4.1
where N is the number of penetrated slave nodes
r W is the wall velocity

The force can then be calculated by the rate of change in the impulse:
r r dI F= dt
EQ. 6.3.4.2
6.4 Rigid Link

A rigid link imposes the same velocity on all slave nodes in one or more directions. The directions are defined to a skew or global frame. Figure 6.4.1 displays a rigid link. Figure 6.4.1 .Rigid Link Model
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18
The velocity of the group of nodes rigidly linked together is computed using momentum conservation (EQ. 6.5.0.1.). However, no global moment equilibrium is respected.
Vi =
m v
i =i N
i i
m
i =i
EQ. 6.4.0.1
Angular velocity for the ith DOF with respect to the global or a skew reference frame is:
n i i I j j j =1 i = N I ij j =1
For non-coincident nodes, no rigid body motion is possible. A rigid link is equivalent to an infinitely stiff spring type 8.
EQ. 6.4.0.2
6.5 Section
A section is a cut in the structure where forces and moments will be computed and stored in output files. It is defined by: A cutting plane A reference point to compute forces A direction of the section. Figure 6.5.1 Definition of a section for an oriented solid
M F
In RADIOSS the cutting plane is defined by a group of elements and its orientation by a group of nodes as shown in Figure 6.5.2.
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19
Figure 6.5.2 Definition of a section for a shell mesh
Then, a point is defined for the center of rotation of the section and a reference frame is attached to this point to compute the internal efforts. Figure 6.5.3 Center of rotation and its associated frame for a section
The resultant of all forces applied to the elements and its application point are computed by:
F = fi M = mi + ON i f i
EQ. 6.5.0.1 EQ. 6.5.0.2
Figure 6.5.4 Resultant of force and moment for a node I w.r.t the rotation point O
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Chapter
LINEAR STABILITY
LINEAR STABILITY
7.0 LINEAR STABILTY

The stability of solution concerns the evolution of a process subjected to small perturbations. A process is considered to be stable if small perturbations of initial data result in small changes in the solution. The theory of stability can be applied to a variety of computational problems. The numerical stability of the time integration schemes is widely discussed in section 4.1.6. Here, the stability of an equilibrium state for an elastic system is studied. The material stability will be presented in an upcoming version of this manual. The stability of an equilibrium state is of considerable interest. It is determined by examining whether perturbations applied to that equilibrium state grow. A famous example of stable and unstable cases is often given in the literature. It concerns a ball deposited on three kinds of surfaces as shown in Figure 7.0.1. Figure 7.0.1 Schematic presentation of stability
(a) Stable
(b) Unstable
(c) Neutral
It is clear that the state (b) represents an unstable case since a small change in the position of the ball results the rolling either to the right or to the left. It is worthwhile to mention here that stability and equilibrium notions are quite different. A system in static equilibrium may be in unstable state and a system in evolution is not necessary unstable. A good understanding of the stability of equilibrium can be obtained by studying the load-deflection curves. A typical behavior of a structure in buckling is given in Figure 7.0.2. The load-deflection curves are slightly different for systems with and without imperfection. In the first case, the structure is loaded until the bifurcation point B corresponding to the first critical load level. Then, two solutions are mathematically acceptable: response without buckling (BA), response after buckling (BC). In the case of structures with imperfection, no bifurcation point is observed. The behavior before buckling is not linear and the turning point D is the limit point in which the slope of the curve changes sign. If the behavior before buckling is linear or the nonlinearity before the limit point is not high, the linear stability technique can be used to determine the critical load. The method is based on the perturbation of the equilibrium state. As the perturbations are small, the linearized model is used. The method is detailed in the following section. Figure 7.0.2 Bifurcation and limit points in load-deflection curves for system with and without imperfections B: Bifurcation point, D: Limit point
PCr PS
B D Without imperfection C With imperfection
Displacement
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LINEAR STABILITY
7.1 General theory of linear stability

The principle of virtual power and the minimum of total potential energy are the variational mathematical models largely used in Finite Element Method. Under small-perturbations assumption these notions can be applied to the equilibrium state in order to study the stability of the system. Consider the example of the ball on the three kinds of surfaces as shown in Figure 7.0.1. If is the total potential energy, the equilibrium is obtained by:
= 0
=>
Static equilibrium
EQ.7.1.0.1
Applying a small perturbation to the equilibrium state, the variation of the total potential energy can be written as:
(t + t ) = (t ) + 2
Where
EQ.7.1.0.2
is the second variation of the potential energy. Then, the three cases can be distinguished: => => Stable (case a) The energy increases around the equilibrium state. Unstable (case b) The energy decreases around the equilibrium state. Neutral stability (case c) EQ.7.1.0.5 EQ.7.1.0.4 EQ.7.1.0.3
2 > 0
2 < 0
=> =>
2 = 0
=> =>
The energy remains unchanged around the equilibrium state.
The last case is used to compute the critical loads:
2 = 2 int + 2 ext = 0
EQ.7.1.0.6
Where, the indices int and ext denote the interval and external parts of the total potential energy. After the application of the application of finite element method, the stability equation in a discrete form can be written as:
e 2 = 2 int + 2 e ext = 0 n n
EQ.7.1.0.7
2 e ext =
e 2 int =
0 Se
X {f } dS
n
0 e
EQ.7.1.0.8
Ve0
([E ][S ] + [E ][S ]) dV
EQ.7.1.0.9
Where e designate element and:
{ f n } : vector of the external forces

X
: virtual displacement vector
[E ] : Green-Lagrange strain tensor

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LINEAR STABILITY
[S ] : Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor

The equation EQ.7.1.0.9 is written as a function of X, the displacement between the initial configuration C and the critical state C . If X L and S L are the linear response obtained after application the load f L in the initial configuration C , in linear theory of stability we suppose that the solution in proportional to the linear response:
0
t
0
C t for the critical load f cr is
{X cr } = {X L }
{Scr } = {S L } {Fcr } = {FL }
If we admit that the loading does not depend on the deformation state, the hypothesis part, we have: EQ.7.1.0.10
2 ext = 0 is then true. ] for the nonlinear Using EQ. 2.4.2.6 and denoting [e] for the linear part of Green-Lagrange strain tensor and [
{E} = {e}+ { }
Putting this equation in EQ.7.1.0.9, we obtain:
EQ.7.1.0.11
2 e ext =
Or Where k
V0e
( e [C ]{e}+ ( [C ]{e}+
L
e [C ][ L ] + S { 2 E})) dVe0
EQ.7.1.0.12
2 e ext = X
([k ] + ([ku ( X L )] + [k ])){X }
EQ.7.1.0.13
[]
is the stiffness matrix, ku
stiffness matrix and C the elastic matrix. The linear theory of stability allows estimating the critical loads and their associated modes by resolving an eigenvalue problem:
[ ]
[ ]
the initial displacement matrix, k
[ ]
initial stress or geometrical
([K ] + ([K u ] + [K ])){X } = 0

0
EQ.7.10.14
Linear stability assumes the linearity of behavior before buckling. If a system is highly nonlinear in the neighbourhood of the initial state C , moderate perturbations may lead to unstable growth. In addition, if case of path-dependent materials the use of method is not conclusive from an engineering point of view. However, the method is simple and provides generally good estimations of limit points. The resolution procedure consists in two main steps. First, the linear solution for the equilibrium of the system under the application of the load {FL } is obtained. Then, EQ.7.10.14 is resolved to compute the first desired critical loads and modes. The methods to compute the eigen values are those explained in section 4.2.
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Chapter
INTERFACES
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8.0 INTERFACES
8.1 Introduction
Interfaces solve the contact and impact conditions between two parts of a model. Contact-impact problems are among the most difficult nonlinear problems to solve as they introduce discontinuities in the velocity time histories. Prior to the contact, the normal velocities of the two bodies which come into contact are not equal, while after impact the normal velocities must be consistent with the impenetrability condition. In the same way, the tangential velocities along interfaces are discontinuous when stick-slip behavior occurs in friction models. These discontinuities in time complicate the integration of governing equations and influence performance of numerical methods. Central to the contact-impact problem is the condition of impenetrability. This condition states that bodies in contact cannot overlap or that their intersection remains empty. The difficulty with the impenetrability condition is that it cannot be expressed in terms of displacements as it is not possible to anticipate which parts of the bodies will come into contact. For this reason, it is convenient to express the impenetrability condition in a rate form at each cycle of the process. This condition can be written as:
A B N = vN vN 0
EQ. 8.1.0.1
on the contact surface C common to the two bodies.

A B vN and v N are respectively the normal velocities in the two bodies in contact. N is the rate of
interpenetration. EQ. 8.1.0.1 simply expresses that when two bodies are in contact, they must either remain in contact and N = 0 , or they must separate and N < 0 . On the other hand, the tractions must observe the balance of momentum across the contact interface. This requires that the sum of the tractions on the two bodies vanish:
A B tN + tN =0
EQ. 8.1.0.2
Normal tractions are assumed compressive, which can be stated as:

A B tN = tN = t N <0
EQ. 8.1.0.3
EQ 8.1.0.1 and EQ. 8.1.0.2 can be combined in a single equation stating that t N N = 0 . This condition simply expresses that the contact forces do not create work. If the two bodies are in contact, the interpenetration rate vanishes. On the other hand, if the two bodies are separated N < 0 but the surface tractions vanish. As a result, the product of the surface tractions and the interpenetration rate disappear in all cases. If we notice that the impenetrability condition is expressed as an inequality constraint, the condition:
tN N = 0
EQ. 8.1.0.4
can also be seen as the Kuhn-Tucker condition associated with the optimization problem consisting in minimizing the total energy (EQ. 2.10.0.5) subject to the inequality constraint 8.1.0.1. In practice, the solution to a contact problem entails in three steps: First, it is necessary to find for each point those points in the opposite body which will possibly come into contact. This is the geometrical recognition phase. The second phase is to check whether or not the bodies are in contact and, if the bodies are in contact, if they are sticking or slipping. This step makes uses of the geometrical information computed in the first phase. The last step will be to compute a satisfactory state of contact.
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INTERFACES
The geometrical recognition phase is dependent on the type of interface. This will be discussed below in parallel with the description of interfaces. On the other hand, structural problems with contact-impact conditions lead to constrained optimization problems in which the objective function to be minimized is the virtual power subject to the contact-impact conditions. There are conventionally two approaches to solving such mathematical programming problems: the Lagrange multiplier method the Penalty method. Both of two methods are used in RADIOSS.
8.1.1 Lagrange Multiplier Method

Lagrange multipliers can be used to find the extremum of a multivariate function f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) subject to the set containing the constraint curve, and g 0 at any point on the curve (where is the gradient). To find the extremum, we write: constraint g ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) = 0 , where f and g are functions with continuous first partial derivatives on the open
df =
f f f dx1 + dx2 + ... + dxn = 0 x1 x2 xn
EQ. 8.1.1.1
But, because g is being held constant, it is also true that
dg =
g g g dx1 + dx2 + ... + dxn = 0 x1 x2 xn
EQ. 8.1.1.2
So multiply EQ. 8.1.1.2 by the as yet undetermined parameter
and add to EQ. 8.1.1.2,

EQ. 8.1.1.3
f f f g g g x + x dx1 + x + x dx2 + ... + x + x dxn = 0 1 2 n 1 2 n
Note that the differentials are all independent, so any combination of them can be set equal to 0 and the remainder must still give zero. This requires that
f g x + x k k g 2 = 0 , ...,
dxk = 0
EQ. 8.1.1.4
for all k = 1, ..., n, and the constant
is
called the Lagrange multiplier. For multiple constraints,
g1 = 0 ,
f = 1g1 + 2g 2 + ...
EQ. 8.1.1.5
The Lagrange multiplier method can be applied to contact-impact problems. In this case, the multivariate function is the expression of total energy subjected to the contact conditions:
&, & &) f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) ( x, x x &, & &) = 0 g (x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) Q(x, x x
EQ. 8.1.1.6 EQ. 8.1.1.7
&, & & are the global vectors of d.o.f. The application of Lagrange multiplier method to the previous where x, x x equations gives the weak form as:
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& + f int f ext + L = 0 M& x
with Lx = b This leads to:
INTERFACES
EQ. 8.1.1.8 EQ. 8.1.1.9
K L
LT x f = 0 0
EQ. 8.1.1.10
The Lagrange multipliers are physically interpreted as surface tractions. The equivalence of the modified virtual power principle with the momentum equation, the traction boundary conditions and the contact conditions (impenetrability and surface tractions) can be easily demonstrated [28]. It is emphasized that the above weak form is an inequality. In the discretized form, the Lagrange multiplier fields will be discretized and the restriction of the normal surface traction to be compressive will result from constraints on the trial set of Lagrange multipliers.
8.1.2 Penalty method

In the solution of constrained optimization problems, penalty methods consist in replacing the constrained optimization problem with a sequence of unconstrained optimization problems. The virtual power continues to be minimized so as to find the stationary condition, but a penalty term is added to EQ. 2.10.0.5 so as to impose the impenetrability condition:
Q = ( N )d
c
EQ. 8.1.2.1
where
( N ) = 0 ( N ) > 0
if if
N =0 N <0
is an arbitrary parameter known as the penalty parameter. The penalty function is an arbitrary function of the interpenetration and its rate. It is emphasized that the weak form including the virtual power and the penalty term EQ. 8.1.2.1 is not an inequality form. The penalty function will be defined in the description of interfaces.
8.2 Interface overview

There are several different interface types available in RADIOSS. A brief overview of the different types and their applications is shown below.
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INTERFACES
Interface Descriptions
Type Description
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 Tied contact (boundary) between an ALE part and a Lagrangian part. Tied contact. Used to simulate impacts and contacts on shell and solid elements. Surfaces should be simply convex. Used to simulate impacts and contacts between a master surface and a list of slave nodes. Best suited for beam, truss and spring impacts on a surface. Used to simulate impacts and contacts between two rigid surfaces. A general interface that removes the limitations of types 3 and 5.
Drawbead contact for stamping applications
ALE lagrange with void opening and free surface. Tied after impact with or without rebound. Edge to edge or line to line impact. Connects 2 fluid meshes with free, tied or periodic options ALE or EULER or LAG/ ALE or EULER or LAG. Ellipsoidal surfaces to nodes contact. Ellipsoidal surfaces to segments contact.
Each of these interfaces was developed for a specific application field. However, this application field is not the only selection criteria. Some limitations of the different algorithms used in each interface can also determine the choice. The algorithm limitations concern mainly the search of the impacted segment. This search may be performed directly (type 7, 10, 11 interfaces), or via a search of the nearest node (type 3, 5, 6 interfaces). Apart from the limitation of the nearest node search, some limitations exist for the choice between the segments connected to the nearest node. These limitations are the same for type 3, 5 and 6 interfaces. Type 3, 5 and 6 interfaces also have some limitations due to the orientation of the normal segment. Type 7 interface was written to emulate type 3 and 5 interfaces without algorithm limitations. With this interface, each node can impact one or more segments, on both sides, on the edges or on the corners of the segments. The only limitation to this interface concerns high impact speed and/or small gap. For these situations the interface will continue to work properly, but the time step can decrease dramatically. Types 3, 5 and 7 interfaces are compatible with all RADIOSS kinematic options. Type 1 interface is special option used with solid elements to provide mesh transition. Type 1 interface is used to connect a Lagrangian and an A.L.E. mesh Type 2 interface is used to connect a fine and a coarse Lagrangian mesh. All other interface types (3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) are used to simulate impacts and contacts. A node may belong to several interfaces.
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INTERFACES
8.2.1 Surface (Segment) Definition

Surfaces or segments may be defined in different ways, depending on the type of element being used. For a four node three dimensional shell element, an element is a segment. Figure 8.2.1 Shell Elements Segment
For a brick element, a segment is one face of the brick. Figure 8.2.2 Brick Element Segment
For a two dimensional element, a segment is one side. Figure 8.2.3 2D Element Segment
8.3 Tied interface (type 2)

Refer to chapter 6 Kinematic Constraints for a detailed description.
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INTERFACES
8.4 Auto contacts 8.4.1 Introduction

The physics of contacts is involved in various phenomena, such as the impact of two billiard balls, the contact between two gears, the impact of a missile, the crash of a car, etc. While the physics of the contact itself is the same in all these cases, the main resulting phenomena are not. In the case of billiard balls, it is the shock itself that is important and it will then be necessary to simulate perfectly the wave propagation. In the case of gears, it is the contact pressure that has to be evaluated precisely. The quality of these simulations depends mainly on the quality of the models (spatial and temporal discretization) and on the choice of the integration scheme. In structural crash or vehicle crash simulations, the majority of the contacts result from the buckling of tubular structures and metal sheets. Modeling the structure using shell and plate finite elements, the physics of the contact cannot be described in a precise way. The reflection of the waves in the thickness is not captured and the distribution of contact pressures in the thickness is not taken into account. The peculiarity of the contacts occurring during the crash of a structure lies more in the complexity of the structural folding and the important number of contact zones than in the description of the impact or the contact itself. During a contact between two solid bodies, the surface in contact is usually continuous and only slightly curved. On the other hand, during the buckling of a structure, the contacts, resulting from sheet folding, are many and complex. Globally, the contact is no longer between two identified surfaces, but in a surface impacting on itself. The algorithms able to describe this type of contact are auto-impacting algorithms. Especially adapted to shell structures, they still can be used to simulate the impact of the external surface of a solid (3D element) on itself. The main capabilities of the auto-contact can be summarized by the following functionalities:
capacity to make each point of the surface impact on itself capacity to impact on both sides of a segment (internal and external) possibility for a point of the surface to be wedged between an upper and a lower part processing of very strong concavities (will complete folding) reversibility of the contact, thereby authorizing unfolding after folding or the simulation of airbag deployment.
8.4.2 Modeling of contacts

The contacts occurring between two surfaces of a finite element mesh can be modeled in different ways: Contact nodes to nodes The contact is detected based on the criteria of distance between the two nodes. After detection of contact, a kinematic condition or penalty formulation method prevents the penetration attaining the rebound point ("pinball" formulation).
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Figure 8.4.1 Contact nodes to surface
INTERFACES
The contact is detected based on the criteria of distance between a group of nodes and a meshed surface. The distance between a node and the surface of a triangular or quadrangular segment is evaluated, locally. Symmetrized contact nodes to surface The symmetrization of the previous formulation makes it possible to model a contact between two surfaces, as the group of nodes of the first surface can impact the second group and vice-versa. Figure 8.4.2 Contact edges to edges
This formulation makes it possible to model contacts between wire framed structures or between edges of twodimensional structures. Contact is detected based on the criteria of distance between two segments. This formulation can also be used to describe in an approximate way the surface to surface contact.
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Surface to surface contact
INTERFACES
Several approaches can be used to detect the contact between two surfaces. If the two surfaces are quadrangular, the exact calculation of the contact can be complex and quite expensive. An approximate solution may be made by combining the two previous formulations. By evaluating all the contacts of nodes to surface, as well as the edge to edge contacts, the only approximation is the partial consideration of the segment curvature.
8.4.2.1 Choice of a formulation for auto impact

In the case of a surface impacting on itself, it is possible to use one of the previous formulations if considering certain specificities of the auto-contact. The choice of a formulation will depend on two essential criteria: the quality of the description of the contact and the robustness of the formulation. The selected formulation has to provide results that are as precise as possible in a normal operational situation, while still working in a satisfying way in extreme situations. The node-to-node method provides the best robustness, but the quality of the description is not sufficient enough to simulate in a realistic way those contacts occurring during the buckling of a structure. The node-to-surface contact is the best compromise. However, it has some limitations, the main one being that it cannot detect contacts occurring on the edges of a segment. The most critical situation occurs when this leads to the locking of a part of one surface to another. This phenomenon, being irreversible, might create irrelevant behavior during the deployment of a structure (e.g. airbag deployment). An example of a locking situation is shown in the above images. To correct this, it is possible to associate a node-to-surface formulation to an edgeto-edge formulation.
8.4.3 Algorithms of search for impact candidates

During the impact of one part on another, it is possible to predict which node will impact on a certain segment. In the case of the buckling of a shell structure, such as a tube, it is impossible to predict where different contacts will occur. It is thus necessary to have a fairly general and powerful algorithm that is able to search for impact candidates. The detail of the formulation of an algorithm able to search for impact candidates will depend on the choice of the contact formulation described in the previous chapter. In a node-to-node contact formulation, it is necessary to find for each node the closest node, whose distance is lower than a certain value. In the case of the edge-toedge formulation, the search for neighboring entities concerns the edges and not the nodes. However, we should note that in some algorithms, the search for neighboring edges or segments is obtained by a node proximity calculation. Moreover, an algorithm designed to search for proximity of nodes can be adapted in order to transform it into a search for proximity of segments or even for a mixed proximity of nodes and segments. It is possible to distinguish four main types of search for proximity: direct search topologically limited search algorithms of sorting by boxes (bucket sort) algorithms of fast sort (octree, quick sort)
When using direct search, at each cycle the distance is calculated from each entity (node, segment, edge) to all others. The quadratic cost (N*N) of this algorithm makes it unusable in case of auto-contact.
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RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0 8.4.3.1 Topologically limited search
INTERFACES
In a simulation in fast dynamics, geometrical modifications of the structure are not very important during one cycle of calculation. It is then possible to consider neighborhood search algorithms using the information of the previous cycle of computation. If for a node the nearest segment is known at the previous cycle, it is then possible to limit the search for this node to the segments topologically close to the previous one (the segments having at least one common node). Furthermore, if an algorithm based on the search of neighboring nodes is used, then the search may be limited to the nodes of the segments connected to the previous closest node.
It remains however necessary to do a complete search before the first cycle of calculation. We will also see that this algorithm presents significant restrictions that limit its use to sliding surfaces (it cannot be used for autoimpacting surfaces). The cost of this algorithm is linear (N), except at the first cycle of computation, during which it is quadratic (N*N). The combination of this algorithm with one of the two following is also possible.
8.4.3.2 Bucket sort

Sorting by boxes consists in dividing space in to steady boxes (not necessarily identical) in which the nodes are placed. The search for closest nodes is limited to one box and the twenty-six neighboring boxes. The cost of this sorting is linear (N) for regular meshes. For irregular meshes, an adaptation is possible but its interest becomes less interesting compared with the next solution. This three-dimensional sorting is of the same kind as one-way sorting with direct addressing or needle sort.
5 4 3 2 1 0 3
2 4 5 8 9 13 18 15 17 19 23 20 24 25 27 10 6
11 14 16 21 26
12
22
In order to limit the memory space needed, we first count the number of nodes in each box, thereby making it possible to limit the filling of those boxes that are not empty. In the two-dimensional example shown above, nodes are arranged in the boxes as described in the following table. With this arrangement, the calculation of distances between nodes of the same box is not a problem. On the other hand, taking into account the nodes of neighboring boxes is not straightforward, especially in the horizontal direction (if the arrangement is first made vertically, as in this case). One solution is to consider three columns of boxes at a time. Another solution, more powerful but using more memory, would be for each box to contain the nodes already located there plus those belonging to neighboring boxes. This is shown in the third series of columns in the following table. Once this
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INTERFACES
sorting has been performed, the last step is to calculate the distances between the different nodes of a box, followed by the distance between these nodes and those of the neighboring box. In box 0,3 for example, fifteen distances must be calculated. 11-14, 11-3, 11-8, 11-12, 11-15, 11-16, 11-17, 11-18, 14-3, 14-8, 14-12, 14-15, 14-16, 14-17, 14-18.
Box
Nodes
Nodes of the neighboring box
0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 3,3 4,1 4,2 4,4 5,0
26 21 16 11 14 22 15 17 8 3 1 23 19 13 5 2 9 24 20 4 6 25 27 10
21 15 16 17 22 26 8 3 8 1 2 8 3 1 1 4 9 9 24 11 12 14 15 17 21 22 26 8 12 15 16 17 18
15 16 17 19 21 23 26 11 12 13 14 18 16 19 21 22 23 5 2 3 9 5 2 3 5 11 13 14 15 16 17 19 5 5 10 12 13 15 17 18 22 23 8 3 5 6 13 19 20 9 8 10 12 15 17 18 19 9 10 12 13 18 11 12 13 14 18 12 18 3
15 17 19 22
20 25 27 10 24 10
In this example we have considered a search based on nodal proximity. It is possible to adapt this algorithm in order to arrange segments or even edges in the boxes. It will be necessary however to reserve more memory, for a segment can overlap several boxes.
8.4.3.3 Quick sort

The octree is a three-dimensional adaptation of fast sorting. Space is divided into eight boxes, each one being subdivided into eight boxes. In this way a tree with eight branches per node is obtained. An alternative to the "octree", closer to the quick sort, consists in successively dividing space in two equal parts, according to directions X, Y, or Z. This operation is renewed for each of the two resulting parts as long as some segments or nodes are found in the space concerned. The main advantage to this algorithm, as compared to sorting by boxes, lies in the fact that its performance is affected neither by the irregularity of the mesh, nor by the irregularity of the model. The cost of this algorithm is logarithmic (N*Log(N)).
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Figure 8.4.3 Possible Impacts of Node n1
INTERFACES
In order to illustrate the 3D quick sort, let us consider a search for node-segment proximity. At each step, space is successively divided into two equal parts, according to directions X, Y or Z. The group of nodes is thus separated into two subsets. We thereby obtain a tree organization with two branches per node. After each division, a check is made to determine whether the first of the two boxes must be divided. If so, it will be divided similar to the previous one. If not, the next branch is then checked. This recursive algorithm is identical to the regular fast sorting one. The segments are also sorted using the spatial pivot. The result of the test can lead to three possibilities: the segment is on the left side of the pivot, on the right side of the pivot or astride the pivot. In the first two cases, the segments are treated similar to the nodes, but in the third situation, the segment is duplicated and placed on both sides. Among the different criteria that can be used to stop the division are the following situations: the box does not contain any nodes the box does not contain any segments the box contains sufficiently few elements that the calculation of distance of all the couples is more economical the dimension of the box is smaller than a threshold
8.4.4 Contact processing

After the choice of a good sorting algorithm, a formulation for the handling of the contact has to be selected. One can distinguish three techniques ensuring the conditions of continuity during the contact: kinematic formulation of type master/slave. In a contact node to segment, the slave node transmits its mass and force to the master segment and the segment transmits its speed to the node. This formulation is particularly adapted to an explicit integration scheme, provided that the nodes do not belong to a master segment. A node cannot be at the same time slave and master. This approach then cannot be used in the case of auto-contact. the Lagrange multipliers ensure kinematic continuity at contact. There is no restriction as in the previous formulation but the system of equations cannot be solved in an explicit way. The Lagrange multiplier matrix has to be reversed at each cycle of computation. In the case of auto-contact, the number of points in contact can become significant and this formulation then becomes quite expensive.
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INTERFACES
penalty methods do not ensure kinematic contact continuity, but they add springs at the contact spots.
The first advantage to this formulation is its natural integration in an explicit code. Each contact is treated like an element and integrates itself perfectly into the code architecture, even if the programming is vectorial and parallel. Contrary to the kinematic formulations, the penalty method ensures the conservation of momentum and kinetic energy during impact. The formulation used in RADIOSS is a penalty type formulation. The choice of the penalty factor is a major aspect of this method. In order to respect kinematic continuity, the penalty spring must be as rigid as possible. If the impedance of the interface becomes higher than those of the structures in contact, some numerical rebounds (high frequency) can occur. To ensure the stability of the integration diagram, without having additional constraints, this rigidity must be low. With a too low penalty, the penetration of the nodes becomes too strong and the geometrical continuity is no longer ensured. The compromise selected consists in using a stiffness of the same order of magnitude than the stiffness of the elements in contact. This stiffness is non linear and increases with the penetration, so that a node is not allowed to cross the surface. These choices provide a clear representation of physics, without numerical generation of noise, but require the contact stiffness in the calculation of the criteria of stability of the explicit scheme to be taken into account.
8.4.5 Contact detection

After identifying the candidates for the impact, it is necessary to determine whether contact takes place and its precise localization. If for a formulation of node to node contact the detection of the contact is quite easy, it becomes more complex in the case of a node to segment or edge to edge contact. In the case of edge-to-edge contacts, a direct solution is possible if the segments are planar. If not, it is better to triangulate one of the segments, which would then turn it into a node-to-segment contact problem. The search algorithm for candidates is uncoupled from the rest of the processing of the interfaces. This is not the case with regard to the detection, localization and processing of the contact. These last three tasks significantly overlap with each other so we will limit ourselves to the processing of the contact by penalty for simplicity. In the case of contact between two solid bodies modeled with 3D finite elements, contact can only take place on the segments of the external surface. This external surface has a certain orientation and the impact of a node can come only from the outside. Most of the node-to-surface contact algorithms use this orientation to simplify detection of contact. In the case of impact of a two-dimensional structure modeled with shell or plate finite elements, contact is possible on both sides of the surface. For an oriented surface, it is necessary to consider contacts of the positive dimension side of the surface on itself, contacts of the negative dimension side on itself, and the contact of the positive side on the negative one. This last situation, quite rare, can occur in the case of a surface rolled up into itself or during the impact of a twisted surface.
8.4.5.1 Node to segment contact

The use of a "gap" surrounding the segment is one way of providing physical thickness to the surface and makes it possible to distinguish the impacts on the top or on the lower part of the segment. The contact is activated if the node penetrates within the gap or if the distance from the node to the segment becomes smaller than the gap. To calculate the distance from the node to the segment, we make a projection of this node on the segment and measure the distance between the node and the projected point.
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r ti
N3 (0,1) t
INTERFACES
r t
r ni
Ns Ni
N4
r si
(-1,0)
(0,0)
(1,0)
r s
N1
(0,-1) N2
The projected point is calculated using isoparametric coordinates for a quadrangular segment and barycentric coordinates for a triangular segment. In the case of any quadrangular segment, the exact calculation of these coordinates leads to a system of two quadratic equations that can be solved in an iterative way. The division of the quadrangular segment into four triangular segments makes it possible to work with a barycentric coordinate system and gives equations that can be solved in an analytical way. From the isoparametric coordinates (s,t) of the projected point (Ni), we have all the necessary information for the detection and the processing of contact. The relations needed for the determination of s and t are as follows: the vector NiNs is normal to the segment at the point Ni and the normal to the segment is given by the vectorial product of the vectors si and ti.
H 1 = (1 s )(1 t ) / 4 H 2 = (1 + s)(1 t ) / 4 H 3 = (1 + s )(1 + t ) / 4 H 4 = (1 s )(1 + t ) / 4 ONi = H 1ON1 + H 2 ON 2 + H 3 ON 3 + H 4 ON 4 r s i = (1 t ) N1N 2 + (1 + t ) N 4 N 3 r t i = (1 s ) N1N 4 + (1 + s ) N 2 N 3 r r r r r n i = ( s i t i ) /( s i t i ) r NiNs = a n i

After bounding the isoparametric coordinates between +1 or -1, the distance from the node to the segment and the penetration are calculated:
D = NiNs P = max(0, Gap D)

A penalty force is deducted from this. It is applied to the node Ns and distributed between the four nodes (N1, N2, N3, N4) of the segment according to the following shape functions:
8.4.5.2 Edge to edge contact

The formulation of edge-to-edge contact is similar to that of node-to-segment contact. The gap surrounding each edge defines a cylindrical volume. The contact is detected if the distance between the two edges is smaller than the sum of the gaps of the two edges. The distance is then calculated as follows:
2 N 1 Ni = (1 s ) N 1 N 3 + (1 + s ) N 1 N 4 D = N 1 Ni N 1 N i N 1 N 2 / N 1 N 2 N 1 N 2 D / s = 0
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The force of penalty is calculated as in node-to-segment contact. It is applied to the nodes N1, N2, N3, N4 and therefore ensures the equilibrium of forces and moments.
N3 Ni N2
N4 N1
8.5 Type 3 - Solid and Shell Element Contact - No Gap

The main use of this interface is with shell or solid plates that are initially in contact. There are no master and slave surfaces in this interface. Each surface is considered as if it were a slave.
8.5.1 Limitations
The main limitations of type 3 interfaces are: The two surfaces should be simply convex. The surface normals must face each other. A node may not exist on the master and slave side of an interface simultaneously. Surfaces must consist of either shell or brick elements. It is recommended that the two surface meshes be regular with a good aspect ratio. The interface gap should be kept small, if not zero. There are some search problems associated with this interface.
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Figure 8.5.1 Surfaces 1 and 2 with Facing Normals
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8.5.2 Computation Algorithm

The computation and search algorithms used for type 3 interface are the same as for type 5. However, type 3 interface does not have a master surface, so that the algorithms are applied twice, one for each surface. The surfaces are treated symmetrically, with all nodes allowed to penetrate the opposing surface. The interface spring stiffness applies the opposing penetration reduction force. Figure 8.5.2 Contact Surfaces Treated Symmetrically
Because the computation algorithm is performed twice, accuracy is improved over a type 5 interface. However, the computational cost is increased. The first pass solution solves the penetration of the nodes on surface 1 with respect to segments on surface 2. The second pass solves surface 2 nodes with respect to surface 1 segments.
8.5.3 Interface Stiffness

When two surfaces contact, a massless stiffness is introduced to reduce the penetration's nodes of the other surface into the surface. The nature of the stiffness depends on the type of interface and the elements involved. The introduction of this stiffness may have consequences on the time step, depending on the interface type used. The type 3 interface spring stiffness K is determined by both surfaces. To retain solution stability, stiffness is limited by a scaling factor which is user defined on the input card. The default value (and recommended value) is 0.2. The overall interface spring stiffness is determined by considering two springs acting in series.
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Figure 8.5.3 Interface Springs in Series
Surface 1 K1 K2 Surface 2
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The equation for the overall interface spring stiffness is:
K =s
K1 K 2 K1 + K 2
EQ. 8.5.3.1
where s = Stiffness Scaling Factor. Default is 0.2. K1 = Surface 1 Stiffness K2 = Surface 2 Stiffness K = Overall Interface Spring Stiffness The scale factor, s, may have to be increased if:
K1 << K 2 or K 2 << K1
The calculation of the spring stiffness for each surface is determined by the type of elements. For example:
K1 =
1 s 10 s K 2 implies K = K 2 or K = K1 10 11 11
8.5.3.1 Shell Element

If the master interface segment is a set of shell elements, the stiffness is calculated by:
K = 0.5sEt
where E = Modulus of Elasticity t = Shell Thickness The stiffness does not depend on the shell size.
EQ. 8.5.3.2
8.5.3.2 Brick Element

If the master interface segment is a set of brick elements, the stiffness is calculated by:
K = 0.5
where
sBA2 V
EQ. 8.5.3.3
B = Bulk Modulus A = Segment Area V = Element Volume
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Figure 8.5.4 Brick element
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8.5.3.3 Combined Elements

If a segment is a shell element that is attached to the face of a brick element, the shell stiffness is used.
8.5.4 Interface Friction

Type 3 interface allows sliding between contact surfaces. Coulomb friction between the surfaces is modelled. The input card requires a friction coefficient. No value (default) defines zero friction between the surfaces. The friction on a surface is calculated by:
r K Ft = C1C0 10
where K = Interface Spring Stiffness
EQ. 8.5.4.1
C1C0 = contact node displacement vector

Figure 8.5.5 Coulomb Friction
C0= Contact point at time t C1= Contact point at time t + t
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Figure 8.5.6 Friction on interface type 3
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First impact Mater

Ks p Gap
Slave node
Vt Kt
The normal force computation is given by:
Fn = K s P
where K s = K 0
EQ. 8.5.4.2
Gap Gap P
K0 = Initial interface spring stiffness (as in type 5) The tangential force computation is given by:
Ft = K t D
where K t =
EQ. 8.5.4.3
Kn 10
If the friction force is greater than the limiting situation, Ft > Fn , the frictional force is reduced to equal the limit, Ft = Fn , and sliding will occur. If the friction is less than the limiting condition, Ft Fn , the force is unchanged and sticking will occur. Time integration of the frictional forces is performed by:
r r r Ft new = Ft old + Ft r where Ft = result from equation 8.5.4.1

Figure 8.5.7 Friction on type 3 interface
Ft
EQ. 8.5.4.4
Fn
Xt
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8.5.5 Interface Gap

Type 3 interfaces have a gap that determines when contact between two segments occurs. This gap is user defined, but some interfaces will calculate an automatic default gap. The gap determines the distance for which the segment interacts with the three nodes. If a node moves within the gap distance, such as nodes 1 and 2, reaction forces act on the nodes. Type 3 interface have a gap: - only normal to the segment, as shown in Figure 8.5.8. - on the contact side of the segments, which is defined by the surface normal. The size of the gap defined for certain interface types is critical. If the gap is too small, the solution time step may be dramatically reduced or a node may move across the entire gap in one time step. However, if the gap is too large, nodes not associated with the direct contact may become involved. Figure 8.5.8 Interface Gap
8.5.6 Interface Failure Examples

There are a number of situations in which type 3 elements may fail. A couple of these are shown below. Care must be taken when defining contact surfaces with large deformation simulations. If the normal definitions of the contact surfaces are incorrect, node penetration will occur without any reaction from either surface. Figure 8.5.9 Improper Normal Direction
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Referring to Figure 8.5.9, the first situation shows the mesh deforming in a way that allows the normals to be facing each other. However, in the second case, the deformation moves two surfaces with normals all facing the same direction, where contact will not be detected. Large rotations can have a similar effect, as shown in Figure 8.5.10 Figure 8.5.10 Initial and Deformed Mesh (Before Impact)
Kinematic motion may reposition the mesh so that normals do not correspond. It is recommended that possible impact situations be understood before a simulation is attempted.
8.6 Type 5 - General Purpose Contact

This interface is used to simulate the impact between a master surface and a list of slave nodes, as shown in Figure 8.6.1. The penetration is reduced by the penalty method. Another method is possible: Lagrange multipliers. But spatial distribution forces is not smooth and induces hourglass deformation. This interface is mainly used for: Simulation of impact between beam, truss and spring nodes on a surface. Simulation of impact between a complex fine mesh and a simple convex surface. A replacement for a rigid wall.
8.6.1 Limitations
The main limitations of type 5 interface are: The master segment normals must be oriented from the master surface towards the slave nodes. The master side segments must be connected to solid or shell elements. The same node is not allowed to exist on both the master and slave surfaces. Some search problems (refer to the problems A1, B1, B2, B3, C1, D1 in chapter) It is recommended that the master surface mesh be regular, with a good aspect ratio and that a small or zero gap be used to detect penetration.
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Figure 8.6.1 Surface 1 (nodes) and surface 2 (segments)
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8.6.2 Computation Algorithm

The computation and search algorithms used for type 5 are the same as for type 3. Refer to chapter 8.5.2.

When two surfaces contact, a massless stiffness is introduced to reduce the penetration's nodes of the other surface into the surface. The nature of the stiffness depends on the type of interface and the elements involved. The introduction of this stiffness may have consequences on the time step, depending on the interface type used. For a type 5 interface, the spring stiffness K is determined by the master side only. The stiffness scaling factor default value (and recommended value) is 0.2. For a soft master surface material and stiff slave surface, the stiffness scaling factor should be increased by the elastic modulus ratio of the two materials. The calculation of the spring stiffnesses is the same as in a type 3 interface. If a segment is a shell as well as the face of brick element, the shell stiffness is used. The overall interface spring stiffness is determined by considering two springs acting in series.
Figure 8.6.2 Interface Springs in Series
Surface 1 K1 K2 Surface 2
The equation for the overall interface spring stiffness is:
K =s
K1 K 2 K 1+ K 2
EQ. 8.6.3.1
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where s = Stiffness Scaling Factor. Default is 0.2. K1 = Surface 1 Stiffness K2 = Surface 2 Stiffness K = Overall Interface Spring Stiffness The scale factor, s, may have to be increased if:
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K1 << K 2 or K 2 << K1
The calculation of the spring stiffness for each surface is determined by the type of elements. For example:
K1 =
s 1 10 s K 2 implies K = K 2 or K = K1 10 11 11
8.6.3.1 Shell Element

Refer to chapter 8.5.3.1.
8.6.3.2 Brick Element

8.6.3.3 Combined Elements


Type 5 interface allows sliding between contact surfaces. Coulomb friction between the surfaces is modelled. The input card requires a friction coefficient. No value (default) defines zero friction between the surfaces. The friction computation on a surface is the same as for type 3 interface. Refer to chapter 8.5.4. Darmstad and Renard models for friction are also available: Darmstad law:
= C1 e (C V ) p 2 + C3 e (C V ) p + C5 e (C V )
2 4 6
EQ. 8.6.4.1
Renard law:
= C1 + (C3 C1 )

V V 2 C5 C5
V C5 C 6 C5
2
if V 0, C5
] ]
EQ. 8.6.4.2
= C3 (C3 C4 )
V C5 3 2 C 6 C5
if V C5 , C6
= C2
1 1 + (V C6 ) C2 C4
if V C6
where, C1 = s , C2 = d
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C3 = max , C4 = min C5 = Vcr1 , C6 = Vcr 2

Possibility of smoothing the tangent forces via a filter:
4 F = Ft + (1 ) Ft 1
where the coefficient a depends on the Ifiltr flag value.
EQ. 8.6.4.3
8.6.5 Interface Gap

Refer to chapter 8.5.5 for type 3 interface.
8.6.6 Interface Algorithm

The algorithm used to calculate interface interaction for each slave node is: 1. Determine the closest master node. 2. Determine the closest master segment. 3. Check if the slave node has penetrated the master segment. 4. Calculate the contact point. 5. Compute the penetration. 6. Apply forces to reduce penetration. For more information, refer to Chapter 8.4.
8.6.6.1 Detection of Closest Master Node

The RADIOSS Starter and Engine use different methods to determine the closest master node to a particular slave node. The Starter searches for the master node with the minimum distance to the particular slave node. The Engine carries out the following algorithm, referring to Figure 8.6.3. Figure 8.6.3 Search Method
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1. Get the previous closest segment, S0, to node N at time t1. 2. Determine the closest node, M1, to node N which belongs to segment S0. 3. Determine the segments connected to node M1 (S0, S1, S2 and S3).
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4. Determine the new closest master node, M2, to node N at time t1. The new master node must belong to one of the segments S0, S1, S2 or S3. 5. Determine the new closest master segment (S2, S4, S5 and S6). The Starter CPU Cost is calculated with the following equation: CPUstarter = a x Number of Slave Nodes x Number of Master Nodes The Engine CPU Cost is calculated with the following equation: CPUengine = b x Number of Slave Nodes The algorithm used in the engine is less expensive but it does not work in some special cases. In Figure 8.6.4, if node N is moving from N(t0) to N(t1) and then to N(t2), the closest master nodes are M0 and M1. When the final node movement to N(t2) is taken, the impact on segment S will not be detected since none of the nodes on this segment are considered as the closest master node. Figure 8.6.4 Undetected Impact
8.6.6.2 Detection of Closest Master Segment

The closest master segment to a slave node N, shown in Figure 8.6.5, is found by determining a reference quantity, A. Figure 8.6.5 Closest Master Segment Determination Method
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The A value for segment S1 is given by:
r r r r A = MB2 MP 1 MB1 MP 1 <0

B1 and B2 = Tangential Surface Vectors along segment S1 edges.
)(
EQ. 8.6.6.1
where P1 = Projection of N on plane (M B1 B2) The A value for segment S2 is given by:
r r r r A = MB3 MP2 MB2 MP2 > 0
)(
EQ. 8.6.6.2
where P2 = Projection of N on plane (M B2 B3) The same procedure is carried out for all master segments that node M is connected to. The closest segment is the segment for which A is a minimum. In some special cases (curved surfaces), it is possible that: 1. All values of A are positive. 2. More than one value of A is negative.
8.6.6.3 Detection of Penetration

Penetration is detected by calculating the volume of the tetrahedron made by slave node N and the master nodes of the corresponding master segment, as shown in Figure 8.6.6. For a given normal n, the sign of the volume tells if penetration has occurred. Figure 8.6.6 Tetrahedron used for Penetration Detection
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Figure 8.6.7 Negative Volume Tetrahedron - Penetrated Node
8.6.6.4 Reduction of Penetration

The penetration, p, is reduced by the introduction of a massless spring between the node, N, and the contact point, C. Figure 8.6.8 Forces Associated with Penetration
The force applied on node N in direction NC is:
F = Kp
where K = Interface Spring Stiffness
EQ. 8.6.6.3
Reaction forces F1, F2, F3 and F4 are applied on each master node (as shown in Figure 8.6.8) in the opposite direction to the penetration force, such that:
F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 = F
EQ. 8.6.6.4
Forces Fi (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) are functions of the position of the contact point, C. They are evaluated by:
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Fi =
di
dj
j =1
4
EQ. 8.6.6.5
where d i =
Ni (Sc , tc )
N (S , t )
j =1 2 j c c
mi
or more simply:
Fi = N i (Sc , tc )F
where Ni = Standard linear quadralateral interpolation functions Sc and tc = Isoparametric coordinates contact point The penalty method is used to reduce the penetration. This provides: Accuracy Generality Efficiency Compatibility
EQ. 8.6.6.6
8.7 Type 6 - Rigid Body Contact

This interface is used to simulate impacts between two rigid bodies. It works like type 3 interface except that the total interface force is a user defined function of the maximum penetration. The input and computational algorithms are the same as for type 3 interfaces. This interface is used extensively in vehicle occupant simulations, eg. knee bolsters.
8.7.1 Limitations
Some of the main limitations for this interface type are: Surface 1 must be part of one and only one rigid body. Surface 2 must be part of one and only one rigid body. The interface stiffness (user defined function) can reduce the time step. Other limitations are the same as for type 3 interfaces. Figure 8.7.1 Surfaces 1 and 2 with Facing Normals
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When two surfaces contact, a massless stiffness is introduced to reduce the penetration's nodes of the other surface into the surface. The nature of the stiffness depends on the type of interface and the elements involved. If a segment is a shell as well as the face of brick element, the shell stiffness is used.

Type 6 interface allows sliding between contact surfaces. Coulomb friction between the surfaces is modelled. The input card requires a friction coefficient. No value (default) defines zero friction between the surfaces. The friction computation on a surface is the same as for type 3 interface (refer to chapter 8.4.4).
8.7.4 Interface Gap

Refer to chapter 8.4.5 for type 3 interface.
8.7.5 Time Step Calculation

The stable time step used for time integration equations is computed by:
t = 0.1
M K
EQ. 8.7.5.1
where M = min(M rigid body 1 , M rigid body 2 ) K = Tangent of user force function Time step
t is affected by the actual stiffness derived from function f:

M f ( p )
EQ. 8.7.5.2
The function f refers to a function number given in input and has to be provided by user.
8.7.6 Contact force

Figure 8.7.2 Specially suited for rigid bodies
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r r pi + q N i r r FN i = r r f MAX pk , q j p j qk
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))
EQ. 8.7.6.1
r r q N i is the contribution to node N i of vector qi distributed on the segment penetrated by node Qi.
8.8 Type 7 - General Purpose Contact

This interface simulates the most general type of contacts and impacts. Type 7 interface has the following properties: 1. Impacts occur between a master surface and a set of slave nodes, similar to type 5 interface. 2. A node can impact on one or more master segments. 3. A node can impact on either side of a master surface. 4. Each slave node can impact each master segment except if it is connected to this segment. 5. A node can belong to a master surface and a set of slave nodes, as shown in Figure 8.8.1. 6. A node can impact on the edge and corners of a master segment. None of the previous interfaces allow this. 7. Edge to edge contacts between master and slave segments are not solved by this interface.
8.8.1 Limitations
All limitations encountered with interface types 3, 4 and 5 are solved with this interface. It is a fast search algorithm without limitations. Figure 8.8.1 Slave and Master Node Impact
There are no search limitations with this interface concerning node to surface contacts. All possible contacts are found.
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There is no limitation on the use of large and small segments on the same interface. This is recommended to have a good aspect ratio elements or a regular mesh to obtain reasonable results; however, it is not an obligation. There is no limitation to the size of the spring stiffness factor. The spring stiffness is much greater than interfaces 3 and 5, with the default stiffness factor set to 1.0. This is to avoid node penetrations larger than the gap size, removing problems that were associated with the other interfaces.

When two surfaces contact, a massless stiffness is introduced to reduce the penetration of one surface nodes to the other surface. The nature of the stiffness depends on the type of interface and the elements involved. The introduction of this stiffness may have consequences on the time step, depending on the interface type used. The interface spring stiffness calculation is not as simple as for types 3, 4 and 5. The initial stiffness is calculated using the methods for type 3 interfaces. However, after initial penetration, the stiffness is given as a function of the penetration distance and the rate of penetration. A critical viscous damping coefficient given on the input card (visc) allows damping to be applied to the interface stiffness.
F = f ( p ) + visc 2 KM
dp dt
EQ. 8.8.2.1
The stiffness is much larger than the other interfaces to accommodate high speed impacts with minimal crossing of surfaces. The consequence of this is that a stable time step is calculated to maintain solution stability.

Type 7 interface allows sliding between contact surfaces. Coulomb friction between the surfaces is modelled. The input card requires a friction coefficient. No value (default) defines zero friction between the surfaces. In type 7 interface a critical viscous damping coefficient is defined, allowing viscous damped sliding. The friction on a surface may be calculated by two methods. The first method suitable for contact tangential velocity greater that 1m/s consist in computing a viscous tangential growth by:
r r Ft = C tVt
EQ. 8.8.3.1
In the second method an artificial stiffness KS is input. The change of tangent force Ft is obtained the following equation:
Ft = K S t
where
EQ. 8.8.3.2
is the tangent displacement.
The normal force computation is given by:
Fn = K s P + C
dP dt
EQ. 8.8.3.3
where K s = K 0 Gap P
Gap
C = VIS s 2 K s M
K0 = Initial interface spring stiffness (as in type 5) VISs = Critical damping coefficient on interface stiffness (input)
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Figure 8.8.2 Coulomb Friction
C0 = Contact Point at time t C1 = Contact Point at time t = t + t
Figure 8.8.3 Friction on type 7 interface - scheme
The tangential force computation is given by:
Ft = min (FRIC * Fn , Fad )

where Fad = CtVt
EQ. 8.8.3.4
C = VIS F 2 K s M Fad = adhesion force

VIS F = Critical damping coefficient on interface friction (input)
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If the friction force is greater than the limiting situation, Ft > Fn , the frictional force is reduced to equal the limit, Ft = Fn , and sliding will occur. If the friction is less than the limiting condition, Ft Fn , the force is unchanged and sticking will occur. Note that the friction coefficient Darmstad and Renard models as described in section 8.6.4. Time integration of the frictional forces is performed by:
may be obtained by Coulomb,
r r r Ft new = Ft old + Ft r where Ft is obtained from EQ. 8.8.3.1 or EQ. 8.8.3.2.

Figure 8.8.4 Friction on type 7 interface
Ft
EQ. 8.8.3.5
Fn
Vt
8.8.4 Interface Gap

Type 7 interfaces have a gap that determines when contact between two segments occurs. This gap is user defined, but some interfaces will calculate an automatic default gap. Shown in Figure 8.8.2 is a segment type 7 interface with three nodes in close proximity. The gap, as shown, determines the distance for which the segment interacts with the three nodes. If a node moves within the gap distance, such as nodes 1 and 2, reaction forces act on the nodes. Figure 8.8.5 Type 7 Interface Gap
Type 7 interface has a gap that covers both edges of the segments, as shown in Figure 8.8.5.
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8.8.5 Time Step

A time step is calculated to maintain stability when a type 7 interface is used. The kinematic or interface time step is calculated if
dP > 0 by: dt
t min
Gap p = 0.5 dP dt
EQ. 8.8.5.1
The stable time step or nodal time step is given by:
t nod =
2M K
EQ. 8.8.5.2
where M = Nodal mass
K = (K int er + K el ) = Nodal stiffness

The time step used for the interface is the smaller of the two. If the interface spring stiffness is too great, the time step can be reduced dramatically. If the two materials involved in the contact are the same, the default interface stiffness factor can be retained. This is the case when modelling sheet metal. However, the stiffness factor may need adjustment if the two materials stiffnesses vary too much; for example, steel and foam.
8.8.5.1 Methods to Increase Time Step

The time step can be altered by two different methods, by altering the size of the gap and by increasing the initial stiffness. Figure 8.8.6 shows three force-penetration curves for a type 7 interface. Both methods change the nature of the stiffness which affects the time step. Figure 8.8.6 Force - Penetration Curves
Force F0 K3 K2 K4
K1
K0 Gap 0
Penetration Gap 1
Using a larger gap size, curves 1 and 2 keep the same initial stiffness, hence the initial time step remains the same. Since the impact slowing force is applied over a greater distance, the stiffness is not changed as much, but increases. Increasing the initial interface stiffness, although decreasing the time step initially, will increase the time step if penetration is large.
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8.8.6 Detection and Gap Size

A slave node can be detected near a master segment from all directions, as shown in Figure 8.8.7. The size of the gap can be user defined, but RADIOSS automatically calculates a default gap size, based on the size of the interface elements. For shell elements, the computed gap is the average thickness. For brick elements it is equal to one tenth of the minimum side length.
8.8.7 Variable gap

By default the gap is constant on all master segments. If the variable gap option is activated, a different gap is used for each contact taking into account the physical thickness on the master and slave sides. Figure 8.8.7 Variable gap
For shell elements, the master gap is equal to one half of the shell thickness. The slave gap is equal to one half of the largest thickness of all connected shell elements. For solid elements, the master gap is zero. If the slave node is only connected to solid elements, the slave gap is zero. For beam or truss elements connected to the slave node, the slave gap is one half of the square root of the section area. If a slave node is connected to different elements (shell, brick, beam, truss) the largest gap value is used. The total gap is the sum of the slave and master gaps. The total gap cannot be smaller than a minimum gap (user input gap).
8.8.8 Gap correction for nodes with initial penetration

Type 7 interface is very sensitive to initial penetrations. One method for solving the resulting problems is to use an automatic gap correction (INACTI = 5). With automatic gap correction the effective gap is corrected to take into account the initial penetration. The correction is only applied to the initially penetrated nodes. If the node penetration decreases, the correction is reduced. The computed penetration is illustrated in Figure 8.8.8.
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Figure 8.8.8 Corrected gap
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8.8.9 Penetration Reaction

Like the other interface types, type 7 has a spring stiffness as a slave node penetrates the interface gap (previous section). However, there are some fundamental differences in the determination of the reaction force. Figure 8.8.9 shows a graph of force versus penetration of a node on a master segment. This figure also shows a pictorial diagram of node penetration and the associated forces. Figure 8.8.9 Penetration Reaction Force
The reaction force is not a linear relation like the previous interfaces. There is a viscous damping which acts on the rate of penetration. The force computation is given by:
F = Ks P + C
dP dt
EQ. 8.8.9.1
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where K s = K 0 Gap P
Gap
C = VIS s 2 K s M
K0 = Initial interface spring stiffness (as in type 5) VISs = Critical damping coefficient on interface stiffness (input) The instantaneous stiffness is given by:
Gap 2 Kt = K0 (Gap P )2
Figure 8.8.10 Force - Penetration Graph
EQ. 8.8.9.2
A critical viscous damping is required to be defined on the type 7 input card for both damping on the spring stiffness and for interface friction damping.
8.8.10 Force Orientation

Due to the gap on a type 7 interface extending around the edges of a segment, the reaction forces over a surface will be smooth. Figure 8.8.10 shows the reaction forces on a node at various positions around two adjoining segments.
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Figure 8.8.11 Force Orientation
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Position 1 in Figure 8.8.11 shows the force acting radially from the edge of the segment. The size of the force depends on the amount of penetration. At position 2 the force is normal to the segment surface. In position 3 two segments intersect and their gaps overlap. The result is that each segment applies a force to the node, normal to the respective segment; this can double the force for the distance of gap overlap.
8.8.11 Interface hints

8.8.11.1 Main problem
One main problem remains namely: deep penetrations are not easily tolerated They lead to high penalty forces and stiffness, and consequently to a drop in time step. When such a problem occurs, you may see: a very small time step an infinite loop message (most likely due to divergence) a large contact force vector in animation
Deep penetrations (i.e. close to gap value) cannot be avoided in most car crash simulations. They occur in the following cases: initial penetrations of adjacent plates edge impacts: wrong side contacts full collapse of one structural region rigid body impact on another rigid body or on fixed nodes or on very stiff structures impact between heavy stiff structures high impact speed small gap
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The elastic contact force is calculated with the formulation:
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F =k
gp (g p )
EQ. 8.8.11.1
With k = 0.5 STFAC*E* t The elastic contact energy is calculated with the formulation:
(g p ) CE = kg p gLn g
When node to element mid-plane distance is smaller then 10-10 gap, the node is deactivated. The maximum potential contact energy is: elastic contact energy CE = 23 k g Drastic time step dropping is mostly due to cases where node is forced into the gap region.
EQ. 8.8.11.2
8.8.11.2 Remedies to the main problem

There are several ways to resolve this problem: 1- Increase Gap Increasing the gap is the best remedy, but check that no initial penetrations result from this. 2- Increase Stiffness Increase STFAC dimensionless stiffness factor or provide an appropriate effective global stiffness value (v23 and up). 3- DT/INTER/DEL (Engine option) Some node will be allowed to cross the impacted surface freely before penetration reaches (1-1010 ) gap. 4- /DT/INTER/CST (Engine option) Nodal mass will be modified to maintain time step constant. This option should be avoided when rigid body slave nodes are slaves of a type 7 interface. The initial penetrations are mostly due to discretization and modelization problems. They result in high initial forces that should be avoided. 5- Modify geometry New coordinates are proposed in the listing file for all initially penetrated nodes. These are the coordinates used in the automatic coordinate change option. However, this might not suffice. Several iterations are sometimes necessary. RADIOSS will create a file RootD0A containing the modified geometry. 6- Reduce gap When there are only small penetrations with a. gap, this should be reduced, otherwise care should be taken as this will reduce potential contact energy. 7- Deactivate node stiffness This solution is the simplest. It will generally not unduly affect your results. For sake of precision, use this option only for initial penetrations remaining after geometrical adjustments. Edge contact problem A special algorithm is developed for this purpose. Modelization should eventually be adapted to prevent situations where 2 nodes of an element move to opposite sides of a surface. For solid to solid contacts, the external closed surfaces may be used.
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INTERFACES
8.9 Type 14 - Ellipsoidal surface to node contact

This interface simulates impacts between an hyper-ellipsoidal rigid master surface and a list of slave nodes. This interface is used for MADYMO to RADIOSS coupling. The hyper-ellipsoidal surface is treated as an analytical surface (hyper-ellipsoidal surfaces are discretized only for post-processing). The interface allows user defined behavior. - User defines total elastic force versus maximum penetration of nodes. - A local friction coefficient is computed at each impacted node, depending upon elastic force computed at its location by scaling the total elastic force by the following factor: penetration of the node divided by sum of node penetrations. - A local viscosity coefficient in the normal direction to the surface is computed at each impacted node, depending upon this node's velocity or the computed elastic force at its location. It is also possible to only define a constant stiffness factor, a constant friction coefficient or a constant viscosity coefficient. A time step is computed to ensure stability.
8.9.1 Type 14 interface: Hints

As the interface is defined as nodes impacting upon a surface, impact cannot be detected if the mesh is too coarse. In general, use a mesh which size is finer than the lowest semi-axis of the master surface. Figure 8.9.1 No impact is detected
The interface is designed to allow penetration of slave nodes. However, the contact algorithm does not ensure that a node will not cross the ellipsoid when sliding; nodes may slide along the ellipsoid until they fully cross the ellipsoid, resulting in that the structure itself fully crossing the surface and contact force is no longer applied to it (as shown in figure 8.9.2, where perfect sliding is considered). Increase interface stiffness or friction to avoid this problem.
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INTERFACES
Figure 8.9.2 Sliding until structure fully crosses surface
8.10 Type 15 - Ellipsoidal surface to segment contact

Type 15 interface between surfaces made up of 4-node or 3-node segments and hyper-ellipsoids is a penalty contact interface without damping. It applies to type 14 interface, especially when the mesh is coarser than the ellipsoid size. Remember that in such a case, type 14 interface is able to compute low quality contact forces even if it fails to find contact, as shown below. Figure 8.10.1 No contact is detected
Interface Type 14 : No contact is detected between heel and coarse mesh of floor
Interface stiffness is a non-linear increasing function of penetration, computed in order to avoid penetrations up to half the ellipsoid:
Depth K = K0 where K 0 is an input stiffness factor. Depth Penetration
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Figure 8.10.2 Penetration is detected
INTERFACES
Depth
P realizes maximum penetration upon the element at time t
Penetration
Fn normal force = K* Penetration
A Kinematic Time Step is computed so that the element does not cross the line Lt within one time step. A friction coefficient m is input. Interface takes into account sliding/rolling effects. Coulomb Friction condition is expressed as:
Ft mFn for each penetrated element.
8.11 Type 16- Node to Curved Surface Contact

Interface type 16 will allow to define contact conditions between a group of nodes (slaves) and a curve surface of quadratic elements (master part) as shown in Figure 8.11.1 for a symmetric contact. The master part may be made of 16-node thick shells or 20 node-bricks. The Lagrange Multiplier Method (LMM) is used to apply the contact conditions. By the way that the LMM is used, no gap is necessary to be applied. Some applications of this interface are sliding contacts without gaps as in gear box modelling. Figure 8.11.1 Node to curved surface contact in interface type 16
8.12 Type 17- General Surface to Surface Contact

The interface is used in the modelling of surface-to-surface contact. It is a generalized form of type 16 interface in which the contact on the two quadratic surfaces are directly resolved without needs of gap as the Lagrange Multiplier Method is used (Figure 8.12.1). The contact is supposed to be sliding or tied.
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Figure 8.12.1 Quadratic surface to quadratic surface contact
INTERFACES
8.13 Some Common Problems

The following sections contain examples of some common problems in the contact interfaces and solutions to overcome them.
8.13.1 Incorrect Nearest Master Node Found

If the interface surface is not simply convex, the simplified master node search may find an incorrect nearest master node. This problem occurs with interface types 3, 6 and 5 (master side only). The solution to this problem is to use type 7 interface. Figure 8.13.1 Incorrect Master Node Found
8.13.2 Incorrect Nearest Master Segment Found - B1

In some cases the nearest master node is not connected to the nearest segment. This problem can occur with interface types 3, 6 and 5 (master side only). The solution is to either use type 7 interface or to refine the mesh.
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Figure 8.13.2 Wrong Nearest Master Segment 1

In some cases the nearest master node is not connected to the nearest segment. This problem can occur with interface types 3, 5 and 6 (master side only). The solution is to either use type 7 interface or change the mesh (for initial mesh problem). Figure 8.13.3 Incorrect Nearest Master Segment 2

If the angle between segments is less than 90 degrees, the incorrect nearest segment may sometimes be found, as in Figure 8.13.4. This problem can occur with interface types 3, 5 and 6. The solution is to use a type 7 interface or to refine the mesh. With a finer mesh, the shape is smoother.
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Figure 8.13.4 Master Segment Angle to Acute
INTERFACES
8.13.5 Incorrect Impact Side - C1

A node can only impact on the positive side of a segment for interface types 3, 6, and 5 (master side). The solution is to use a type 7 interface. Figure 8.13.5 Wrong Normal Direction
8.13.6 No Master Node Impact - D1

With type 5 interface, only slave nodes impact master segments; master nodes cannot impact slave segments. This can be solved by either inverting the slave and master sides, or by changing the type of interface. Interface types 3 and 7 will solve this problem adequately.
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Figure 8.13.6 Master Node Penetration
INTERFACES
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Chapter
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9.0 MATERIAL LAWS

A large variety of materials is used in the structural components and must be modeled in stress analysis problems. For any kind of these materials a range of constitutive laws is available to describe by a mathematical approach the behavior of the material. The choice of a constitutive law for a given material depends at first to desired quality of the model. For example, for standard steel, the constitutive law may take into account the plasticity, anisotropic hardening, the strain rate, and temperature dependence. However, for a routine design maybe a simple linear elastic law without strain rate and temperature dependence is sufficient to obtain the needed quality of the model. This is the analyst design choice. On the other hand, the software must provide a large constitutive library to provide models for the more commonly encountered materials in practical applications. RADIOSS material library contains several distinct material laws. The constitutive laws may be used by the analyst for general applications or a particular type of analysis. The user can also program a new material law in RADIOSS. This is a powerful resource for the analyst to code a complex material model. Theoretical aspects of the material models that are provided in RADIOSS are described in this chapter. The available material laws are classified in Table 9.0.1. This classification is in complementary with those of RADIOSS input manual. The reader is invited to consult that one for all technical information related to the definition of input data.

Table 9.0.1 Material law description Type Isotropic Elasticity Description Linear elastic Hyper elastic Linear elastic for orthotropic shells Nonlinear elastic for anisotropic shells Nonlinear pseudo-plastic orthotropic solids without strain rate effect Nonlinear pseudo-plastic orthotropic solids with strain rate effect Elasto-plastic anisotropic shells Model Hooke Ogden-Mooney-Rivlin Fabric Fabric Honeycomb Cosserat Medium Crushable foam
MATERIALS
Law number in RADIOSS (MID) (1) (42) (19) (58) (28) (68) (50) (32) (43) (57) (25) (15) (14) (12) (53) (2) (2) (48) (44) (36) (60) (13) (21) (10) (63) (64) (65) (27) (54) (24) (22) (23) (52) (34) (35) (38) (40) (62) (70) (33) (4) (6) (3) (41) (49) (0)
Composite and Anisotropic Materials
Elasto-plastic orthotropic composites
von Mises hardening without damage Elasto-plasticity of Isotropic Materials
von Mises hardening with brittle damage von Mises hardening with ductile damage von Mises with visco-plastic flow
Visco-elastic Viscous Materials
Hydrodynamic
Visco-plastic Strain rate and temperature dependence on yield stress Turbulent viscous flow Elasto-plastic hydrodynamic Hydrodynamic material Elasto-plastic hydrodynamic with thermal softening Void material
Hill Hill (tabulated) 3-Parameter Barlat Composite Shell Composite Shell Chang-Chang Composite Solid Tsai-Wu formula for solid Foam model Johnson-Cook Zerilli-Armstrong Zhao Cowper-Symonds Tabulated piecewise linear Tabulated quadratic in strain rate Rigid material Drucker-Prager for rock or concrete Druger-Prager for rock or concrete by polynominal Hnsel model Ugine and ALZ approach Elastomer Aluminum, glass, etc. Predit rivets Reinforced concrete Ductile damage for solids and shells Ductile damage for solids Ductile damage for porous materials, Gurson Boltzman Generalized Kelvin-Voigt Tabulated law Generalized Maxwell-Kelvin Hyper visco-elastic Tabulated law - hyper visco-elastic Closed cell, elasto-plastic foam Johnson-Cook Hydrodynamic viscous von Mises isotropic hardening with polynomial pressure Lee-Tarver material Steinberg-Guinan Fictitious
Void
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9.1 Isotropic Elastic Material

Two kinds of isotropic elastic materials are considered: Hookes law for linear elastic materials, Ogden and Mooney-Rivlin laws for nonlinear elastic materials.
These material laws are used to model purely elastic materials, or materials that remain in the elastic range. The Hookes law requires only two values to be defined; the Young's or elastic modulus E, and Poisson's ratio, . The law represents a linear relation between stress and strain. The Ogdens law is applied to slightly compressible materials as rubber or elastomer foams undergoing large deformation with an elastic behavior [34]. The strain energy W is expressed in a general form as a function of W (1 , 2 , 3 ) :
W =
p
p 1 + 2 + 3 3 p
p p p
)
p p
and
EQ. 9.1.0.1 and
where i , ith principal stretch ( i = 1 + i , i being the ith principal engineering strain) and constants. This law is very general due to the choice of coefficient
p material
p .
For a compressible material, the components of Cauchy stress tensor are given in its principal reference:
i =
i W J i 0
EQ. 9.1.0.2
with, J = 1 2 3 , relative volume: J = dilatation:
. For an incompressible material, we have J=1. For uniform
1 = 2 = 3 =
Considering the general case of compressible material and defining new variables:
3 * i i = J 1
EQ. 9.1.0.3
EQ. 9.1.0.4
*
The new strain energy function is expressed as W
( , , , J ) = W ( , , ). We can write:
* 1 * 2 * 3 1 2 3
i =
* 3 i W i W * j W * J = * + J i J J 1 j = j i i
EQ. 9.1.0.5
As
1 *j 2 1 *j J 1 j = J and = J 3 for i=j and = J 3 for ij, EQ. 9.1.0.5 is simplified to: 3 i i i 3 i
i =
* * * 3 1 * W 1 W J W i * * J J i 3 j =1 j
EQ. 9.1.0.6
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The pressure is:
MATERIALS
p=
1 3 W * = j 3 j =1 J
EQ. 9.1.0.7
This can be rewritten as:
p = K f bulk ( J ) ( J 1)
where f bulk a user defined function related to the bulk modulus K :
EQ. 9.1.0.8
K =
2(1 + ) 3(1 2 )
p
EQ. 9.1.0.9
p
EQ. 9.1.0.10
being the ground shear modulus, and the Poisson's ratio. W* is obtained using EQ. 9.1.0.1 and EQ. 9.1.0.4:
* * W * 1 , * 2 , 3 = p
p * * * * * * 1 + 2 + 3 3 p Ln 1 23 p p
p p p
EQ. 9.1.0.11
* i
W * * = p (i p 1) * p i
EQ. 9.1.0.12
which insure the conditions:
1 = 2 = 3 = 1
2 3
W* = 0 . It should be noted that in pure dilatation i = 0

but, the pressure is computed without
1 = 2 = 3 =
using
and
* = * = * = 1 , we have also W * = i = 0
1
W .
Note: For an incompressible material we have too small time steps in explicit codes.
0 .5
. However,
= 0.495
is a good compromise to avoid
Mooney-Rivlin material law admits two basic assumptions: The rubber is incompressible and isotropic in unstrained state, The strain energy expression depends on the invariants of Cauchy tensor.
The three invariants of the Cauchy-Green tensor are:
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3
2 2
I 2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
EQ. 9.1.0.13
I 3 = 1 2 3 = 1 for incompressible material

The Mooney-Rivlin law gives the closed expression of strain energy as:
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EQ. 9.1.0.14
W = C10 (I1 3) + C01 (I 2 3)

with:
1 = 2 C10 2 = 2 C01 1 = 2 2 = 2
EQ. 9.1.0.15
The model can be generalized for a compressible material.
9.2 Composite and Anisotropic Materials

The orthotropic materials can be classified into following cases: Linear elastic orthotropic shells as fabric, Nonlinear orthotropic pseudo-plastic solids as honeycomb materials, Elastic-plastic orthotropic shells, Elastic-plastic orthotropic composites.
The purpose of this section is to describe the mathematical models related to composite and orthotropic materials.
9.2.1 Fabric law for elastic orthotropic shells (laws 19 and 58)
Two elastic linear and a nonlinear models exist in RADIOSS.
9.2.1.1 Fabric linear law for elastic orthotropic shells (law 19)
A material is orthotropic if its behavior is symmetrical with respect to two orthogonal plans. The fabric law allows to model this kind of behavior. This law is only available for shell elements and can be used to model an airbag fabric. Many of the concepts for this law are the same as for law 14 which is appropriate for composite solids. If axes 1 and 2 represent the orthotropy directions, the constitutive matrix C is defined in terms of material properties:
1 E 11 12 E11 C 1 = 0 0 0
21
E22 1 E22 0 0 0
0 0 1 G12 0 0
0 0 0 1 G23 0
0 0 0 0 1 G31
EQ. 9.2.1.1
where the subscripts denote the orthotropy axes. As the matrix C is symmetric:
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12
E11
21
E22
EQ. 9.2.1.2
Therefore, six independent material properties are the input of the material: E 11 = Young's modulus in direction 1 E 22 = Young's modulus in direction 2
12 = Poisson's ratio
G 12 , G 23 , G 31 = Shear moduli for each direction The coordinates of a global vector V is used to define direction 1 of the local coordinate system of orthotropy. The angle is the angle between the local direction 1 (fiber direction) and the projection of the global vector
r V as shown in Figure 9.2.1.
Figure 9.2.1 Fiber Direction Orientation
The shell normal defines the positive direction for . Since fabrics have different compression and tension behavior, an elastic modulus reduction factor, RE, is defined that changes the elastic properties of compression. The formulation for the fabric law has a 11 reduction if 11 < 0 as shown in Figure 9.2.2.
Figure 9.2.2 Elastic Compression Modulus Reduction
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9.2.1.2 Fabric nonlinear law for elastic anisotropic shells (law 58)
This law is used with RADIOSS standard shell elements and anisotropic layered property (type 16). The fiber directions (warp and weft) define the local axes of anisotropy. Material characteristics are determined independently in these axes. Fibers are nonlinear elastic and follow the equation:
= E B 2 , with
d >0 d
EQ. 9.2.1.3
The shear in fabric material is only supposed to be function of the angle between current fiber directions (axes of anisotropy):
= G0 tan( ) 0 = G tan( ) + G A 0
and
if if
EQ. 9.2.1.4
> T
GT 1 + tan 2 (T )
GA = (G0 G ) tan( T ) ,
where
G=
with
0 = G0 tan( 0 )
= 0. If
T is a shear lock angle, GT is a tangent shear modulus at T , and G0 is a shear modulus at G0 = 0, the default value is calculated to avoid shear modulus discontinuity at T : G0 = G.
Figure 9.2.4 Elastic Compression Modulus Reduction
weft
warp
0 is an initial angle between fibers defined in the shell property (type 16).
The warp and weft fiber are coupled in tension and uncoupled in compression. But there is no discontinuity between tension and compression. In compression only fiber bending generates global stresses. Figure 9.2.5 illustrates the mechanical behavior of the structure.
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Figure 9.2.5 Local frame definition
MATERIALS
Warp traction (free in weft direction)
Warp compression (no traction in weft)
A local micro model describes the material behavior (Figure 9.2.6). This model represents just of a warp fiber wave length and of the weft one. Each fiber is described as a non linear beam and the two fibers are connected with a contacting spring. These local non linear equations are solved with Newton iterations at membrane integration point. Figure 9.2.6 Local frame definition
Weft
Warp Traction (fiber coupling) Compression (no coupling)
9.2.2 Nonlinear pseudo-plastic orthotropic solids (laws 28, 50 and 68)

9.2.2.1 Conventional nonlinear pseudo-plastic orthotropic solids (laws 28 and 50)
These laws are generally used to model honeycomb material structures as crushable foams. The macroscopic behavior of this kind of materials can be considered as a system of three independent orthogonal springs. The nonlinear behavior in orthogonal directions can be then determined by experimental tests. The behavior curves are injected directly in the definition of law. Therefore, the physical behavior of the material can be obtained by a simple law. However, the microscopic elasto-plastic behavior of a material point cannot be represented by decoupled unidirectional curves. This is the major drawback of the constitutive laws based on this approach. The cell direction is defined for each element by a local frame in the orthotropic solid property. If no property set is given, the global frame is used.
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Figure 9.2.7 Local frame definition
MATERIALS
The Hooke matrix defining the relation between the stress and strain tensors is diagonal, as there is no Poisson's effect:
11 E11 0 22 33 0 = 12 0 23 0 0 31
0 E22 0 0 0 0
0 0 E33 0 0 0
0 0 0 G12 0 0
0 0 0 0 G23 0
11 22 33 0 12 0 23 G31 31 0 0 0 E11 2
EQ. 9.2.2.1
An isotropic material may be obtained if:
E11 = E22 = E33 and G12 = G23 = G31 =
EQ. 9.2.2.2
Plasticity may be defined by a volumic strain or strain dependent yield curve (Figure 9.2.8). The input yield stress function is always positive. If the material undergoes plastic deformation, its behavior is always orthotropic, as all curves are independent to each other. Figure 9.2.8 Honeycomb typical constitutive curve
The failure plastic strain may be input for each direction. If the failure plastic strain is reached in one direction, the element is deleted. The material law may include strain rate effects (law 50) or not (law 28).
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9.2.2.2 Cosserat medium for nonlinear pseudo-plastic orthotropic solids (law 68)
Conventional continuum mechanics approaches cannot incorporate any material component length scale. However, a number of important length scales as grains, particles, fibers, and cellular structures must be taken into account in a realistic model of some kinds of materials. To this end, the study of a microstructure material having translational and rotational degrees-of-freedom is underlying. The idea of introducing couple stresses in the continuum modelling of solids is known as Cosserat theory which returns back to the works of brothers Cosserat in the beginning of 20th century [110]. A recent renewal of Cosserat mechanics is presented in several works of Forest et al [111], [112], [113], and [114]. A short summary of these publications is presented in this section. Cosserat effects can arise only if the material is subjected to non-homogeneous straining conditions. A Cosserat medium is a continuous collection of particles that behave like rigid bodies. It is assumed that the transfer of the interaction between two volume elements through surface element dS occurs not only by means of a traction and shear forces, but also by moment vector as shown in Figure 9.2.9.
Figure 9.2.9 Equilibrium of Cosserat volume element
32 22 12
21
2 1 L
31
11
11
31
Surface forces and couples are then represented by the generally non-symmetrical force-stress and couple-stress tensors ij and ij (units MPA and MPa-m):
ti = ij n j ; mi = ij n j
The force and couple stress tensors must satisfy the equilibrium of momentums:
EQ. 9.2.2.3
&&i ij , j + f i = u
&& ij , j ikl kl + ci = I i
where f i are the volume forces, ci volume couples, the signature of the perturbation (i,k,l). In the often used couple-stress, the Cosserat micro-rotation is constrained to follow the material rotation given by the skew-symmetric part of the deformation gradient: EQ. 9.2.2.4
mass density, I the isotropic rotational inertia and ikl
i = ijk u j ,k
1 2
EQ. 9.2.2.5
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The associated torsion-curvature and couple stress tensors are then traceless. If a Timoshenko beam is regarded as a one-dimensional Cosserat medium, constraint EQ. 9.2.2.5 is then the counterpart of the Euler-Bernoulli conditions. The resolution of the previous boundary value problem requires constitutive relations linking the deformation and torsion-curvature tensors to the force- and couple-stresses. In the case of linear isotropic elasticity, we have:
Symm. Skew Symm. ij = ekk ij + 2 eij + 2c eij Symm. Skew Symm. ij = kkk ij + 2 ij + 2 ij
EQ. 9.2.2.6
where eij
Symm.
and eij
Skew Symm.
are respectively the symmetric and skew-symmetric part of the Cosserat
deformation tensor. Four additional elasticity moduli appear in addition to the classical Lam constants. Cosserat elastoplasticity theory is also well-established. Von Mises classical plasticity can be extended to micropolar continua in a straightforward manner. The yield criterion depends on both force- and couple-stresses:
f ( , ) =
3 (a1sij sij + a2 sij s ji + b1ij ij + b2 ij ji ) R 2
EQ. 9.2.2.7
where s denotes the stress deviator and ai, bi are the material constants. Cosserat continuum theory can be applied to several classes of materials with microstructures as honeycombs, liquid crystals, rocks and granular media, cellular solids and dislocated crystals.
9.2.3 Hills Law for Orthotropic Plastic Shells

Hills law models an anisotropic yield behavior. It can be considered as a generalization of von Mises yield criteria for anisotropic yield behavior. The yield surface defined by Hill can be written in a general form:
2 2 2 F ( 22 33 ) + G ( 33 11 ) + H ( 11 22 ) + 2 L 23 + 2 M 31 + 2 N 12 1 = 0 2 2 2
EQ. 9.2.3.1
where the coefficients F, G, H, L, M and N are the constants obtained by the material tests in different orientations. The stress components ij are expressed in the Cartesian reference parallel to the three planes of anisotropy. EQ.9.2.3.1 is equivalent to von Mises yield criteria if the material is isotropic. In a general case, the loading direction is not the orthotropic direction. In addition, we are concerned with the plane stress assumption for shell structures. In planar anisotropy, the anisotropy is characterized by different strengths in different directions in the plane of the sheet. The plane stress assumption will allow to simplify EQ. 9.2.3.1, and write the expression of equivalent stress eq as:
eq = A1 112 + A2 22 2 A3 11 22 + A12 12 2
The coefficients Ai are determined using Lankfords anisotropy parameter r :
EQ. 9.2.3.2
R=
r00 + 2r45 + r90 4
H=
R 1+ R
1 A1 = H 1 + r 00
EQ. 9.2.3.3
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1 A2 = H 1 + r 90
to orthotropic direction 1:
MATERIALS
1 1 A12 = 2 H (r45 + 0.5) r + r 00 90
A3 = 2 H
where the Lankfords anisotropy parameters r are determined by performing a simple tension test at angle
d r =
d 33
H + (2 N F G 4 H )Sin 2 Cos 2 F Sin 2 + G Cos 2

is compared to the yield stress
EQ. 9.2.3.4
The equivalent stress
eq
which varies in function of plastic strain
and
& (law 32): the strain rate &, &0 )m y = a ( 0 + p )n . max(

Therefore, the elastic limit is obtained by: EQ. 9.2.3.5
&0 )m 0 = a ( 0 )n .(
The yield stress variation is shown in Figure 9.2.10. Figure 9.2.10 Yield stress variation
EQ. 9.2.3.6
The strain rates are defined at integration points. The maximum value is taken into account:
d x d y d d , ,2 ( xy ) = max dt dt dt dt
EQ. 9.2.3.7
In RADIOSS, it is also possible to introduce the yield stress variation by a user defined function (law 43). Then, several curves are defined to take into account the strain rate effect. It should be noted that as Hills law is an orthotropic law, it must be used for elements with orthotropy properties as Type 9 and Type 10 in RADIOSS.
9.2.4 Elastic-Plastic Orthotropic Composite Shells

Two kinds of composite shells may be considered in the modeling: Composite shells with isotropic layers, Composite shells with at least one orthotropic layer.
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The first case can be modeled by an isotropic material where the composite property is defined in element property definition as explained in chapter 5. However, in the case of composite shell with orthotropic layers the definition of a convenient material law is needed. Two dedicated material laws for composite orthotropic shells exist in RADIOSS: Material law COMPSH (25) with orthotropic elasticity, two plasticity models and brittle tensile failure, Material law CHANG (15) with orthotropic elasticity, fully coupled plasticity and failure models.
These laws are described here. The description of elastic-plastic orthotropic composite laws for solids is presented in the next section.
9.2.4.1 Tensile behavior

The tensile behavior is shown in Figure 9.2.11. The behavior starts with an elastic phase. Then, reached to the yield state, the material may undergo an elastic-plastic work hardening with anisotropic Tsai-Wu yield criteria. It is possible to take into account the material damage. The failure can occur in the elastic stage or after plastification. It is started by a damage phase then conducted by the formation of a crack. The maximum damage factor will allow these two phases to separate. The unloading can happen during the elastic, elastic-plastic or damage phase. The damage factor d varies during deformation as in the case of isotropic material laws (law 27). However, three damage factors are computed; two damage factors d1 and d 2 for orthotropy directions and the other d 3 for delamination:
11 = E11 (1 d1 ) 11 22 = E22 (1 d 2 ) 22 12 = G12 (1 d1 )(1 d 2 ) 12

where d1 and d 2 are the tensile damages factors. The damage and failure behavior is defined by introduction of the following input parameters: EQ. 9.2.4.1
t1 = Tensile failure strain in direction 1 m1 = Maximum strain in direction 1 t 2 = Tensile failure strain in direction 2 m2
= Maximum strain in direction 2
d max = Maximum damage (residual stiffness after failure)
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Figure 9.2.11 Tensile behavior of composite shells
MATERIALS
(1-dmax) E
9.2.4.2 Delamination
The delamination equations are:
31 = G31 (1 d 3 ) 31 23 = G23 (1 d 3 ) 23
EQ. 9.2.4.2 EQ. 9.2.4.3
where d 3 is the delamination damage factor. The damage evolution law is linear with respect to the shear strain. Let
2 2 = 31 + 23
then:
for for
d3 = 0 d3 = 1
= t =m
EQ. 9.2.4.4
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Figure 9.2.12 Delamination with shear strain
MATERIALS
9.2.4.3 Plastic behavior

The plasticity model is based on the Tsai-Wu criterion, which allows to model the yield and failure phases. The criteria is given by [57]:
2 2 F ( ) = F1 1 + F2 2 + F11 12 + F22 2 + F44 12 + 2 F12 1 2
EQ. 9.2.4.5
Where F1 =
1cy
1
c 1y
1t y
;
F2 =
1
c 2 y
1
t 2 y
F11 = F44 =

c 12 y
t 1y
F22 =
1
t 2 y c 2y
t 12 y
F12 =
F11 F22 2
is the reduction factor. The six other parameters are the yield stresses in tension and compression for the orthotropy directions which can be obtained uniaxial loading tests:
1yt
= Tension in direction 1 of orthotropy
2 y t = Tension in direction 2 of orthotropy 1yc

= Compression in direction 1 of orthotropy
2 y c = Compression in direction 2 of orthotropy 12 y c = Compression in direction 12 of orthotropy 12 y t = Tension in direction 12 of orthotropy

The Tsai-Wu criteria is used to determine the material behavior:
F ( ) < 1
: elastic state : plastic admissible state : plastically inadmissible stresses EQ. 9.2.4.6
F ( ) = 1
F ( ) > 1
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For F ( ) = 1 the cross-sections of Tsai-Wu function with the planes of stresses in orthotropic directions is shown in Figure 9.2.13. Figure 9.2.13 Cross-sections of Tsai-Wu yield surface for F ( ) = 1
2
t 2 y
t 12 y
1cy 1t y
c 12 y
c 2 y
12
If F ( ) > 1 , the stresses must be projected on the yield surface to satisfy the flow rule. F ( ) is compared to a maximum value F W p varying in function of the plastic work W p during work hardening phase:
p n p
( ) F ( ) = F (W ) = 1 + bW
EQ. 9.2.4.7
with: b = Hardening parameter n = Hardening exponent Therefore, the plasticity hardening is isotropic as illustrated in Figure 9.2.14.
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Figure 9.2.14 Isotropic plasticity hardening
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9.2.4.4 Failure behavior

The Tsai-Wu flow surface is also used to estimate the material rupture by means of two variables: plastic work limit W p
max
maximum value of yield function Fmax .
If one of the two conditions is satisfied, the material is ruptured. The evolution of yield surface during work hardening of the material is shown in Figure 9.2.15. Figure 9.2.15 Evolution of Tsai-Wu yield surface
The model will allow the simulation of the brittle failure by formation of cracks. The cracks can either be oriented parallel or perpendicular to the orthotropic reference frame (or fiber direction), as shown in Figure
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max
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for a given element, 9.2.16. For plastic failure, if the plastic work WP is larger than the maximum value WP then the element is considered to be ruptured. However, for a multi-layer shell, several criteria may be considered to model a total failure. The failure may happen: If WP > WP If WP > WP If WP > WP If WP > WP If WP > WP If WP > WP If
max
max
for one layer, for all layers, or tensile failure in direction 1 for each layer, or tensile failure in direction 2 for each layer, or tensile failure in directions 1 and 2 for each layer, or tensile failure in direction 1 for all layer, or tensile failure in direction 2 for all layer, or tensile failure in direction 1 and 2 for each layer.
max max
max max
WP > WP
max
max
If WP > WP
The last two cases are the most physical behaviors; but the use of failure criteria depends, at first, to the analysts choice. In RADIOSS the flag IOFF defines the used failure criteria in the computation. Figure 9.2.16 Crack orientation
In practice, the use of brittle failure model allows to estimate correctly the physical behavior of a large rang of composites. But on the other hand, some numerical oscillations may be generated due to the high sensibility of the model. In this case, the introduction of an artificial material viscosity is recommended to stabilize results. In addition, in brittle failure model, only tension stresses are considered in cracking procedure. The ductile failure model allows plasticity to absorb energy during a large deformation phase. Therefore, the model is numerically more stable. This is represented by CRASURV model in RADIOSS. The model makes also possible to take into account the failure in tension, compression and shear directions as described in the following.
9.2.4.5 Strain rate effect

The strain rate is taken into account within the modification of EQ. 9.2.4.7 which acts through a scale factor:
& F (W p ) = 1 + bW pn 1 + c ln &o
EQ. 9.2.4.8
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with:
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Wp & W
p
: plastic work, : maximum value of the plastic work rates of the strain tensor, : reference plastic work rate for static loading, : strain rate coefficient (equal to zero for static loading).
& W po
c
The last equation implies the growing of the Tsai-Wu yield surface when the dynamic effects are increasing. The effects of strain rate are illustrated in Figure 9.2.17. Figure 9.2.17 Strain rate effect in work hardening
9.2.4.6 CRASURV model

The CRASURV model is an improved version of the former law based on the standard Tsai-Wu criteria. The main changes concern the expression of the yield surface before plastification and during work hardening. First, in CRASURV model the coefficient F44 in EQ. 9.2.4.5 depends only on one input parameter:
F44 =
( )
12 y
EQ. 9.2.4.9
Another modification concerns the parameters Fij in EQ. 9.2.4.5 which are expressed now in function of plastic work and plastic work rate as in EQ. 9.2.4.8:
2 2 F (W p ) = 1 = F1 (W p ) 1 + F2 (W p ) 2 + F11 (W p ) 12 + F22 (W p ) 2 + F44 (W p ) 12 + 2 F12 (W p ) 1 2
& c 1c n 1 + c1c Ln 1 + b1c (W p ) 1cy = 10 &o & n c c c c + W p2 c ) 1 c Ln 2 2 y = 20 1 + b2 ( & o & t 1t n 1 + c1t Ln 1 + b1t (W p ) 1t y = 10 &o & n t t t t + W p2t ) 1 c Ln 2 2 y = 20 1 + b2 ( &o & 12 n 1 + c12 Ln ) 12 y = 120 1 + b12 (W p &o
where the five sets of coefficients b, n and c should be obtained by experience. The work hardening is shown in Figure 9.2.18.
EQ. 9.2.4.10
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Figure 9.2.18 CRASURV plasticity hardening
The CRASURV model will allow the simulation of the ductile failure of orthotropic shells. The plastic and failure behaviors are different in tension and in compression. The stress softening may also be introduced in the model to take into account the residual Tsai-Wu stresses. The evolution of CRASURV criteria with hardening and softening works is illustrated in Figure 9.2.19.
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Figure 9.2.19 Flow surface in CRASURV model
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9.2.4.7 Chang-Chang model

Chang-Chang law [58], [59] incorporated in RADIOSS is a combination of the standard Tsai-Wu elastic-plastic law and a modified Chang-Chang failure criteria [60]. The effects of damage are taken into account by decreasing stress components using a relaxation technique to avoid numerical instabilities. Six material parameters are used in the failure criteria:
S1 = Longitudinal tensile strength S 2 = Transverse tensile strength S12 = Shear strength C1 = Longitudinal compressive strength C 2 = Transverse compressive strength = Shear scaling factor.
where 1 is the fiber direction. The failure criterion for fiber breakage is written as: Tensile fiber mode :
2
11 > 0
2
11 12 e2 + f = S 1. 0 S1 12
0 failed < 0 elastic plastic
EQ. 9.2.4.11
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Compressive fiber mode :
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11 < 0
0 failed EQ. 9.2.4.12 < 0 elastic plastic
11 ec2 = C 1.0 1
For matrix cracking, the failure criterion is: Tensile matrix mode : 22 > 0
22 12 e = S + S 1.0 2 12
2 m
0 failed EQ. 9.2.4.13 < 0 elastic plastic
Compressive matrix mode :
22 < 0
EQ. 9.2.4.14
2 2 2 22 C2 12 0 failed 22 e = + + 1 1 . 0 2S S C < 0 elastic plastic 2 S12 12 2 12 2 d
If the damage parameter is equal to or greater than 1.0, the stresses are decreased by using an exponential function to avoid numerical instabilities. We use a relaxation technique by decreasing gradually the stress:
[ (t )] = f (t ) [ d (tr )]
With: f (t ) = exp
EQ. 9.2.4.15
t tr T
and
t tr where:
t = the time, tr = the start time of relaxation when the damage criteria are assumed,
T = the time of dynamic relaxation.
[ d (tr )] = the stress components at the beginning of damage (for matrix cracking [ d (tr )] =
d 22 ) d 12
9.2.5 Elastic-Plastic Orthotropic Composite Solids

The material law COMPSO (14) in RADIOSS allows to simulate orthotropic elasticity, Tsai-Wu plasticity with damage, brittle rupture and strain rate effects. The constitutive law applies to only one layer of lamina. Therefore, each layer needs to be modeled by a solid mesh. A layer is characterized by one direction of the fiber or material. The overall behavior is assumed to be elasto-plastic orthotropic. Direction 1 is the fiber direction, defined with respect to the local reference frame (r , s , t ) as shown in Figure 9.2.20.
v v v
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Figure 9.2.20 Local reference frame
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For the case of unidirectional orthotropy (i.e. E33 = E22 and G31 = G12 ) the material law (53) in RADIOSS allows to simulate an orthotropic elastic-plastic behavior by using a modified Tsai-Wu criteria.
9.2.5.1 Linear elasticity

When the lamina has a purely linear elastic behavior, the stress calculation algorithm is as follows: 1. Transform the lamina stress,
ij (t ) , and strain rate, dij, from global reference frame to fiber reference frame.
EQ. 9.2.5.1
2. Compute lamina stress at time t + t by explicit time integration:
ij (t + t ) = ij (t ) + Dijkl d kl t
3. Transform the lamina stress,
ij (t + t ) , back to global reference frame.
The elastic constitutive matrix C of the lamina relates the non-null components of the stress tensor to those of strain tensor:
{ } = [D]{ }
EQ. 9.2.5.2
The inverse relation is generally developed in term of the local material axes and nine independent elastic constants:
1 E 11 11 22 33 = 12 23 31
21
E22 1 E22
31 32
E33
0 0 0 1 G12
0 0 0 0 1 G23
E33 1 E33
Symm.
0 0 11 22 0 33 12 0 23 0 31 1 G31
EQ. 9.2.5.3
where Eij are the Youngs modulus, Gij shear modulus and ij Poissons ratios. due to the distortion.
ij
are the strain components
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Figure 9.2.21 Strain components and distortion
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9.2.5.2 Orthotropic plasticity

Lamina yield surface defined by Tsai-Wu yield criteria is used for each layer:
2 2 2 2 2 + F33 3 + F44 12 + F55 23 + F66 31 F = f (W p ) = F1 1 + F2 2 + F3 3 + F11 12 + F22 2
+ 2 F12 1 2 + 2 F23 2 3 + 2 F13 1 3 with:
EQ. 9.2.5.4
Fi =
c i
t i
Fii =
it
c i
F12 =
where
1 2
(F11F22 )
1 F23 = F22 2
is the yield stress in direction i. c and t denote respectively for compression and tension. f W p
( )
represents the yield envelope evolution during work hardening with respect to strain rate effects:
& f (W p ) = 1 + B W pn 1 + c. ln &0
EQ. 9.2.5.5
where W p is the plastic work, B the hardening parameter, n the hardening exponent and c strain rate coefficient.
f (W p ) is limited by a maximum value f max :

f (W p ) f max = max y
2
EQ. 9.2.5.6
If the maximum value is reached the material is failed. In EQ. 9.2.5.5, the strain rate affects on the evolution of yield envelope. However, it is also possible to take into & effects on the maximum stress max as shown in Figure 9.2.22. account the strain rate
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Figure 9.2.22 Strain rate dependency (a) Strain rate effect on
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max
(b) No strain rate effect on
max
= y 1 + c. ln
& &0 & &0
= y 1 + c. ln
& &0
0 1 + c. ln max = max
0 max = max
f max
= max y
9.2.5.3 Unidirectional Orthotropy

Law (53) in RADIOSS provides a simple model for unidirectional orthotropic solids with plasticity. The unidirectional orthotropy condition implies:
E33 = E22 G31 = G12
EQ. 9.2.5.7
The orthotropic plasticity behavior is modeled by a modified Tsai-Wu criterion (EQ. 9.2.5.4) in which:
F12 =
45 c
( )
2 45 c y
1 F2 (F11 + F22 + F44 ) + F1 + c 45 2 y
EQ. 9.2.5.8
where y is yield stress in 45 unidirectional test. The yield stresses in direction 11, 22, 12, 13 and 45, are defined by independent curves obtained by unidirectional tests (Figure 9.2.23). The curves give the stress variation in function of a so-called strain v :
v = 1 exp(Trace[ ])
EQ. 9.2.5.9
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Figure 9.2.23 Yield stress curve for a unidirectional orthotropic material
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ij
User defined Yield curve ij
Traction
Compression
v = 1 exp(Trace[ ])
9.2.6 Elastic-plastic anisotropic shells (Barlats law)

Barlats 3- parameter plasticity model is developed in [100] for modelling of sheet under plane stress assumption with an anisotropic plasticity model. The anisotropic yield stress criterion for plane stress is defined as:
F = a K1 + K 2 + a K1 K 2 + c 2 K 2 2( e )
m m m
EQ. 9.2.6.1
where
is the yield stress, a and c are anisotropic material constants, m Barlats exponent and K1 and K 2 are
defined by :
K1 =
xx h yy
2
2
EQ. 9.2.6.2
xx h yy 2 K2 = + p 2 ( xy ) 2
where h and p are additional anisotropic material constants. All anisotropic material constants, except for p which is obtained implicitly, are determined from Barlat width to thickness strain ratio R from:
R00 R90 a = 22 1+ R 00 1 + R90

c = 2a
EQ. 9.2.6.3
R00 1 + R90 h= 1+ R 00 R90
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The width to thickness ratio for any angle
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can be calculated according to [100] by:
R =
2 m ( e )
F F + yy xx
EQ. 9.2.6.4
where
is the uniaxial tension in the

2m( e )
m
direction. Let
=45, EQ. 9.2.6.4 gives an equation from which the
anisotropy parameter p can be computed implicitly by using an iterative procedure:
F F 45 + xx yy
1 R45 = 0
EQ. 9.2.6.5
It is worthwhile to note that Barlats law reduces to Hills law when using m=2.
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9.3 Elasto-Plasticity of Isotropic Materials

The strain hardening behavior of materials is a major factor in structural response as metal working processes or plastic instability problems. A proper description of strain hardening at large plastic strains is generally imperative. For many plasticity problems, the hardening behavior of the material is simply characterized by the strain-stress curve of the material. For the proportional loading this is generally true. However, if the loading path is combined, the characterization by a simple strain-stress curve is no longer adequate. The incremental plasticity theory is generally used in computational methods. Plasticity models are written as rate-dependent or independent. A rate-dependent model is a one in which the strain rate does affect the constitutive law. This is true for a large rang of metals at low temperature relative to their melting temperature. Most isotropic elastic-plastic material laws in RADIOSS use von Mises yield criteria as given in section 2.7.2. Several kinds of models are integrated. The models involve damage for ductile or brittle failures with or without dislocation. The cumulative damage law can be used to access failure. The next few paragraphs describe theoretical bases of the integrated models.
9.3.1 Johnson-Cook plasticity model (law 2)

In this law the material behaves as linear elastic when the equivalent stress is lower than the yield stress. For higher value of stress, the material behavior is plastic. This law is valid for brick, shell, truss and beam elements. The relation between describing stress during plastic deformation is given in a closed form:
n 1 + c ln = a + b p
where:
m & 1 &0
EQ. 9.3.1.1
= Flow stress (Elastic + Plastic Components) p = Plastic Strain (True strain)

a = Yield Stress b = Hardening Modulus n = Hardening Exponent c = Strain Rate Coefficient
&
= Strain Rate = Reference Strain Rate
&0
m = Temperature exponent
298 melt 298
melt is the melting temperature in Kelvin degrees. The adiabatic conditions are assumed for temperature
computation:
= i +
Where:
C (Volume )
Eint
EQ. 9.3.1.2
Cp = the specific heat per unit of volume
i = initial temperature (in degrees Kelvin)
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Eint = internal energy
Two optional additional inputs are:
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max = Maximum flow stress max = Plastic strain at rupture

Figure 9.3.1 shows a typical stress-strain curve in the plastic region. When the maximum stress is reached during computation, the stress remains constant and material undergoes deformation until the maximum plastic strain. Element rupture occurs if the plastic strain is larger than max. If the element is a shell, the ruptured element is deleted. If the element is a solid element, the ruptured element has its deviatoric stress tensor permanently set to zero, but the element is not deleted. Therefore, the material rupture is modeled without any damage effect. Figure 9.3.1 Stress - Plastic Strain Curve
9.3.1.1 Strain rate definition

Regarding to the plastification method used, the strain rate expression is different. If the progressive plastification method is used (i.e. integration points through the thickness for thin-walled structured), the strain rate is:
d x d y d d , ,2 ( xy ) = max dt dt dt dt
EQ. 9.3.1.3
xy = xy
With global plastification method, we have:
1 2
EQ. 9.3.1.4
d dEi / dt = dt VM
where Ei is the internal energy. For solid elements, the maximum value of the strain rate components is used:
EQ. 9.3.1.5
& = max( &x &y &z 2 &xy 2 & yz 2 &xz )
EQ. 9.3.1.6
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9.3.1.2 Strain rate filtering

The strain rates exhibit very high frequency vibrations which are not physical. The strain rate filtering option will allow to damp those oscillations and therefore obtain more physical strain rate values. If there is no strain rate filtering, the equivalent strain rate is the maximum value of the strain rate components:
&eq = max ( &x &y &z 2 &xy 2 & yz 2 &xz )
EQ. 9.3.1.7
For thin-walled structures, the equivalent strain is computed by the following approach. If is the main component of strain tensor, the kinematic assumptions of thin-walled structures allows to decompose the inplane strain into membrane and flexural deformations:
= z + m
Then, the expression of internal energy can by written as:
t 2 t 2 t 2
EQ. 9.3.1.8
Ei = dz = E 2 dz = E (z + m ) dz
2 t 2 t 2 t 2
EQ. 9.3.1.10
Therefore:
1 2 2 Ei = E ( z + + 2 m z ) dz = E 2 z 3 + m z + m z 2 3 t t
2 2 2 m 2
t 2
EQ. 9.3.1.11
The expression can be simplified to:
1 2 2 Ei = E 2t 3 + m t = E eq t 12
EQ. 9.3.1.12
eq =
1 22 2 t + m 12
EQ. 9.3.1.13
The expression of the strain rate is derived from EQ. 9.3.1.8:
& = &z + &m

Admitting the assumption that the strain rate is proportional to the strain i.e.:
EQ. 9.3.1.14
&m = m
EQ. 9.3.1.15 EQ. 9.3.1.16
& =
Therefore:
& =
EQ. 9.3.1.17
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Referring to EQ. 9.3.1.13, it can be seen that an equivalent strain rate can be defined using a similar expression to the equivalent strain:
&eq = eq
EQ. 9.3.1.18
&eq =
1 &2 2 2 &m k t + 12
EQ. 9.3.1.19
For solid elements, the strain rate is computed using the maximum element stretch:
& &eq = max
EQ. 9.3.1.20
The strain rate at integration point, i in /ANIM/TENS/EPSDOT/i (1<i<n) is calculated by the following expression:
&i = &m
Where:
1 (2i 1) &b 1t 2 n
EQ. 9.3.1.21
&m is the membrane strain rate /ANIM/TENS/EPSDOT/MEMB &b is the bending strain rate /ANIM/TENS/EPSDOT/BEND
The strain rate in upper and lower layers are computed by:
1 2 1 &l = &m t &b 2
&u = &m + t &b
/ANIM/TENS/EPSDOT/UPPER /ANIM/TENS/EPSDOT/LOWER
EQ. 9.3.1.22 EQ. 9.3.1.23
The strain rate is filtered by using the following equation:
& f (t ) = a &(t ) + (1 a ) & f (t 1)

where:
EQ. 9.3.1.24
a = 2 dt Fcut dt = time interval Fcut = cutting frequency & f = filtered strain rate
9.3.1.3 Example: Strain rate filtering

An example of material characterization for a simple tensile test is given in RADIOSS Example Manual. For the same example a strain rate filtering allows to remove high frequency vibrations and obtain smoothed the results. This is shown in Figures 9.3.2 and 9.3.3 where the cut frequency Fcut= 10 KHz is used.
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Figure 9.3.2 Force comparison in example 9.3.1.3
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Figure 9.3.3 First principal strain rate comparison (max = 10%)
9.3.2 Zerilli-Armstrong plasticity model (law 2)

This law is similar to Johnson-Cook plasticity model. The same parameters are used to define the work hardening curve. However, the equation that describes stress during plastic deformation is:
= C0 + C1 exp C3 + C4 ln
where:
& n + C5 p & 0
EQ. 9.3.2.1
= Stress (Elastic + Plastic Components)
p = Plastic Strain
= Temperature (computed as in Johnson Cook plasticity)
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C0 = Yield Stress
n = Hardening Exponent
& = Strain Rate, must be 1 s-1 converted into user's time unit &0 = Reference Strain Rate
Additional inputs are:

The
max
allows to define element rupture as in the former law. The theoretical aspects related to strain rate
computation and filtering are also the same.
9.3.3 Cowper-Symonds plasticity model (law 44)

This law models an elasto-plastic material with: isotropic and kinematic hardening tensile rupture criteria
The damage is neglected in the model. The work hardening model is similar to the Johnson Cook model (law 2) without temperature effect where the only difference is in the strain rate dependent formulation. The equation that describes the stress during plastic deformation is:
1 1 &p = (a + b )1 + c
n p
EQ. 9.3.3.1
where,
= Flow stress (Elastic + Plastic Components)
p = Plastic Strain (True strain)

a = Yield Stress b = Hardening Modulus n = Hardening Exponent c = Strain Rate Coefficient
&
= Strain Rate
1/p = strain rate exponent The implanted model in RADIOSS allows the cyclic hardening with a combined isotropic-kinematic approach. The coefficient Chard varying between zero and unity is introduced to regulate the weight between isotropic and kinematic hardening models. In isotropic hardening model, the yield surface inflates without moving in the space of principle stresses. The evolution of the equivalent stress defines the size of the yield surface, as a function of the equivalent plastic strain. The model can be represented in one dimensional case as shown in Figure 9.3.4. When the loading direction is changed, the material is unloaded and the strain reduces. A new hardening starts when the absolute value of the stress reaches the last maximum value (Figure 9.3.4(a)).
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Figure 9.3.4 Isotropic and Kinematic hardening models for deformation decrease (a) Isotropic hardening (b) Prager-Ziegler kinematic hardening
yt
yt
This law is available for solids and shells. Refer to the RADIOSS Input Manual for more information about element/material compatibilities.
9.3.4 Zhao plasticity model (law 48)

The elasto-plastic behavior of material with strain rate dependence is given by Zhao formula [61], [62]:
n m = ( A + B p ) + (C D p ).ln
& &k + E &0
EQ. 9.3.4.1
where:
A = Yield stress B = hardening parameter n = hardening exponent C = relative strain rate coefficient D = strain rate plasticity factor m = Relative strain rate exponent E = strain rate coefficient k = strain rate exponent In the case of material without strain rate effect, the hardening curve given by EQ. 9.3.4.1 is identical to those of Johnson-Cook. However, Zhao law allows a better approximation of strain rate dependent materials by introducing a nonlinear dependency. As described for Johnson-Cook law, a strain rate filtering can be introduced to smooth the results. The plastic flow with isotropic or kinematic hardening can be modeled as described for in section 9.3.3. The material failure is happened when the plastic strain reaches a maximum value as in Johnson-Cook model. However, two tensile strain limits are defined to reduce stress when rupture starts:
p = plastic strain, & = strain rate
n +1 = n
where:
t 2 1 t 2 t1
EQ. 9.3.4.2
= largest principal strain and
t1
t2
= rupture strain limits
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If
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When
1 > t1 , the stress is reduced by EQ. 9.3.4.2.
1 > t 2
the stress is reduced to zero.
9.3.5 Tabulated piecewise linear and quadratic elasto-plastic laws (laws 36 and 60)
The elastic-plastic behavior of isotropic material is modeled with user defined functions for work hardening curve. The elastic portion of the material stress-strain curve is modeled using the elastic modulus, E, and Poisson's ratio, . The hardening behavior of the material is defined in function of plastic strain for a given strain rate (Figure 9.3.5). An arbitrary number of material plasticity curves can be defined for different strain rates. For a given strain rate, a linear interpolation of stress for plastic strain change, can be used. This is the case of law 36 in RADIOSS. However, in law 60 a quadratic interpolation of the functions allows to better simulate the strain rate effects on the behavior of material as it is developed in law 60. For a given plastic strain, a linear interpolation of stress for strain rate change is used. Compared to Johnson-Cook model (law 2), there is no maximum value for the stress. The curves are extrapolated if the plastic deformation is larger than the maximum plastic strain. The hardening model may be isotropic, kinematic or a combination of the two models as described in section 9.3.3. The material failure model is the same as in Zhao law. For some kinds of steels the yield stress dependence to pressure has to be incorporated especially for massive structures. The yield stress variation is then given by:
y = y 0 ( p ) f ( p )
EQ. 9.3.5.1
where p is the pressure defined by EQ. 2.7.2.1. Drucker-Prager model described in section 9.3.6 gives a nonlinear function for f ( p ) . However, for steel type materials where the dependence to pressure is low, a simple linear function may be considered:
y = y 0 ( p ) C p( p )
EQ. 9.3.5.2
where C is user defined constant and p the computed pressure for a given deformed configuration. Figure 9.3.5 Piecewise linear stress-strain curves
& &1 & = &1 & &0
p
The principal strain rate is used for the strain rate definition:
d x d y d 1 d x d y = + + dt dt dt 2 dt dt
For strain rate filtering, refer to section 9.3.1.2.
d xy + dt
EQ. 9.3.5.3
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9.3.6 Drucker-Prager constitutive model (laws 10 & 21)

For materials like soils and rocks the frictional and dilatational effects are significant. In these materials, the plastic behavior depends on the pressure as the internal friction is proportional to the normal force. Furthermore, for frictional materials, associative plasticity laws, in which the plastic flow is normal to the yield surface, are often inappropriate. Drucker-Prager [63] yield criterion uses a modified von Mises yield criteria to incorporate the effects of pressure for massive structures:
F = J 2 A0 + A1P + A2 P 2
where:
EQ. 9.3.6.1
J 2 = second invariant of deviatoric stress J 2 =

P = pressure A0 , A1, A2 = material coefficients Figure 9.3.6 shows EQ. 9.3.6.1 in the plane of
1 sij sij 2
J 2 and P. The criterion expressed in the space of principal
stresses represents a revolutionary surface with an axis parallel to the trisecting of the space as shown in Figure 9.3.7. This representation is in contrast with the von Mises criteria where yield criterion has a cylindrical shape. Drucker-Prager criterion is a simple approach to model the materials with internal friction because of the symmetry of the revolution surface and the continuity in variation of normal to the yield surface. The pressure in the material is determined in function of volumetric strain for loading phase:
P = f ( )
for loading
d > 0
EQ. 9.3.6.2
where f is a user defined (law 21) or a cubic polynomial function (law 10). For unloading phase, if the volumetric strain has a negative value, a linear relation is defined as:
P = C1
for unloading d < 0 and
<0
EQ. 9.3.6.3
For unloading with a positive volumetric strain, another linear function may be used:
P = B
for unloading d < 0 and
>0
EQ. 9.3.6.4
In RADIOSS Drucker-Prager model is used in laws 21 and 2. None of these laws can reproduce the monodimensional behavior. In addition, no viscous effect is taken into account.
Figure 9.3.6 Yield Criteria in the plane of
J 2 and P.
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Figure 9.3.7 Drucker-Prager yield criteria in space of principal stresses
3
2
Figure 9.3.8 Material pressure variation in function of volumetric strain
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9.3.7 Brittle damage for Johnson-Cook plasticity model (law 27)

Johnson-Cook plasticity model is presented in section 9.3.1. For shell applications, a simple damage model can be associated to this law to take into account the brittle failure. The crack propagation occurs in the plan of shell in the case of mono-layer property and through the thickness if a multi-layer property is defined (Figure 9.3.9). Figure 9.3.9 Damage Affected Material
2 1 Crack orientation Layer cracking
The elastic-plastic behavior of the material is defined by Johnson-Cook model. However, the stress-strain curve for the material incorporates a last part related to damage phase as shown in Figure 9.3.10. The damage parameters are:
t1 m1
= Tensile rupture strain in direction 1 = Maximum strain in direction 1
d max1 = Maximum damage in direction 1
f 1 = Maximum strain for element deletion in direction 1

The element is removed if one layer of element reaches the failure tensile strain, f1. The nominal and effective stresses developed in an element are related by:
n = eff (1 d )
where 0 < d < 1 is the damage factor. The strains and the stresses in each direction are given by:
EQ. 9.3.7.1
1 = 2 =
(1 d1 )E
2
E
v 2 E
EQ. 9.3.7.2
v 1 E
EQ. 9.3.7.3
12 = 1 =
(1 d1 )G
12
EQ. 9.3.7.4
E (1 d1 ) (1 + v 2 ) 1 (1 d1 )v 2
EQ. 9.3.7.5
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2 =
E ( 2 + (1 d1 )v1 ) 1 (1 d1 )v 2
EQ. 9.3.7.6
The conditions for these equations are: 0<d<1
= t = m
; ;
d=0 d=1
A linear damage model is used to compute the damage factor in function of material strain.
d=
t m t m ( tp ) m t
EQ. 9.3.7.7
The stress-strain curve is then modified to take into account the damage by EQ. 9.3.7.1. Therefore:
=E
EQ. 9.3.7.8
The softening condition is given by:
m t t tp
EQ. 9.3.7.9
The mathematical approach described here can be applied to the modeling of rivets. Predit law in RADIOSS allows achievement of this end by a simple model where for the elastic-plastic behavior a Johnson-Cook model or a tabulated law (36) may be used.
Figure 9.3.10 Stress-strain curve for damage affected material
9.3.8 Brittle damage for reinforced concrete materials (law 24)

The model is a continuum, plasticity-based, damage model for concrete. It assumes that the main two failure mechanisms are tensile cracking and compressive crushing of the concrete material. The material law will allow to formulate the brittle elastic plastic behavior of the reinforced concrete.
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The input data for concrete are: E c Young's modulus (e.g.: 32000 MPa)
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Poisson's ratio (e.g.: 0.2)
f c Uniaxial compressive strength (ex : 32 MPa)

f t /f c Tensile strength ratio (default = 0.1) f b /f c Biaxial strength ratio (default = 1.2) f 2 /f c confined strength ratio (default = 4.0) s 0 /f c confining stress ratio (default = 1.25) Experimental results allow to determine the material parameters. This can be done by in-plane unidirectional and bi-axial tests as shown in Figure 9.3.11. The expression of the failure surface is in a general form as:
f ( m , J 2 , f c , f b , ) c = 0
where:
EQ. 9.3.8.1
J 2 = second invariant of stress
m =
I1 = mean stress 3
= lode angle with cos 3 =
3 3 J3 3/ 2 2 J2
A schematic representation of the failure surface in the principal stress space is given in Figure 9.3.12. The yield surface is derived from the failure envelope by introducing a scale factor k( m , ). The meridian planes are presented in Figure 9.3.13. The steel directions are defined identically to material law 14 by a type 6 property set. If no property set is given in the element input data, r ,s , are taken respectively as direction 1, 2, 3. For quad elements, direction 3 is taken as the direction. Steel data properties are: E =Young's modulus
= Yield strength
E t = Tangent modulus
1 = Ratio of reinforcement in direction 1 2 = Ratio of reinforcement in direction 2
3 = Ratio of reinforcement in direction 3
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Figure 9.3.11 Failure surface in plane stress
Uniaxial tension
Uniaxial compression
1
Biaxial tension
Biaxial compression
Figure 9.3.12 Failure surface in principal stress space
Failure Surface
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Figure 9.3.13 Meridians of failure and yield surfaces
Failure in compression Failure in traction Yield in compression 1.5 Yield in traction
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vonm
fc
1.
0.5
P fc
-0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0
0.0
9.3.9 Ductile damage model

In section 9.3.7, a damage model for brittle materials is presented. It is used in RADIOSS law (27) valid for shell meshes. The damage is generated when the shell works in traction only. A generalized damage model for ductile materials is incorporated in RADIOSS laws (22), and (23). The damage is not only generated in traction but also in compression and shear. It is valid for solids and shells. The elastic-plastic behavior is formulated by JohnsonCook model. The damage is introduced by the use of damage parameter . The damage appears in the material when the strain is larger than a maximum value dam :
0 1
o o If If
< dam = 0
Law 22 is identical to law 2. and dam =
dam Edam = (1 )E
1 + (1 ) 2
This implies an isotropic damage with the same effects in tension and compression. The inputs of the model are the starting damage strain dam and the slope of the softening curve Et as shown in Figure 9.3.14. For brick elements the damage law can be only applied to the deviatoric part of stress tensor sij and
Gdam =
Edam . This is the case of law (22) in RADIOSS. However, if the application of damage law to 2(1 + dam )
stress tensor
ij
is expected, RADIOSS law (23) may be used.
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Figure 9.3.14 Ductile damage model
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& may The strain rate definition and filtering for these laws are as explained in section 9.3.1. The strain rate affect or not the maximum stress value max according to the user's choice as shown in Figure 9.3.15.
Figure 9.3.15 Strain rate dependency (a) Strain rate effect on
max
(b) No strain rate effect on
max
= y 1 + c. ln
max
& & 0 & 0 1 + c. ln = max &0
= y 1 + c. ln
& & 0
0 max = max
9.3.10 Ductile damage model for porous materials (Gurson law 52)
The Gurson constitutive law [64] models progressive microrupture through void nucleation and growth. It is dedicated to high strain rate elasto-viscoplastic porous metals. A coupled damage mechanical model for strain rate dependent voided material is used. The material undergoes several phases in the damage process as described in Figure 9.3.16.
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Figure 9.3.16 Damage process for visco-elastic-plastic voided materials
initial state of the material
Growth of the existing microvoids
Nucleation by decohesion of the matrix-particules interface or by fracture of the inclusion
Coalescence of mircovoids and ductile fracture of the matrix
: Inclusion or particle second phase : Void
The constitutive law takes into account the void growth, nucleation and coalescence under dynamic loading. The evolution of the damage is represented by the void volume fraction, defined by:
f =
Va Vm Va
EQ. 9.3.10.1
Where Va , Vm are respectively the elementary apparent volume of the material and the corresponding elementary volume of the matrix. The rate of increase of the void volume fraction is given by:
&= f & + f & f g n

The growth rate of voids is calculated by:
EQ. 9.3.10.2
& = (1 f ) Trace D p f g
[ ]
2
EQ. 9.3.10.3
Where Trace[Dp] is the trace of the macroscopic plastic strain rate tensor. The nucleation rate of voids is given by the following expression:
& = f n
fN S N 2
1 M N 2 SN
&M
EQ. 9.3.10.4
Where fN is the nucleated void volume fraction, SN is the Gaussian standard deviation, N is the nucleated effective plastic strain and M is the admissible plastic strain. The viscoplastic flow of the porous material is described by:
2 eq 3 m = + 2q1 f cosh evp 2 2 q2 M M 2 = eq + 2q f 1 + q f 1 3 evp 2 M
2 if m > 0 1 + q3 f
EQ. 9.3.10.5
if m 0
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Where
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eq
is the von Mises effective stress,
M is
the admissible elasto-viscoplastic stress and
is the
hydrostatic stress and
f is the specific coalescence function which can be written as:

if f f c if f > f c
EQ. 9.3.10.6
f = f f = f + fu f c ( f f ) c c f F fc
Where:
f c critical void volume fraction at coalescence, f F critical void volume fraction at ductile fracture, fu the corresponding value of the coalescence function f u =
1 * , f ( f F ) = fu . q1
The variation of the specific coalescence function is shown in Figure 9.3.17. Figure 9.3.17 Variation of specific coalescence function
f * = fN
Nucluation
f * = fF f * = fC
Coalescence
Growth
f*
The admissible plastic strain rate is computed as follows:
&M =
: Dp (1 f ) M
EQ. 9.3.10.7
Where is the Cauchy stress tensor, M is the admissible plastic stress and Dp is the macroscopic plastic strain rate tensor which can be written in the case of the associated plasticity as:
& evp Dp =
EQ. 9.3.10.8
with evp the yield surface envelope. The viscoplastic multiplier is deduced from the consistency condition:
& =0 evp = evp

From this last expression we deduce that:
EQ. 9.3.10.9
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&= evp evp evp evp M :C : A2 f M M
e
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evp
evp (1 f ) : I + A1 A2
EQ. 9.3.10.10
where:
; A = f N e A2 = (1 f ) M 1 S N 2
evp
1 M N 2 SN
EQ. 9.3.10.11
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9.4 Viscous materials

General case of viscous materials represents a time-dependent inelastic behavior. However, special attention is paid to the viscoelastic materials such as polymers exhibiting a rate- and time-dependent behavior. The viscoelasticity can be represented by a recoverable instantaneous elastic deformation and a non-recoverable viscous part occurring over the time. The characteristic feature of viscoelastic material is its fading memory. In a perfectly elastic material, the deformation is proportional to the applied load. In a perfectly viscous material, the rate of change of the deformation over time is proportional to the load. When an instantaneous constant tensile stress 0 is applied to a viscoelastic material, a slow continuous deformation of the material is observed. When the resulting time dependent strain
(t ) , is measured, the tensile creep compliance is defined as :
D(t ) =
(t ) 0
EQ. 9.4.0.1
The creep behavior is mainly composed of three phases: (i) primary creep with fast decrease in creep strain rate, (ii) secondary creep with slow decrease in creep strain rate and (iii) tertiary creep with fast increase in creep strain rate. The creep strain rate is the slope of creep strain to time curve. Another kind of loading concerns viscoelastic materials subjected to a constant tensile strain,
the stress, (t ) which is called stress relaxation, gradually decreases. The tensile relaxation modulus is then defined as:
0 . In this case,
E (t ) =
(t ) 0
EQ. 9.4.0.2
Because viscoelastic response is a combination of elastic and viscous responses, the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus are often modeled by combinations of springs and dashpots. A simple schematic model of viscoelastic material is given by the Maxwell model shown in Figure 9.4.1. The model is composed of an elastic spring with the stiffness E and a dashpot assigned a viscosity . It is assumed that the total strain is the sum of the elastic and viscous strains:
= e +v
Figure 9.4.1 Maxwell model
EQ. 9.4.0.3
The time derivation of the last expression gives the expression of the total strain rate:
& = &e + &v

As the dashpot and the spring are in series, the stress is the same in the two parts:
EQ. 9.4.0.4
e =v =
EQ. 9.4.0.5
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The constitutive relations for linear spring and dashpot are written as:
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= E e
&v =
then
&e & = E
EQ. 9.4.0.6 EQ. 9.4.0.7
Combining EQ. 9.4.0.4, EQ. 9.4.0.6 and EQ. 9.4.0.7, an ordinary differential equation for stress is obtained:
& & = E
where
or
& & = E
EQ. 9.4.0.8
is the relaxation time. A solution to the differential equation is given by the convolution integral:
t t d (t ' ) d (t ' ) dt ' = R(t t ') dt ' dt ' dt '
(t ) = E e[ (t t ') / ]
EQ. 9.4.0.9
where R(t) is the relaxation modulus. The last equation is valid for the special case of Maxwell one-dimensional model. It can be extended to the multi-axial case by:
(t ) = Cijkl (t t ')
t
d (t ' ) dt ' dt '
EQ. 9.4.0.10
where Cijkl are the relaxation moduli. The Maxwell model represents reasonably the material relaxation. But it is only accurate for secondary creep as the viscous strains after unloading are not taken into account. Another simple schematic model for viscoelastic materials is given by Kelvin-Voigt solid. The model is represented by a simple spring-dashpot system working in parallel as shown in Figure 9.4.2. Figure 9.4.2 Kelvin-Voigt model
The mathematical relation of Kelvin-Voigt solid is written as:
& = E +
EQ. 9.4.0.11
When = 0 (no dashpot), the system is a linearly elastic system. When E=0 (no spring), the material behavior is expressed by Newton's equation for viscous fluids. In above relation, we have considered a one-dimensional model. For multiaxial situations, the equations can be generalized and rewritten in tensor form. The Maxwell and Kelvin-Voigt models are appropriate for ideal stress relaxation and creep behaviors. They are not adequate for most of physical materials. A generalization of these laws can be obtained by adding other springs to the initial models as shown in Figures 9.4.3 and 9.4.4. The equations related to the generalized Maxwell model are given as:
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EQ. 9.4.0.12 EQ. 9.4.0.13
= i + 1 =
&=
i
Ei &1 1 + E1 1
EQ. 9.4.0.14
The mathematical relations, which hold the generalized Kelvin-Voigt model are:
=e +k = e + k e =
E
;
EQ. 9.4.0.15
k =
V
Et
&k =
The combination of these equations allows to obtain the expression of stress and strain rates:
& = &e + &k =
& E
&k +
EQ. 9.4.0.16 EQ. 9.4.0.17
& k + Et k =
& & = E
(E + Et )
EEt
EQ. 9.4.0.18
Figure 9.4.3 Generalized Maxwell model
Figure 9.4.4 Generalized Kelvin-Voigt model
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The models described above concern the viscoelastic materials. The plasticity can be introduced in the models by using a plastic spring. The plastic element is inactive when the stress is less than the yield value. The modified model is able to reproduce creep and plasticity behaviors. The viscoplasticity law (33) in RADIOSS will allow to implement very general constitutive laws useful for a large rang of applications as low density closed cells polyurethane foam, honeycomb, impactors and impact limiters. The behavior of viscoelastic materials can be generalized to three dimensions by separating the stress and strain tensors into deviatoric and pressure components:
sij = 2 (t )
t 0 t
eij
EQ. 9.4.0.19
kk (t ) = 3K (t )
0
kk d
EQ. 9.4.0.20
where sij and eij are the stress and strain deviators. shear and bulk relaxation moduli.
kk , (t) and K (t) are respectively the dilatation and the
9.4.1 Boltzmann Viscoelastic model (law 34)

This law valid for solid elements can be used for viscoelastic materials like polymers, elastomers, glass and fluids. Elastic bulk behavior is assumed. Air pressure may be taken into account for closed cell foams:
P = K kk + Pair
with:
EQ. 9.4.1.1
Pair =
and:
P0 ; 1+
V
V 1 + 0 V0
EQ. 9.4.1.2
kk = ln V 0
EQ. 9.4.1.3
is the volumetric strain,
, the porosity, P0 the initial air pressure, 0 the initial volumetric strain and K the
bulk modulus. For deviatoric behavior, the generalized Maxwell model is used. The shear relaxation moduli in EQ. 9.4.0.19 is then defined as:
(t ) = Gl + Gs e t
Gs = G0 Gl
as the inverse of relaxation time
EQ. 9.4.1.4 EQ. 9.4.1.5
where G0 is the short time shear modulus, Gl the long time shear modulus and is the decay constant, defined
s : s = s
Gs
EQ. 9.4.1.6
with
The coefficients s , Gs and Gl are defined for the generalized Maxwell model as shown in Figure 9.4.5.
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Figure 9.4.5 Generalized Maxwell Model for Boltzmann law
From EQ. 9.4.1.4, the value of
For t=0, we obtain (t ) = G0 and when
governs the transition from the initial modulus G0 to the final modulus Gl .
t then (t ) Gl . For a linear response, we put G0 = GI .
9.4.2 Generalized Kelvin-Voigt model (law 35)

This law uses a generalized viscoelastic Kelvin-Voigt model whereas the viscosity is based on the Navier equations. The effect of the enclosed air is taken into account via a separate pressure versus compression function. For open cell foam, this function may be replaced by an equivalent "removed air pressure" function. The model takes into account the relaxation (zero strain rate), creep (zero stress rate), and unloading. It may be used for open cell foams, polymers, elastomers, seat cushions, dummy paddings, etc. In RADIOSS the law is compatible with shell and solid meshes. The simple schematic model in Figure 9.4.6 describes the generalized Kelvin-Voigt material model where a time-dependent spring working in parallel with a Navier dashpot is put in series with a nonlinear rate-dependent spring. If
m =
I1 is the mean stress, the deviatoric stresses sij at steps n and n+1 are computed by the 3
expressions:
n n n sij = ij ij m n +1 n &ij dt sij = sij +s
= 1 for i = j else = 0
EQ. 9.4.2.1 EQ. 9.4.2.2
with:
G + Gt 2G.Gt &ij = 2Ge &ij s sij (t ) + eij 0 0 G + Gt G.Gt &ij = Ge &ii s sii (t ) + eii 0 0
( for i j )
( for i = j )
EQ. 9.4.2.3
EQ. 9.4.2.4
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where G and Gt are defined as:
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&+B E Ae G = Min 2(1 + v ) , 2(1 + v )
EQ. 9.4.2.5
Gt =
Et 2(1 + vt )
EQ. 9.4.2.6
& + E2 ). In EQ. 9.4.2.5 the coefficients A and B are defined for Young's modulus updates ( E = E1
Figure 9.4.6 Generalized Kelvin-Voigt model for RADIOSS law 35
The expressions used by default to compute the pressure is:
KK t K + Kt dP &kk C2 kk + C3 kk = C1 K dt 3 + 2 0 3 + 2 0
where:
EQ. 9.4.2.7
K= Kt =
E 3(1 2v ) Et 3(1 2vt )
EQ. 9.4.2.8
EQ. 9.4.2.9
1 P = kk 3
EQ. 9.4.2.10
kk = ln V 0
and
EQ. 9.4.2.11
0 are the Navier Stokes viscosity coefficients which can be compared to Lame constants in elasticity. 2 V + 0 is called the volumetric coefficient of viscosity. For incompressible model, kk = 0 and
3
and
0 =
. In EQ. 9.4.2.11, C1, C2 and C3 are Boolean multipliers used to define different responses. For
example, C1=1, C2= C3=0 refers to a linear bulk model. Similarly, C1=C2=C3=1 corresponds to a visco-elastic bulk model. For polyurethane foams with closed cells, the skeletal spherical stresses may be increased by:
Pair =
P0 1+
EQ. 9.4.2.12
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where
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is the volumetric strain, , the porosity, P0 the initial air pressure. In RADIOSS, the pressure may
also be computed with the P versus
1 , by a user defined function. Air pressure may be assumed as 0
an "equivalent air pressure" vs . The user can define this function used for open cell foams or for closed cell by defining a model identical to material law FOAM_PLAS (33) (see following sections).
9.4.3 Tabulated strain rate dependent law for viscoelastic materials (law 38)
The law incorporated in RADIOSS can only be used with solid elements. It can be used to model: polymers, elastomers, foam seat cushions, dummy paddings, hyperfoams, hypoelastic materials.
In compression, the nominal stress-strain curves for different strain rates are defined by user (Figure 9.4.7). Up to 5 curves may be input. The curves represent nominal stresses versus engineering strains. Figure 9.4.7 Nominal stress-strain curves defined by user input functions
The first curve is considered to represent the static loading. All values of the strain rate lower than the assumed static curve are replaced by the strain rate of the static curve. It is reasonable to set the strain rate corresponding to the first curve equal to zero. For strain rates higher than the last curve, values of the last curve are used. For a &1 and higher & 2 strain rates are & , two values of function at for the two immediately lower given value of read. The related stress is then computed as:
a & &1 = 2 + ( 1 2 ) 1 & & 2 1 b
EQ. 9.4.3.1
Parameters a and b define the shape of the interpolation functions. If a = b = 1, then the interpolation is linear. The figure 9.4.8 shows the influence of a and b parameters.
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Figure 9.4.8 Influence of a and b parameters
The coupling between the principal nominal stresses in tension is computed using anisotropic Poisson's Ratio:
vij = vc + (vt vc ) 1 exp Rv ij
))
EQ. 9.4.3.2
t is the maximum Poisson's ratio in tension, c being the maximum Poisson's ratio in compression, and R, the exponent for the Poisson's ratio computation (in compression, Poisson's ratio is always equal to c ). In compression, material behavior is given by nominal stress vs nominal strain curves as defined by the user for different strain rates. Up to 5 curves may be input. The algorithm of the formulation follows several steps: 1. Compute principal nominal strains and strain rates. 2. Find corresponding stress value from the curve network for each principal direction. 3. Compute principal Cauchy stress. 4. Compute global Cauchy stress. 5. Compute instantaneous modulus, viscosity and stable time step. Stress, strain and strain rates must be positive in compression. Unloading may be either defined with an unloading curve, or else computed using the "static" curve, corresponding to the lowest strain rate (Figures 9.4.9 and 10).
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Figure 9.4.9 unloading behavior (no unloading curve defined)
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Figure 9.4.10 unloading behavior (unloading curve defined)
It should be noted that for stability reasons, damping is applied to strain rates with a damping factor:
& n 1 + RD ( &n & n 1 )
EQ. 9.4.3.3
The stress recovery may be applied to the model in order to ensure that the stress tensor is equal to zero, in an undeformed state. A hysteresis decay may be applied when loading, unloading or in both phases by:
= H min (1, (1 e (t ) ))
EQ. 9.4.3.4
Where, H is the hysteresis coefficient, and the relaxation parameter. Confined air content may be taken into account, either by using a user defined function, or using the following relation:
V 1 V 0 Pair = P0 V V 0
EQ. 9.4.3.5
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The relaxation may be applied to air pressure: Pair = Min(Pair , Pmax ) exp R p t .
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9.4.4 Generalized Maxwell-Kelvin model for viscoelastic materials (law 40)

This law may only be applied to solid elements. Bulk behavior is assumed to be linear:
dp &kk = K dt
Shear behavior is computed using a shear factor as follows:
EQ. 9.4.4.1
G (t ) = G + Gi e it
1
EQ. 9.4.4.2 Figure 9.4.11 Maxwell-Kelvin Model
9.4.5 Visco-elasto-plastic materials for foams (law 33)

This material law can be used to model low density closed cell polyurethane foams, impactors, impact limiters. It can only be used with solid elements. The main assumptions in this law are the following: The components of the stress tensor are uncoupled until full volumetric compaction is achieved (Poisson's ration = 0.0). The material has no directionality. The effect of enclosed air is considered via a separate Pressure vs Volumetric Strain relation:
Pair =
with:
P0 1+ V 1 + 0 V0
EQ. 9.4.5.1
EQ. 9.4.5.2
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being the volumetric strain, , the porosity, P0 the initial air pressure,
s
0 the
initial volumetric
strain. The skeletal stresses Figure 9.4.12) :
( ) before yield follow the Maxwell-Kelvin-Voight viscoelastic model (see

Figure 9.4.12 Maxwell-Kelvin-Voight Model
s &ij (t + t ) = ijs (t ) + ij E
E + Et
EEt s (t ) ij + ij t
EQ. 9.4.5.3
& + E2 ) The Young's Modulus used in the calculation is: E = max (E , E1

Plasticity is defined by a user defined curve vs volumetric strain, Plasticity is applied to the principal skeletal stresses. The full stress tensor is obtained by adding air pressure to the skeletal stresses: EQ. 9.4.5.4
, or
y = A + B (1 + C )
s ij (t ) = ij (t ) (Pair ij )
9.4.6 Hyper visco-elastic law for foams (law 62)

Experimental tests on foam specimens working in compression illustrate that the material behavior is highly nonlinear. The general behavior can be subdivided into three parts related to particular deformation modes of material cells. When the strain is small, the cells working in compression deform in membrane without causing buckling in its lateral thin-walls. In the second step, the lateral thin-walls of the cells buckle while the material undergoes large deformation. Finally, the last step the cells are completely collapsed and the contact between the lateral thin-walled cells increases the global stiffness of the material. As the viscous behavior of foams is demonstrated by various tests, it is worthwhile to elaborate a material law including the viscous and hyper elasticity effects. This is developed in [101] where a decoupling between viscous and elastic parts is introduced by using finite transformations. Only the deviatoric part of stress tensor is concerned by viscous effects. The isotropic hyper-elastic law applied to the spherical part of stress tensor is similar to that presented in section 9.1. The viscosity model is based on a generalization of Maxwells model for three-dimensional case using finite transformations in three steps [101]: Splitting the tensor of deformation gradient F on two parts; stretch (spherical), distortional (deviatoric), Decoupling assumption between spherical and diviatoric parts, Generalisation of formulation by convolution integral in three-dimensional case.
Fdev = J F Fsp = det(F) I

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EQ. 9.4.6.1 EQ. 9.4.6.2
128

with
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J = det(F) which gives the decomposition of the gradient of deformation as:

F = (Fsp ) 3 Fdev
1
EQ. 9.4.6.3
The hypothesis of decomposition applied to the elastic potential allows separating the density of total initial energy into two parts:
= sp + dev
EQ. 9.4.6.4
where indices sp and dev denote respectively spherical and deviatoric parts. Using Hills criteria to express the density of hyperelastic potential for crushable foams, it can be written as a function of principal stretches ( 1 , 2 , 3 ) and deformation gradient:
0 (1 , 2 , 3 ) =
i =1
2i i 1 i i + 2 i + 3 i 3 + 1 J 2 1 i i
EQ. 9.4.6.5
where n is the law order, for i=1,2, , n.
and
the material constants,
i =
(1 2 i )
with
the Poisson coefficients
The reader is invited to consult references [101] and [102] for more details.
9.5 Materials for Hydrodynamic Analysis

The following material laws are commonly used for fluid simulations: Johnson-Cook model for strain rate and temperature dependence on yield stress (law 4), Hydrodynamic viscous material for Newtonian or turbulent fluids (law 6), Elasto-plastic hydrodynamic materials with von Mises isotropic hardening and polynomial pressure (law 3), Steinberg-Guinan elasto-plastic hydrodynamic law with thermal softening (law 49), Boundary element materials (law 11): Purely thermal materials (law 18)
RADIOSS provides a material database incorporated in the installation. Many parameters are already defined by default and give accurate results. Some of them are described in the following sections: energy and pressure equations are solved simultaneously.
9.5.1 Johnson Cook Law for Hydrodynamics (law 4)

This material law combines both laws 2 and 3, as well as adding thermal characteristics such as melting temperature. The equations describing the state of stress and pressure are:
n ) = ( A + B p 1 + C ln
& (1 m ) &0
EQ. 9.5.1.1 EQ. 9.5.1.2
p = C0 + C1 + C2 2 + C3 3 + (C4 + C5 )En
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0 where = 0 melt
Material parameters are the same as in law 3. The parameters are: C = Strain rate coefficient
&0 = Reference strain rate.

m = Temperature exponent
melt = Melting temperature max = Maximum Temperature. For T > Tmax : m=1 is used.
p C p = specific heat per unit volume 0
For an explanation about strain rate filtering, refer to chapter 9.3.1.2.
9.5.2 Hydrodynamic Viscous Fluid Law (law 6)

This law is specifically designed to model liquids and gases. The equations used to describe the material are:
&ij Sij = 2 ve
EQ. 9.5.2.1 EQ. 9.5.2.2
p = C0 + C1 + C2 2 + C3 3 + (C4 + C5 )En
where Sij = Deviatoric stress tensor
= Kinematic viscosity
&ij = Deviatoric strain rate tensor e

The kinematic viscosity is related to the dynamic viscosity, by:
v=
EQ. 9.5.2.3
9.5.2.1 Modelling a perfect gas

To model a perfect gas, all coefficients C0, C1, C2, C3 must be set to equal zero. Also:
C 4 = C5 = 1
En 0 =
EQ. 9.5.2.4 EQ. 9.5.2.5
P0
A perfect gas allows compressibility and expansion and contraction with a rise in temperature. However, for many situations, especially very slow subsonic flows, an incompressible gas gives accurate and reliable results with less computation.
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9.5.2.2 Modelling an incompressible gas

To model an incompressible gas, the coefficients should be set to:
C0 = C2 = C3 =C 4 = C5 = E0 = 0 C1 = 0 c 2
where, c = speed of sound
EQ. 9.5.2.6 EQ. 9.5.2.7
Incompressibility is achieved via a penalty method. The sound speed is set to at least 10 times the maximum velocity. This classical assumption is not valid when fluid and structures are coupled. In this case, set the sound speed in the fluid so that the first eigen frequency is at least 10 times higher in the fluid than in the structure.
9.5.3 Elasto-plastic Hydrodynamic Material (law 3)

This law is only used with solid brick and quadrilateral elements. It models the elastic and plastic regions, similar to law 2, with a non linear behavior of pressure and without strain rate effect. The law is designed to simulate materials in compression. The stress - strain relationship for the material under tension is:
n ) = ( A + B p
EQ. 9.5.3.1
The compression relationship is given in terms of pressure, p:
p = C0 + C1 + C2 2 + C3 3 + (C4 + C5 )En
where
EQ. 9.5.3.2
= / 1
0
C0, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 = Hydrodynamic constants En = Energy per unit of initial volume The pressure and energy values are obtained by solving two linear equations:
Et + t = Et
1 1 1 (t + t + t ) p p 2 t t + t
0
EQ. 9.5.3.3
pt + t = F ( )t + t + G ( )t + t p Et + t
where F ( ) = C0 + C1 + C2 + C3
2 3
EQ. 9.5.3.4
G ( ) = C 4 + C 5
Input requires Young's or the elastic modulus, E, and Poisson's ratio, . These quantities are used only for the deviatoric part. They do not need to be consistent with the bulk modulus, C1. The plasticity material parameters are: A = Yield Stress B = Hardening Modulus n = Hardening Exponent
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A pressure cut off, pmin, can be given to limit the pressure in tension. The pressure cut off must be less than zero. Figure 9.5.1 shows a typical curve of the hydrodynamic pressure. Figure 9.5.1 Hydrodynamic Pressure Relationship
The coefficients C4 and C5 are used to control temperature effects. The initial energy per unit volume, En0, is also required. Simulations involving temperature effects can increase computational time substantially since energy and pressure equations are solved simultaneously.
9.5.4 Steinberg-Guinan material (law 49)

This law defines as elastic-plastic material with thermal softening. When material approaches meting point, the yield strength and shear modulus reduces to zero. The melting energy is defined as:
Em = Ecold + cvTm
EQ. 9.5.4.1
Where Ecold is cold compression energy and Tm melting temperature supposed to be constant. If the internal energy E is less than Em , the shear modulus and the yield strength are defined by the following equations:
1 Em E E Ec G = G0 1 + b1 pV 3 h 300 e c v 1 E Ec Em E 1 + b2 pV 3 h 300 y =0 c e v
Where b1 , b2 , h and
f fE
fE
EQ. 9.5.4.2
EQ. 9.5.4.3
is given by a hardening rule: are the material parameters. 0
= 0 1 + p 0
]n
EQ. 9.5.4.4
is limited by max . The value of 0

The material pressure is defined by a polynomial equation of state as in law 3 (EQ. 9.5.3.1).
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9.6 Void Material (law 0)

This material can be used to define elements to act as a void, or empty space.
9.7 Failure model

In addition to the possibility to define users material failure models, RADIOSS V10 integrates several failure models. These models use generally a global notion of cumulative damage to compute failure. They are mostly independent to constitutive law and the hardening model and can be linked to several available material laws. A compatibility table is given in the RADIOSS Reference Guide. The following table gives a brief description of available models. Table 9.0.2 FAILURE MODEL DESCRIPTION Type Description Chang-Chang model Failure criteria for composites Energy isotrop Composite model Hashin model Ductile failure model Cumulative damage law based on the plastic strain accumulation Composite delamination Ladeveze delamination model Composite model Puck model Failure due to fatigue Fracture appears when time integration of a stress expression becomes true Ductile Failure model Cumulative damage law Forming limit diagram Introduction of the experimental failure data in the simulation Ductile + Spalling Johnson Cook failure model with Spalling effect Traction Ductile material 3-D failure model for solid and shells Ductile (brittle) failure model Modified Tuler-Butcher model
Failure Model CHANG ENERGY HASHIN JOHNSON LAD_DAMA PUCK TBUTCHER WILKINS FLD SPALLING TENSSTRAIN WIERZBICKI XFEM
9.7.1 Johnson-Cook failure model

High-rate tests in both compression and tension using the Hopkinson bar generally demonstrate the stress-strain response is highly isotropic for a large scale of metallic materials. The Johnson-Cook model is very popular as it includes a simple form of the constitutive equations. In addition, it also has a cumulative damage law that can be accesses failure:
d =
f
& * 1 + D5T & 0
EQ. 9.7.1.1
with:
f = [D1 + D2 exp(D3 * )]1 + D4 ln
]
* = m VM
EQ. 9.7.1.2
where is the increment of plastic strain during a loading increment,
the normalized mean stress
and the parameters Di the material constants. Failure is assumed to occur when d=1.
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9.7.2 Wilkins failure criteria

An early continuum model for void nucleation is presented in [98]. The model proposes that the decohesion (failure) stress c is a critical combination of the hydrostatic stress m and the equivalent von Mises stress
VM : c = m + VM
EQ. 9.7.2.1
In a similar approach, a failure criteria based on a cumulative equivalent plastic strain was proposed by Wilkins. Two weight functions are introduced to control the combination of damage due to the hydrostatic and deviatoric loading components. The failure is assumed when the cumulative reaches a critical value dc. The cumulative damage is obtained by:
d c = W1W2 d p W1W2 ip
0
EQ. 9.7.2.2
i =1
with: W1 = where:
1 1 + aP
, P=
s2 s 2 1 3 jj , W2 = (2 A) , A = Max s ,s , s1 s2 s3 3 j =1 3 1
p is an increment of the equivalent plastic strain,

W1 is the hydrostatic pressure weighting factor, W2 is the deviatoric weighting factor, si are the deviatoric principal stresses, a,
and
are the material constants.
9.7.3 Tuler-Butcher failure criteria

A solid may break owning to fatigue due to Tuler-Butcher criteria [99]:
d = ( r ) dt
t
EQ. 9.7.3.1
where r is the fracture stress, constant called damage integral.
material constant, t is the time when solid cracks and d another material
9.7.4 Forming Limit Diagram for failure (FLD)

In this method the failure zone is defined in the plane of principal strains (Fig. 9.7.1). The method usable for shell elements allows introducing the experimental results in the simulation.
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Figure 9.7.1 Generic forming limit diagram (FLD)
MATERIALS
major (%)
Failure zone
min (%)
9.7.5 Spalling with Johnson-Cook Failure model

In this model, the Johnson-Cook failure model is combined to a Spalling model where we take into account the spall of the material when the pressure achieves a minimum value pmin. The deviatoric stresses are set to zero for compressive pressure. If the hydrostatic tension is computed, then the pressure is set to zero. The failure equations are the same as in Johnson-Cook model.
9.7.6 Bao-Xue-Wierzbicki Failure model

Bao-Xue-Wierzbicki model [115] represents a 3-D fracture criterion which can be expressed by the following equations:
n n n ](1 m ) fn = max [ max min
1/ m
EQ. 9.7.6.1
max = C1e C
2
min = C3e C
4
Where C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , defined as following:
and m are the material constants, n the hardening parameter and
and
are
for solids:
= =
m VM m VM
27 J 3 2 VM 3 27 2 1 2 3
with:
for shells:
m : hydrostatic stress
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VM : von Mises stress

J 3 = s1s2 s3 : Third invariant of principal deviatoric stresses
Figure 9.7.2 Graphical representation of Bao-Xue-Wierzbicki failure criteria
f f
=const
max
min
-1 0
f
+1
9.7.7 Strain Failure Model

This failure model can be compared to the damage model in law 27. When the principal tension strain reaches when
t1 a damage factor D is applied to reduce the stress as shown in Fig. 9.7.3. The element is ruptured D=1. In addition, the maximum strains t1 and t 2 may depend on the strain rate by defining a scale
function. Figure 9.7.3 Strain failure model
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9.7.8 Specific Energy Failure Model

When the energy per unit volume achieves the value E1 , then the damage factor D is introduced to reduce the stress. For the limit value E2 , the element is ruptured. In addition, the energy values E1 and E2 may depend on the strain rate by defining a scale function. Figure 9.7.4 Strain failure model
9.7.9 XFEM Crack Initialization Failure Model

This failure model is available for Shell only. The failure mode criteria are written as: For ductile materials, the cumulative damage parameter is:
where,
r is the fracture stress is the maximum principal stress
is the material constant

t is the time when shell cracks for initiation of a new crack within the structure D is another material constant called damage integral For brittle materials, the damage parameter is:
r = 0 (1 - D)b
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Chapter
MONITORED VOLUME
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10.0 MONITORED VOLUME

An airbag is defined as a monitored volume. A monitored volume is defined as having one or more 3 or 4 node shell property sets. The defined surface must be closed (the normal to shell elements must be all oriented outward as shown in Figure 10.0.1). The shell normal must be oriented outside the volume. It is possible to reverse the shell normals for a given property set (by entering a negative property number). Dummy properties (property type 0) and materials (material type 0) can be used. Figure 10.0.1 Tire model: volume closed
There are five types of MONITORED VOLUME: AREA Type: volume and surface output (post processing option, no pressure) PRES Type: user function defining pressure versus relative volume GAS Type: adiabatic pressure volume relation. P (V Vinc ) = Cst
with
cp cv
AIRBAG Type: Single airbag PV = nRT = mrT
P = rT = (c p cv )T = ( 1)cvT = ( 1)
E V
COMMU Type: Chambered, communicating, folded airbag (airbag with communications) Same basic equations: Typical use of monitored volume is for tire, fuel tank, airbag.
For tire use PRES or GAS type monitored volume. For fuel tank use PRES or GAS type monitored volume. For simple unfolded airbag use AIRBAG type monitored volume. For chambered airbag use two ore more COMMU type monitored volumes. For folded airbag use a set of COMMU type monitored volumes.
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MONITORED VOLUME
10.1 AREA type monitored volume

This type is only a post processing option. It allows plotting of the Time History of volume and area of a closed surface. No pressure is applied with this option. No specific input is needed for this type.
10.2 PRES type monitored volume

With this type the pressure is defined versus relative volume with a tabulated function: P = F(Vo/V) where F(x): Function Vo: Initial volume No external pressure is defined. Only the load curve number is needed as specific input.
10.3 GAS type monitored volume

This option gives an adiabatic pressure volume relation. With = 1 an isothermal condition can also be applied. It is possible to define an incompressible sub-volume to model a volume partially filled with a liquid. The general equation is:
P(V Vi ) = P0 (V0 Vi )
With Vo: initial volume Vi: incompressible volume Vi < Vo A viscosity If
can be used to reduce numerical oscillations.
= 1 a critical damping (shell mass and volume stiffness) is used. The viscous pressure q is:
q=
1 Pm fabric dV A V dt
where m fabric = At is the mass of fabric and A its surface. The applied pressure is P - Pext + q. The specific inputs for this type are: - -
- Pext - Po - Vi
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MONITORED VOLUME
If the deflation is considered (isenthalpic outflow computation), the initial mass of gas, must also be input. This monitored volume is typically used to model tire pressure or simple fuel tank. For tire model Vi is zero and for fuel tank Vi is the fuel volume.
10.3.1 Thermodynamical equations

The basic energy equation of the monitored volume can be written as:
dEMonitored Volume = Pd (V Vi ) dH out

where
EQ. 10.3.1.1
E is the internal energy P is the pressure V is the monitored volume Vi incompressible volume
H out is the outgoing enthalpy
When the adiabatic condition is applied and assuming a perfect gas:
P=
( 1)E
V Vi
EQ. 10.3.1.2
where is the gas constant. For air, = 1.4. The two equations above allow the current volume to be determined. The energy and pressure can then be found.
10.3.2 Variation of external work

At the current time step, t, assume we know:
P(t-dt) E(t-dt)
~ V = V Vi
W(t), E(t), P(t) will be obtained as follows. Let:
W =
P(t ) + P(t dt ) ~ ~ V (t ) V (t dt ) 2
EQ. 10.3.2.1
be the variation of external work and from the adiabatic condition:
P=
we have:
( 1)E
~ V ~ E (t ) E (t dt ) ( 1)V ~ + ~ V 2 (t ) V (t dt )
EQ. 10.3.2.2
W =
EQ. 10.3.2.3
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Let now: E = E(t-dt)
MONITORED VOLUME
~ ~ ~ V = V (t ) V (t dt ) / 2 E = E (t ) E (t dt ) ~ 1 + ( 1) V W = 2 E 1 E + ~ ~ ~ V V V 1+ ~ 1 ~ 2V 2V
EQ. 10.3.2.4
Hence, the external work is given by:
~ V E W ( 1)E ~ 1 + V 2E
Computing the energy from basic principles:
EQ. 10.3.2.5
~ V E H out E = ( 1)E ~ 1 + V 2E
EQ. 10.3.2.6
H out can be estimated from, u(t-dt), the velocity at vent hole; this estimation will be described hereafter.
The variation of internal energy E can be given by:
~ ~ V V E = ( 1)E ~ H out 1 ( 1)E ~ 2V V

Therefore:
EQ. 10.3.2.7
E (t ) = E (t dt ) + E
EQ. 10.3.2.8 EQ. 10.3.2.9
E (t ) P(t ) = ( 1) ~ V (t )
This pressure is then applied to the monitored volume to get: 1. New accelerations 2. New velocities
3. ew geometry 4. New volume

5. Ready for next step evaluation
10.3.3 Venting
Venting, or the expulsion of gas from the volume, is assumed to be isenthalpic. The flow is also assumed to be unshocked, coming from a large reservoir and through a small orifice with effective surface area, A. Conservation of enthalpy leads to velocity, u, at the vent hole. The Bernouilli equation is then written as: (monitored volume)
1 vent
Pext
u2 (vent hole) 2
EQ. 10.3.3.1
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Applying the adiabatic conditions: (monitored volume)
MONITORED VOLUME
vent
Pext
(vent hole)
EQ. 10.3.3.2
Therefore, the exit velocity is given by:

1 2 P Pext u = 1 1 P
2
EQ. 10.3.3.3
The mass flow rate is given by:
& out m
P = vent Avent u = ext P

1/
1/
Avent u
EQ. 10.3.3.4
The energy flow rate is given by:
E P & =m & ~ = E ext out V P
E Avent u ~ V
EQ. 10.3.3.5
The vent hole area or scale factor area, Avent, can be defined in two ways: - a constant area taking into account a discharge coefficient - a variable area equal to the area of a specified surface, multiplied by a discharge coefficient. - a variable area equal to the area of the deleted elements within a specified surface, multiplied by a discharge coefficient.
10.3.4 Supersonic outlet flow

Vent pressure Pvent is equal to external pressure Pext for unshocked flow. For shocked flow, Pvent is equal to critical pressure Pcrit and U is bounded to critical sound speed:
u2 <
And,
2 2 2 P c = +1 +1
EQ. 10.3.4.1
Pcrit
2 1 = P +1
Pvent = max(Pcrit , Pext)
10.3.5 GAS type monitored volume examples

Some applications in RADIOSS:
A tire model : The inputs are: - = 1.4 -
= 0.
- Pext= 105 Pa - Po = initial tire pressure - Vinc = 0
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A fuel tank model if the sloshing effect is neglected
MONITORED VOLUME
Only if the sloshing effect is neglected, pressure in a partial filled fuel tank can be modeled with a type GAS monitored volume. Use following input: - = 1.4 -
= 0.01
- Pext = 105 Pa - Po = 105 Pa - Vinc = volume of fuel
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10.4 AIRBAG type monitored volume

The airbag simulation used by RADIOSS uses a special uniform pressure airbag. Hence, regardless of state of inflation or shape, the pressure remains uniform. Perfect gas law and adiabatic conditions are assumed. Injected mass and temperature are defined as a time function. A sensor can define the inflater starting time. Deflation of vent hole is available after reaching a pressure (Pdef) for a given duration
t Pdef or at time (Tdef)
criteria. t Pdef prevents deflation due to initial peak of pressure corresponding to the jetting activation. Figure 10.4.1 Uniform Pressure Airbag
P,V,, , ,
H in
M in Pext UVent , M out , H out

The key assumptions are:
H out
Uniform airbag pressure kinetic energy is negligible Adiabatic conditions

The airbag simulation must include:
Injection of energy and mass Bag mechanics (i.e. unfolding, expansion, membrane tension, impacts ...) Exhaust through vent holes

The basic energy equation of the airbag can be written as:
dEairbag = PdV + dH in dH out

Where: E is the internal energy P is the pressure V is the airbag volume
EQ. 10.4.1.1
H in is the incoming enthalpy
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H out is the outgoing enthalpy
When the adiabatic condition is applied and assuming a perfect gas:
MONITORED VOLUME
P=
( 1)E
V
EQ. 10.4.1.2
where is the gas constant. For air, = 1.4 The two equations above allow the current airbag volume to be determined. The energy and pressure can then be found. To know the current airbag volume, derive energy and thus pressure. Considering a gas such that the constant pressure and the constant volume heat capacities per mass unit (respectively, cp and cv) vary in temperature T. The following temperature dependency of the constant pressure heat capacity is assumed:
c p = a + bT + cT 2
where a, b and c are the constants depending to characteristics of the gas. The cp and cv satisfy the Mayer relation:
EQ. 10.4.1.3
c p (T) - c v (T) =
R M
EQ. 10.4.1.4
With R is the universal gas constant depending to the unit system (R=8.3144 Jmol-1K-1):
cv (T ) =
de (T ) dT
h(t ) = e(t ) +
EQ. 10.4.1.5
Where, e is the specific energy and h the specific enthalpy per mass unit of the gas at temperature T. We can then obtain:
T
e(T ) = ecold +
Tcold
cv (T )dT
and
h(T ) = ecold +
Tcold
c (T )dT + M T
v
EQ. 10.4.1.6
Where, the lower index cold refers to the reference temperature Tcold. Now, assuming an ideal mixture of gas:
PV = nRT
with n the total number of moles:
EQ. 10.4.1.7
n = n (i ) =
i i
m (i ) M (i )
EQ. 10.4.1.8
where m(i) is the mass of gas i, and M(i) is the molar weight of gas i. It follows:
P=
with n =
nRT V
EQ. 10.4.1.9
m (i ) . (i ) i M
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10.4.2 Energy variation within a time step

Let T(t-t) the temperature, P(t-t) the pressure, and V(t-t) the volume of the airbag at time t-t, and m(i) the mass of gas i at time t-t. T(t), P(t), V(t) are respectively temperature, pressure and volume of the airbag at time t, and m
(i) (i) + min - m (i) out the mass of gas i at time t.
Using EQ. 10.4.1.5, the variation of total gas energy can be written as:
T (t ) T ( t t ) (i ) (i ) (i ) (i) (i ) (i ) (i ) (i ) E = (m + m in m out ) e cold + cv (T )dT m e cold + cv (T )dT i Tcold Tcold i
EQ. 10.4.2.1 which can be written as:
T (t ) (i ) E = (m (i ) + m (i ) in m (i ) out ) cv (T )dT + m ( i ) in m (i ) out i T (t t ) i
) e
T ( t t ) (i ) cold
(i ) c ( T ) dT v Tcold
EQ. 10.4.2.2 On the other hand, the basic energy equation EQ. 10.4.1.1 of the airbag and the expression of enthalpy in EQ. 10.4.1.5 gives:
T ( i ) in R (i ) (i ) (i ) (i ) E = m in e cold + (i ) T in + cv (T )dT M Tcold i T ( i ) out (i ) R (i ) (i ) m out e cold + (i ) T out + cv (i ) (T )dT W M Tcold i
EQ. 10.4.2.2
Where m(i)in and T(i)in are characteristics of the inflator and are considered as input to the problem. m out and T(i)out can be estimated from the velocity at vent hole u(t). W is the variation of the external work. This estimation will be described hereafter. It comes from EQ. 10.4.2.1 and EQ. 10.4.2.2:
(i)
(m
i
(i )
+ m (i ) in m( i ) out
) c
T (t )
(i )
v T ( t t )
(T )dT =
(i) (i ) Tin Tout R (i ) (i ) (i ) R (i ) ( ) ( ) i i m W min T c ( T ) dT T c ( T ) dT + + in v out out v (i ) M (i ) M i i T ( t t ) T ( t t )
EQ. 10.4.2.3 The variation of the external work can be written as:
W =
(P(t ) + P(t t )) (V (t ) V (t t ))
2
EQ. 10.4.2.4
Using EQ. 10.4.1.8, the last expression can be written as:
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MONITORED VOLUME
m(i ) + m(i ) in m (i ) out m(i ) RT ( t ) RT (t t ) (i ) (i ) M M 1 + i W = i (V (t ) V (t t )) 2 V (t ) V (t t )

EQ. 10.4.2.5 The last equation can be introduced to EQ. 10.4.2.3:
(i ) (i ) (i ) m + m in m out i
) c
T (t )
(i )
v T ( t t )
m (i ) + m( i ) in m (i ) out V (t ) V (t t ) RT (t ) (T )dT + (i ) M 2V (t ) i
T ( i ) in T ( i ) out R (i ) (i ) (i ) (i ) R (i ) (i ) = m in T in + cv (T )dT m out T out + cv (T )dT ( ) i ( ) i M i M T ( t t ) T ( t t ) i (i ) m V (t ) V (t t ) M (i ) RT (t t ) 2V (t t ) i
EQ. 10.4.2.6
T (t )
The first order approximation EQ. 10.4.2.6 as:
v T (t t )
(i )
(T ) cv (T t t )(T (t ) T (t t )) for each gas, which allows rewrite

(i )
(i ) (i ) (i ) (i ) m + m in m out cv (T t t )(T (t ) T (t t )) + i (i ) (i ) (i ) m + m in m out V (t ) V (t t ) RT (t ) (i ) 2V (t ) M i EQ. 10.4.2.7 (i) T in T ( i ) out R i (i ) ( ) i (i ) R (i ) ( ) = m in T in + cv (T )dT m out ( i ) Tout + cv (T )dT M (i ) i M i T ( t t ) T ( t t )
m(i ) V (t ) V (t t ) M ( i ) RT (t t ) 2V (t t ) i
Which allows to determine the actual temperature T(t). The actual pressure then computed from the equation of perfect gas (EQ. 10.4.1.8).
10.4.3 Mass injection

The amount of mass injected into the airbag needs to be defined with respect to time. This is required as a function. The specific heat, cp , along with a function defining the change in temperature with time is required. The data can be obtained by two methods: 1. Possibly from the airbag manufacturer 2. From a tank experiment A diagram of a tank experiment can be seen in Figure 10.4.2.
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Figure 10.4.2 Tank Experiment
MONITORED VOLUME
&V P dE & c p Tin = =m 1 dt
The mass versus time curve can be derived from the pressure curve if Tin is known:
& = m
& VM P RTin
EQ. 10.4.3.1
Where, M is the molecular weight of the injected gas. R is the perfect gas constant : The average estimate for temperature of injection is:
cp R = c p cv ; = . cv M
Tin =
where:
P VM m R
EQ. 10.4.3.2
P is the total pressure variation during the experiment. m is the total injected mass, which can be derived from the mass of propellant in the pyrotechnic inflator and the chemical reaction; 40% is a typical value for the ratio of the produced mass of gas to the solid propellant mass.
10.4.4 Venting: outgoing mass determination

Venting, or the expulsion of gas from the airbag, is assumed to be isenthalpic. The flow is also assumed to be unshocked, coming from a large reservoir and through a small orifice with effective surface area, A. Conservation of enthalpy leads to velocity, u , at the vent hole. The Bernouilli equation is then written as: (airbag)
1
P
1 vent
Pext
u2 2
(vent hole)
EQ. 10.4.4.1
Applying the adiabatic conditions: (airbag)
vent
Pext
(vent hole)
EQ. 10.4.4.2
Therefore, the exit velocity is given by:

1 2 P Pext u = 1 1 P
2
EQ. 10.4.4.3
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with
m
i
(i )
(i ) (i ) (i ) m c p / m i i the fraction of massic the averaged density of the gas and = (i ) (i ) (i ) m cv / m i i
averages of heat capacities at constant pressure and constant volume. The mass flow rate is given by:
1/
P & out = vent Avent u = ext m P

Avent u
EQ. 10.4.4.4
E Pext & =m & = E out V P
1/
Avent u
E V
P = ext P
1/
EQ. 10.4.4.5
The total mass flow rate is given by dmout where Avent is the vent hole surface.
Avent u
EQ. 10.4.4.6
The vent hole area or scale factor area, Avent, can be defined in two ways:
a constant area taking into account a discharge coefficient a variable area equal to the area of a specified surface multiplied by a discharge coefficient.
10.4.4.1 Supersonic outlet flow Vent pressure Pvent is equal to external pressure Pext for unshocked flow. For shocked flow, Pvent is equal to critical pressure Pcrit and U is bounded to critical sound speed:
u2 <
And,
2 2 2 P c = +1 +1
EQ. 10.4.4.7
Pcrit
2 1 = P +1
Pvent = max(Pcrit , Pext) 10.4.4.2 Outgoing mass per gas The mass flow of gas i is dm
(i )
out
V (i ) dmout , where V(i) is the volume occupied by gas i and satisfies: V
V (i ) =
n(i ) V (from PV ( i ) = n (i ) RT and PV = n (i ) RT ). n i
It comes finally
dm (i ) out =
n (i ) dmout n (i )
i
EQ. 10.4.4.8
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10.4.5 Porosity
The isenthalpic model is also used for porosity. In this case, one can define the outgoing surface by the following equation:
AOUT = f ( A) g ( P) h(t )
where:
EQ. 10.4.5.1
A : Area of the specified surface.
: Scale factor
P : Pressure of the gas t : Time
It is also possible to define closure of the porous surface in the case of contact. The second model integrated in RADIOSS is called Chemkin model in which the mass flow due to the porosity is computed by:
& = Avent u airbag m

where u is user defined function represented as :
EQ. 10.4.5.2
u = f (P Pext )
EQ. 10.4.5.3
10.4.6 Initial conditions

To avoid initial disequilibrium and mathematical discontinuity for zero mass or zero volume, following initial conditions are set: - Pini = Pext - Tini - If the initial volume is less than 10 Vini = 10
4
3 3
A 2 a constant small volume is added to obtain an initial volume:
A2
- Initial mass energy density is defined from the above values. There is no need to define an injected mass at time zero.
10.4.7 Jetting effect

The jetting effect is modeled as an overpressure applied to each element of the airbag (Figure 10.4.3)
rr Pjet = P 1 (t ).P 2 ( ).P 3 ( ). max (n.n1 ,0 )
EQ. 10.4.7.1
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with:
MONITORED VOLUME
r n1 being the normalized vector between the projection of the center of the element upon segment
(N1,N3) and the center of element as shown in the figure.
is the angle between the vector MN 2 and the vector n1 . the distance between the center of the element and its projection of a point upon segment (N1, N3).
The projection upon the segment (N1, N3) is defined as the projection of the point in direction MN 2 upon the line (N1, N3) if it lies inside the segment (N1, N3). If this is not the case, the projection of the point upon segment (N1, N3) is defined as the closest node N1 or N3. If N3 coincides to N1, the dihedral shape of the jet is reduced to a conical shape. Figure 10.4.3 Jetting effect schema
10.4.8 Reference Metric

This option can be used to inflate an airbag instead of simulating the real unfolding which is difficult numerically. A jetting effect can be added in order to set a preferential direction for the unfolding. An initial State (airbag geometry input by the user in the initial deck D00) is given. Reference Metric is a reference state with no strains. This state is defined from a file containing the nodal coordinates, the connectivities of the airbag being the same as in the Initial State. The format of this file is the same as the format of Nodal Coordinates of a RADIOSS Starter input. The file is read according to /REFSTA keyword of a RADIOSS Starter input deck. The default name is RunNameRS0. The Reference Metric method consists in the calculation for the Initial State of the initial strains, stresses and energy. Compatible with: - 4-node shells - 3-node shells - large strain option - small strain option - material law # 1 - material law # 19
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Figure 10.4.4 Reference metric schema
MONITORED VOLUME
10.4.9 Tank experiment

Injected mass curve and injection temperature can be obtained from:
the airbag manufacturer a tank test
With a tank test it is possible to measure temperature at injection point or in the middle of the tank. For pressure the two values are equal. Figure 10.4.5 Tank experiment schema
10.4.9.1 Tin and P are known:
dP V dt &= m ( 1)CV Tin

10.4.9.2 T and P are known:
EQ. 10.4.9.1
dT dP P T V dt dt & m= ( 1)CV T 2
EQ. 10.4.9.2
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Or,
MONITORED VOLUME
m=
PV ( 1)CV T T2 dP dt
EQ. 10.4.9.3
Tin =
dT dP T P dt dt
EQ. 10.4.9.4
Or,
dT Tin = + dt & m T m
And if T is constant: Tin = T/
EQ. 10.4.9.5
10.5 Monitored volume type COMMU

The airbag simulation used by RADIOSS adopts a special uniform pressure airbag. Hence, regardless of the state of inflation or shape, the pressure is uniform. Perfect gas law and adiabatic conditions are assumed. Injected mass and temperature are defined as a time function. A sensor can define the inflate starting time. Deflation of vent hole is available after reaching a pressure (Pdef) or time (Tdef) criteria. Figure 10.5.1 Chambered airbag schema
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The key assumptions are:
MONITORED VOLUME
Uniform airbag pressure kinetic energy is negligible Adiabatic conditions

The airbag simulation must include:
Injection of energy and mass Bag mechanics (i.e. unfolding, expansion, membrane tension, impacts ...) Exhaust through vent holes
This option is used to simulate chambered airbags and may be used to unfold an airbag. Each COMMU type monitored volume works like an AIRBAG type monitored volume with possible vent communication with some other monitored volume of COMMU type. A chambered airbag is therefore modeled with two or more COMMU type monitored volumes. Each monitored volume can have an inflater and an atmospheric vent hole. Monitored volume 1 can communicate with monitored volume 2 with or without communication from 2 to 1. Communicating area, deflation pressure or time from 1 to 2 can be different from corresponding values from 2 to 1. It is thereby possible to model a valve communication.

Same equations as for AIRBAG type monitored volume are used. Refer to Chapter 10.4.1.
10.5.2 Variation of external work

10.5.3 Mass injection

10.5.4 Venting
Same equations as for AIRBAG type monitored volume are used. Refer to Chapter 10.4.4. The mass flow rate is given by:
1/
P & out = vent Avent u = ext m P

Avent u
EQ. 10.5.4.1
E Pext & =m & = E out V P
1/
Avent u
E V
EQ. 10.5.4.2
These mass and energy flux are removed from the current volume and added to the communicating volume at next cycle.
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10.5.5 Supersonic outlet flow

Same equations as for AIRBAG type monitored volume is used. Refer to Chapter 10.4.4.1.
10.5.6 Jetting effect

Same explanation as for AIRBAG type monitored volume is used. Refer to Chapter 10.4.7.
10.5.7 Reference Metric

Same explanation as for AIRBAG type monitored volume is used. Refer to Chapter 10.4.8.
10.5.8 Examples of COMMU type monitored volume

10.5.8.1 Example 1
Volume 1 communicates with volume 2 and vice versa. Monitored volume 1 communicates with monitored volume 2 with or without communication from 2 to 1. The communicating area, deflation pressure or time from 1 to 2 can be different from the corresponding values from 2 to 1. It is thereby possible to model a valve communication.
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Figure 10.5.2 Example 1: communication between the 2 volumes
Pext U Vent , M out , H out
M in
Pext U Vent , M out , H out
10.5.8.2 Example 2
Volume 1 communicates with volume 2 and volume 2 with volumes 1 and 3, but there is no communication from 3 to 2. Two COMMU type monitored volume communications can have common nodes or common shell property sets but this is optional. To model a folded airbag, one COMMU type monitored volume is used for each folded part. The boundary between two folded parts is closed with a dummy property set (fictitious property). The pressure in each folded part will be different and the area of communication will increase during inflation. With this model, the volume with inflater will inflate first and before than folded parts (better than "jetting" model).
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Figure 10.5.3 Example 2: no communication between 2 and 3
U Vent , M out , H out
M in
Pext
10.5.8.3 Example 3
Volume 1 and volume 2 with common property set.
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Figure 10.5.4 Monitored volume with communication coefficient
10.5.8.4 Example 4: a folded airbag
Volume 1: Prop. 1+4+5 Volume 2: Prop. 2+4 Volume 3: Prop 3+5
Communication area Vol. 1 to 2: prop. 4 Vol. 2 to 1: prop. 4 Vol. 1 to 3: prop. 5 Vol. 3 to 1: prop. 5
Property
Property
Property
Dummy property
Dummy property
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Chapter
STATIC
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STATIC
11.0 STATIC
Explicit scheme is generally used for time integration in RADIOSS, in which velocities and displacements are obtained by direct integration of nodal accelerations as described in chapter 4. With this approach, the time step is often small due to stability condition. For the static solution of structural mechanical problems as the steady state is a part of the transient response for a temporal-step load, the use of explicit scheme is usually possible if the computation time remains reasonable. However, in static or slow dynamic computations as duration of the study is large, many cycles are necessary to carry out the simulation. To resolve static problems, an alternative to explicit method is the implicit time-integration scheme. In this method, a system of nonlinear equations is obtained and then resolved by Newton-Raphson method. It can be shown that the implicit scheme is always stable. That results in a large time step with the explicit method. However, as a global stiffness matrix should be assembled and inverted, the method is relatively high cost per loading step. The primary difference between the explicit and implicit methods is that an explicit algorithm obtains the next value from known previous values. An implicit method assumes a solution to a problem and solves the equations simultaneously. As the global equilibrium equation is generally nonlinear, an iterative numerical resolution is generally used. The implicit method might fail when:
The material law is highly nonlinear. Complicated material behavior is easier to accommodate using an explicit method. The number of elements is too large. Explicit method does not require large matrix inversion, the I/O is less important and the memory required is also less. Matrices must be re-evaluated at each time step and for most of the iterations. The problem includes several contacts. Contact algorithms are very efficient in explicit programs. The static analysis is a pre-loading case before a fully dynamic behavior phase. In this case, the coupling of two phases is very common. Explicit approaches furnish an alternative to the previous cases.
In such cases the CPU time of an explicit solution becomes competitive:
In RADIOSS V5 both of implicit and explicit methods are available to study the static behavior of systems. The choice a method depends on the nature of the problem and the engineers feeling. The explicit approach is especially attractive for problems with highly nonlinear geometric and material behavior as all quantities may be treated as vectors, resulting in low storage requirements. The number of cycles to achieve convergence may be quite large, but global efficiency is generally observed. The implicit method is introduced to study efficiently static applications such as spring back in sheet metal forming or gravity loading or other initial state computations before / after dynamic simulations.
11.1 Static solution by explicit time-integration

Explicit algorithms are very useful for modeling a dynamic simulation. However, they cannot model a quasistatic or static simulation as easily. This is due the fact that in an explicit approach, first the nodal accelerations are found by resolving the equilibrium equation at time tn. Other d.o.fs are then computed by explicit time integration. This procedure implies that the nodal acceleration must exist; however, some numerical methods may be employed for the simulation of a static process:
Slow dynamic computation
The loading is applied at a rate sufficiently slow to minimize the dynamic effects. The final solution is obtained by smoothing the curves. In case of elasto-plastic problems, one must minimize dynamic overshooting because of the irreversibility of the plastic flow.
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Dynamic relaxation or Nodal Damping (/DYREL)
STATIC
This method was first introduced by Otter [19] and has been used in several hydrodynamic codes (e.g. HEMP [2]). A nodal damping Cv is added to the momentum equation:
dv + C = f ext f int dt Fc = CV
EQ. 11.1.1.1
The dashpot force is calculated by: EQ. 11.1.1.2
The internal force is calculated by:
Fk = KX = Fkt t / 2 + KVt
EQ. 11.1.1.3 EQ. 11.1.1.4
0 =
Fk M
The total acceleration is given by:
1 = 0 +
Fc CV = 0 M M
EQ. 11.1.1.5 EQ. 11.1.1.6 EQ. 11.1.1.7
Vt + t / 2 = Vt t / 2 + 1 t
1 V = Vt t / 2 + 1t 2
Vt + t / 2 = Vt t / 2 + 0 t
We have:
CV t M
EQ. 11.1.1.8
Vt + t / 2 = Vt t / 2 + 0 t
1 C Vt t / 2 + 1t t 2 M t
EQ. 11.1.1.9
1 C Ct Vt + t / 2 = 1 Vt t / 2 + 0 1t M M 2
EQ. 11.1.1.10
C 1 Ct 0 t Vt + t / 2 = 1 1 t Vt t / 2 + M M 0
Approximation
EQ. 11.1.1.11
1 t = 1 after the variable is changed, = C 0 2M
, we obtain :
Vt + t / 2 = (1 2 )Vt t / 2 + (1 ) 0 t
EQ. 11.1.1.12 EQ. 11.1.1.13
=C
2M t C = 2M t
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Which, gives the expression of C as a proportional matrix to M with:
STATIC
C = AM
or A =
and
A=
2 t
EQ. 11.1.1.14
2 t
EQ. 11.1.1.15
EQ. 11.1.1.16
Combining EQ. 11.1.1.14 and 15, and we obtain:
C=
2M
EQ. 11.1.1.17
Where is the relaxation coefficient whose recommended value is 1. is less than or equal to the highest period of the system. These are the input parameters used in /DYREL option. The explicit time integration scheme is changed to compute the new velocities. The explicit time integration given in chapter 4 gives (EQ. 4.1.2.7):
Vt + t / 2 = Vt t / 2 + t t
which is now written as:
EQ. 11.1.1.18
Vt + t / 2 = (1 2 )Vt t / 2 + (1 ) t t
where:
EQ. 11.1.1.19
EQ. 11.1.1.20
Energy discrete relaxation
This empirical methodology consists in setting to zero the nodal velocities each time the Kinetic Energy reaches a maximum.
Rayleigh damping
In this method a proportional damping matrix is defined as: Table 1: C = M + K
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
EQ. 11.1.1.21
where and are the pre-defined constants. In modal analysis, the use of a proportional damping matrix allows to reduce the global equilibrium equation to n-uncoupled equations by using an orthogonal transformation. If the global equilibrium equation is expressed as:
&& }+ [C ]{X & }+ [K ]{X } = {F } [M ]{X t
EQ. 11.1.1.22
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The transformed uncoupled system of equations can be written as:
STATIC
&&}+ [ ]T [C ][ ]{ [ ]T [M ][ ]{ &}+ [ ]T [K ][ ]{ } = [ ]T {Ft }
EQ. 11.1.1.23
+ 12 0 0 + 2 2 T With [ ] [C ][ ] = . . . . 0 .
Each uncoupled equation is written as:
2 t && + 2 & i i i i + i i = f i
. . . .
. . . . . . 2 . . + n 0 0
EQ. 11.1.1.24
EQ. 11.1.1.25 EQ. 11.1.1.26
With 2 ii = + i Where
is the ith natural frequency of the system and
ith damping ratio.
This leads to a system of n equations with two unknown variables and . Regarding to the range of the dominant frequencies of system, two frequencies are chosen. Using the pair of the most significant frequencies, two equations with two unknown variables can be resolved to obtain values for and . For high frequencies the role of
is more significant. However, for lower frequencies plays an important role (Fig. 11.1.1).
Fig. 11.1.1 Rayleigh damping variation for natural frequencies
Nonlinear part
2 i
Quasi-linear part
i
2
Damping Ratio (C/Ccr)
Natural Frequency (rad/s)
The Rayleigh damping method applied to explicit time-integration method leads to the following equations:
t t M t + Cv t = Fext Fint
EQ. 11.1.1.27
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STATIC
With
C = M + K
t t dt Fint = Fint + Kv dt 2 t dt 2
dt
EQ. 11.1.1.28
vt = v
+t
dt 2
EQ. 11.1.1.29 EQ. 11.1.1.30

t dt 2
t t t M 0 = Fext Fint
Neglecting
t t dt t Fext Fext and v v

dt 2
, in
Kv t evaluation we have:
Kv = Kv
t
t t dt t t dt Fint 0 0 Fint = M dt dt
EQ. 11.1.1.31
And finally:
t t t ) 0 = M 1 (Fext Fint
t dt 2
EQ. 11.1.1.32
=
t
0 v
dt dt 1+ 2
t 0
t dt 0
)
EQ. 11.1.1.33
t+
dt 2
=v
dt 2
+ t dt
EQ. 11.1.1.34
The three approaches available in RADIOSS are Dynamic Relaxation (/DYREL), Energy Discrete Relaxation (/KEREL) and Rayleigh damping (/DAMP). Refer to RADIOSS Example Manual for application examples.
11.1.1 Acceleration convergence

For every method, an acceleration of the convergence to the static solution is desirable. The constant time step is one of the more usual methods. In fact, in quasi-static analysis, the duration of the study is proportional to the maximum period of the structure. The total number of computation cycles is then proportional to the ratio T/dt where T is largest period of the structure and dt the time step. The number of time steps necessary to reach the static solution is minimal if all the elements have the same time step. An initial given time step t0 can be obtained by increasing or decreasing the density of each element. The constant nodal time step option allows to ensure a homogenous time step over the structure. However in usual static problems the change is expected to be small, but one may think of increasing the density of the element which gives the critical time step in such a way that t = t0 .
11.2 Static solution by implicit time-integration

The static behavior of many structures can be characterized by a load-deflection or force-displacement response. If the response plot is nonlinear, the structure behavior is nonlinear. From computational point of view the resolution of a nonlinear problem is much more complex with respect to the linear case. However, the use of relatively recent resolution methods based on sparse iterative techniques allows saving substantially in memory.
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STATIC
11.2.1 Linear static solver

A linear structure is a mathematical model characterized by a linear fundamental equilibrium path for all possible choices of load and deflection variables. This implies that:
The response to different load systems can be obtained by superposition, Removing all loads returns the structure to the reference position.
The requirements for such a model to be applicable are:
Perfect linear elasticity for any deformation, Infinitesimal deformation, Infinite strength.
Despite of obvious physically unrealistic limitations, the linear model can be a good approximation of portions of nonlinear response. As the computational methods for linear problems are efficient and low cost, RADIOSS linear solvers can be used to find equilibrium of quasi-linear systems. The Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient method is the iterative linear solver available in RADIOSS. The algorithm is allowing to save a lot of memory for usual application of RADIOSS as a sparse storage method is used. This means that only the non-zero terms of the global stiffness matrix are saved. In addition, the symmetry property of both stiffness and preconditioning matrices is worthwhile to save memory. The performance of conjugate gradient method depends highly to the preconditioning method. Several options are available in RADIOSS using the card /IMPL/SOLV/1. The simplest method is a so-called Jacobi method in which only the diagonal terms are taken into account. This choice is allowing to save considerable memory space; however, the performance may be poor. The incomplete Choleski is one of the best known effective preconditioning methods. However, it can result negative pivots in some special cases even if the stiffness matrix is definite positive. This results a low convergence of PCG algorithm. The problem can be resolved by using a stabilization method as described in [103]. Finally, the Factored Approximate Inverse method may be the best choice which is used by default in RADIOSS.
11.2.2 Nonlinear static solver

As explained in the beginning of this chapter, a nonlinear behavior is characterized by a nonlinear loaddeflection diagram called path. The tangent to an equilibrium path may be formally viewed as the limit of the ratio force increment on displacement increment. This is the definition of a stiffness or more precisely the tangent stiffness related to a given equilibrium state. The reciprocal ratio is called flexibility. The sign of the tangent stiffness is closely associated with the stability of an equilibrium state. A negative stiffness is necessary associated with unstable equilibrium. A positive stiffness is necessary but not sufficient for stability. The problem of nonlinear analysis can be viewed as that of minimising the total potential energy function of the total displacement X. A truncated Taylor series then leads to:
which is a
n (X + X ) = 0 (X ) +
2 1 X + X T X + ... X X 2 2
EQ. 11.2.2.1
where the subscripts n and 0 denote respectively final and initial configurations. The term
can be identified X
as the out-of-balance forces or gradient F, of the total potential energy which is the difference between the internal force vector Fint and the external force vector Fext. The term
2 describes the tangent stiffness matrix X 2

EQ. 11.2.2.2
KT. The principle of minimum energy and the equilibrium of stable state give:
= n (X + X ) 0 (X ) = 0
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which is implied in EQ. 11.2.2.1:
STATIC
K TX = Fext (X) - Fint (X )

The tangent matrix KT should be defined positive at the equilibrium point for stable case:
EQ. 11.2.2.3
X T K TX > 0
EQ. 11.2.2.4
EQ. 11.2.2.3 can handle the solution of the nonlinear problem when an incremental method is used. The solution methods are generally based on continuous incremental and corrective phases. The most important class of corrective methods concerns the Newton-Raphson method and its numerous variants as modified, modifieddelayed, damped, quasi and so forth. All of these Newton-like methods require access to the past solution. In the following section we study the conventional and modified Newton methods under general increment control.
11.2.2.1 Newton and modified Newton methods

As we will often prefer to trace the complete load/deflection response or in other words, the equilibrium path, it is useful to combine the incremental and iterative solution procedures. Let us recall that our purpose is to solve EQ.11.2.2.3 which can be written in residual form:
R (X, ) = Fext (X, ) - Fint (X) = 0
EQ. 11.2.2.5
depending on only one loading parameter . If the loading depends to only one loading variable independent to the state of deflection, we have:
with Fext (X, ) = FC + Fext (X) . This equation represents a system of n algebraic nonlinear equations
Fext (X, ) = Fext (X)
EQ. 11.2.2.6
Several techniques are available to resolve EQ. 11.2.2.5. In some situations, the parameter is fixed, and the equations are resolved to determine n components of X in order to verify EQ. 11.2.2.5. In this case, the technique is called load control method. Another technique called displacement control consists in fixing a component of X and searching for and n-1 other components of displacement vector X. A generalization of displacement control technique is allowing to imply several components of displacement vector by using an Euclidian norm. The method is called arc-length control and intended to enable solution algorithms to pass limit points (i.e. maximum and minimum loads). The techniques making possible to obtain the load-deflection curve by finding point by point the solution are called piloting techniques. When the piloting technique is chosen for a given step, the associated solution is obtained by an iterative resolution of so-called Newton-Raphson methods. At iteration i, the residual vector Ri is:
R i = Fext (X i , i ),-Fint (X i )
A correction
EQ. 11.2.2.7
X and can be considered with:

i i
R R R i +1 = R i + X + X
Combining EQ.11.2.2.8 with EQ. 11.2.2.7, we obtain:
i i KT X - Fext = R i
EQ. 11.2.2.8
EQ. 11.2.2.9
as R
i +1
= 0 and:
X i +1 = X i + X
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STATIC
EQ. 11.2.2.10
i +1 = i +
i i
The tangent matrix K T is obtained by assembling the elementary matrices k T . It corresponds to:
KT =
Fint Fext X X
EQ. 11.2.2.11
Using load control technique, the standard Newton-Raphson method resolves EQ. 11.2.2.9 to EQ. 11.2.2.11 by applying a known load increment as illustrated in Figure 11.2.1. The tangent matrix is updated and triangulized at each iteration. This insures a quadratic convergence to exact solution. Figure 11.2.1 Standard Newton-Raphson resolution in the case of load control technique
iterations
KT
i
Fn = n F
Fn = n F
Xn
X n
Figure 11.2.2 Modified Newton-Raphson resolution in the case of load control technique
iterations
KT Fn = n F
Fn = n F
Xn
X n
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STATIC
However, it is possible to save computation time which depends on the size of the problem and on the degree of the nonlinearity of the problem. The method is called modified Newton-Raphson which is based on the conservation of the tangent matrix for all iterations (Figure 11.2.2). This method can also be combined with the acceleration techniques as line-search explained in the following section. The convergence criteria may be based on Euclidian norm of residual forces, residual displacements or energy where an allowable tolerance is defined.
11.2.2.2 Line search method to optimise the resolution

The Newton-Raphson resolution of EQ. 11.2.2.9 implies to update the variables at each iteration with EQ. 11.2.2.10. The new estimation of X does not satisfy EQ. 11.2.2.9 only if R = 0 . In order to reduce the number of iterations the line-search method is used. The line-search technique is an important feature of most numerical techniques used in optimisation problems. Detailed discussions are given in [104]. The method consists in introducing a parameter such as:
i +1 i +1
X i +1 = X i + X
EQ. 11.2.2.12
where is obtained to minimize the total potential energy or to satisfy the principle of virtual works. The techniques to determine use often a Raleigh-Ritz procedure with only one unknown parameter. The principle of virtual work can be written in the general form:
W (X, X ) = X R (X ) = 0
Considering EQ. 11.2.2.12, we can write:
For all kinematical acceptable X
EQ. 11.2.2.13
X = X
and:
EQ. 11.2.2.14
W = X R (X i + X ) = 0
Then
for all
EQ. 11.2.2.15
is determined from: EQ. 11.2.2.16
X R (X i + X ) = 0
which leads to a three-order polynomial equation in
for elastic materials: EQ. 11.2.2.17
C1+C 2 +C 3 2 + C4 3 = 0
The coefficients C1, C2, C3 and C4 can be expressed in terms of displacements Xi and the increment of displacements X .
11.2.2.3 Arc length method

To obtain the load-deflection behavior of a structure, the load or the displacement of a given point of the structure must be parameterized. Up to now, we have parameterized the load by the time t. However, a single parameter is not always sufficient to control in an optimum way the time step. On the other hand, it is not possible to pass limit points with snap-through and snap-back when using load-controlled or displacementcontrolled techniques. This is due to the fact that the increase in load or in a given displacement component may result a dynamic response loosing a part of load-deflection curve as shown in Figures 11.2.3 (a) and (b).
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STATIC
Figure 11.2.3 Various load-deflection curves and step-by-step solution by arc-length method
Static load
Static load
Dynamic B
A B
C
Displacement
(a) Snap-through (b) Snap-backs
Displacement
Static load
Static load
A n-1 n n+1 B
PCr PS
B Without imperfection C With imperfection
Displacement
Displacement
(c) Arc-length method: intersection of the equilibrium branch with the circle about the last solution The tracing of equilibrium branches are quite difficult. In arc-length method, instead of incrementing the load parameter, a measure of the arc length in the displacement-load parameter space is incremented. This is accomplished by adding a controlling parameter to the equilibrium equations. The arc-length method was originally introduced by Riks [116] and Wempner [117]. Considering a function f implying several components of the displacement vector X, the arc-length method consists in determining in each step the Euclidian norm of the increase in X: (d) Buckling with or without imperfections
f = X i +1 X n {X i +1 X n } (S n ) = 0
2
EQ. 11.2.2.18
This leads to:
X i +1 X n {X i +1 X n } = (S n )
And
EQ. 11.2.2.19 EQ. 11.2.2.20
a ( ) + b( ) + c = 0
2
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STATIC
With:
a = X F {X F } ;
{X F } = [KTn ]1{Fext }
b = 2 X F {Y } ; c = Y {Y } (S n )
2
{Y } = {X F }+ {X i X n }
In each of the Newton-Raphson iterations, EQ. 11.2.2.20 must be resolved to select a real root. If there is no root, S n should be reduced. The most closed root to the last solution is retained in the case of two real roots. Figure 11.2.3(c) illustrates the intersection of the equilibrium branch with the circle about the last solution.
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Chapter
RADIOSS PARALLELIZATION
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12.0 RADIOSS PARALLELIZATION

The performance criterion in the computation was always an essential point in the architectural conception of RADIOSS. At first, the program has been largely optimized for the vectored super-calculators like CRAY. Then, a first parallel version SMP made possible the exploration of shared memory on processors. In the case of analysis of systems with high number of d.o.f., the use of shared memory parallel machine architectures is common. In RADIOSS, there are two models of parallel programming: SMP : Shared Memory Processors, SPMD : Single Program Multiple Data. In this chapter, the principle of RADIOSS parallelization is described.
12.1 Measure of performance of a parallel application

The Speed-Up is the ratio of sequential time T(1) and the parallel time on P processors T(P): S(P) = T(1) / T(P) The efficiency is defined as: E(P) = S(P) / P ; E(P) 1 EQ. 12.1.0.2 EQ. 12.1.0.1
The Amdahls law for multitasking is used to determine the speed-up:
S (P ) =
+ TPar ) T + TPar Seq P

Seq
(T
EQ. 12.1.0.3
where TPar and TSeq are the computation times respectively related to parallel and non-parallel parts. As
TSeq + TPar = 1 , we can write:

S (P ) = 1 T + TPar Seq P
EQ. 12.1.0.4
The limit value can be obtained when the process number tends to infinite:
S ( ) =
1 TSeq
EQ. 12.1.0.5
Table 12.1.1 gives the speedup in function of number of processors and the rate of parallelization in the program. It can be seen that if the rate of parallelization is less 95%, the computation acceleration will not be greater than 20 however the number of processors. This means that to obtain a good scalability of a code, at least 99% of the program must be parallel.
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Table 12.1.1 Speed-up in function of process number and parallelization Process number
Seq / P
16
32
64
128
100% 99% 98% 97% 96% 95% 90% 50%
2.0 2.0 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.3
4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.5 3.0 1.6
8.0 7.5 7.0 6.6 6.3 5.9 4.7 1.8
16.0 13.9 12.3 11.0 10.0 9.1 6.4 1.9
32.0 24.4 19.8 16.5 14.3 12.5 7.8 1.9
64.0 39.3 28.3 22.1 18.2 15.4 8.7 2.0
128. 56.4 36.2 26.6 21.1 17.4 9.3 2.0
100. 50.0 33.3 25.0 20.0 10.0 2.0
12.2 SMP: Shared Memory Processors

RADIOSS SMP version is based on the concept of computers with shared memory as the architecture is described in Figure 12.2.1. Figure 12.2.1 Architecture of shared memory
Memory
C P U 1
C P U 2
...
C P U
In this case, all processors can access to a common memory space. From programming point of view, each process called parallel task, reach to the entire memory space allocated by the program. It is necessary to manage properly the access to this shared memory by introducing barriers and locking mechanisms. The SMP model programming has the advantage to be managed easily. However, the performance of the method depends on the ratio between the memory access speed and the CPU speed. The parallelism approach used in RADIOSS SMP is a multi-task programming type. The tasks are explicitly managed by the programmer. The computation tasks are attributed to the processors by a dynamic procedure as they are available. This approach is especially adapted to the super-computers used as computation server where the load of a given processor varies with respect to others. The SMP version is developed for computers with shared memory architecture and cannot be used efficiently on the super-computers with distributed memory or cluster structures. The RADIOSS SMP version is constantly improved since the first release. However, the efficiency of SMP version has to be updated to take into account the evolution of computer architecture in memory management and CPU speed.
12.3 SPMD: Single Program Multiple Data

The development of the first SPMD version of RADIOSS is started in 1994. The version became a real alternative to SMP version after a long period of parallelization and optimization of the code. In fact, the scalability of the version is much better than the SPM version. The SPMD version is allowing to use more
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processors with a better efficiency. It makes possible to use up to 64 processors. In addition, all RADIOSS Crash options are available in this version including Arithmetic Parallel option. The principle of program is based on Single Program Multiple Data where the same program runs with different data. RADIOSS Starter carries out a domain decomposition. Then, RADIOSS Engine has just to send data to different processors in an initialization step. Thereafter, each program runs over each sub domain. It is necessary to communicate information between processors to manage data on the border of domains. This is carried out in RADIOSS using MPI (Message Passing Interface) library. Figure 12.3.1 illustrates the architecture of muti-processor computers with distributed memory. The RADIOSS SPMD version runs independently to architecture of memory as well on the computers with shared memory or distributed memory or a set of work stations in a network.
Figure 12.3.1 Architecture with distributed memory
Network interconnect
C P U 1
C P U 2
...
C P U P
M1
M2
...
Mp
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References
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REFERENCES
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Appendices
A- Conversion Tables & Constants B- Me Grneisen Equation-of-State C- Basic Relations of Elasticity
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APPENDICES
14.0 APPENDICES
Appendix A Conversion Tables & Constants
Length
US & UK >> Metric system 1 Inch (in) - US 1 Inch (in) - UK 1 Foot (ft) = (12.in) - US 1 Foot (ft) = (12.in) - UK 1 Yard (yd) = (3.ft) - US 1 Yard (yd) = (3.ft) - UK 1 Mile (mi) = (1760.yd) - US 1 Mile (mi) = (1760.yd) - UK 1 Nautical mile (UK) 25.40005 mm 25.39996 mm 0.3048006 m 0.3047995 m 0.9144018 m 0.9143984 m 1.609347 km 1.609341 km 1.853181 km Metric system >> US & UK 1 millimeter (mm) 1 millimeter (mm) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 meter (m) 1 kilometer (km) 1 kilometer (km) 1 kilometer (km) 0.03937 in (US) 0.03937 in (UK) 3.28083 ft (US) 3.28083 ft (UK) 1.093611 yd (US) 1.093611 yd (UK) 0.6213699 mi (US) 0.6213724 mi (UK) 0.5396127 n.mi (UK)
Surface
US & UK >> Metric system 1 Acre - US 1 Acre - UK 1 Square inch (sq in) - US 1 Square inch (sq in) - UK 1 Square foot (sq ft) = 144 sq in - US 1 Square foot (sq ft) = 144 sq in - UK 1 Square yard (sq yd) = 9 sq.ft - US 1 Square yard (sq yd) = 9 sq.ft - UK 1 Square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres - US 1 Square mile (sq mi) = 640 acres - UK 0.4046873 ha 0.4046842 ha 6.451626 cm 6.451578 cm
2 2 2 2
Metric system >> US & UK 1 hectare (ha) 1 hectare (ha) 1 Square centimeter (cm 1 Square centimeter (cm 1 Square meter (m 1 Square meter (m 1 Square meter (m 1 Square meter (m
2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2) 2)
2.471044 acre (US) 2.4711 acre (UK) 0.1549997 sq. in (US) 0.1550 sq.in (UK) 10.76387 sq.ft (US) 10.7639 sq.ft (UK) 1.195985 sq.yd (US) 1.1960 sq.yd (UK) 0.3861006 sq.mi (US) 0.3861 sq.mi (UK)
0.09290341 m 0.09290272 m 0.8361307 m 0.8361245 m 2.589998 km 2.589979 km

2 2
2 2
1 Square kilometer (km 1 Square kilometer (km
Volume
US/UK >> Metric system Volume 1 Cubic inch (cu in) - US 1 Cubic inch (cu in) - UK 1 Cubic foot (cu ft) - US 1 Cubic foot (cu ft - (UK) 1 Cubic yard (cu yd) - US 1 Cubic yard (cu yd) - UK Measure of capacity 16.3871 cm3 16.38698 cm3 28.31702 dm3 28.31670 dm3 0.7645594 m 0.7645509 m
3 3
Metric system >> US/UK
1 Cubic centimeter (cm
3) 3)
0.06102509 cu in (US) 0.0610241 cu in (UK) 0.03531544 cu ft (US) 0.0353148 cu ft (UK) 1.307943 cu yd (US) 1.307957 cu yd (UK)
1 Cubic centimeter (cm
1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic meter (m 1 Cubic meter (m
3) 3) 3
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1 fluid ounce (fl oz) - US 1 fluid ounce (fl oz) - UK 1 Bushel (US) 1 Bushel (UK) 1 Gallon (US) 1 Gallon (UK) 1 Liquid pint (US) 1 Pint(pt) = 20 fl oz - UK 29.5735 cm3 (or ml) 28.4131 cm3 (or ml) 35.23829 dm3 (or liter) 36.36770 dm3 (or liter) 3.785329 dm3 (or liter) 4.545963 dm3 (or liter) 0.4731661 dm3 (or liter) 0.5682454 dm3 (or liter) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm ) 1 Cubic decimeter (dm )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
APPENDICES
33.814 fl oz 35.195 fl oz 0.0283782 bu (US) 0.02749692 bu (UK) 0.2641779 gal (US) 0.2199754 gal (UK) 2.113423 liq.pt (US) 1.759803 pt (UK)
Mass
Notes : Attention should be paid to not confuse mass and weight. The mass (kg) is an intrinsic characteristic of the body and is measured in kilogram. The weight is a force which depends on terrestrial attraction and it is the equivalent of the mass of a body by the acceleration of gravity (9.80665 at the sea level) and is measured in Newton [ N ]. The specific mass is the quotient of the mass of a body by its volume. The unit of mass of S.I. = kilogram. Metric system >> US/UK 64.79892 mg 64.79892 mg 28.34953 g 28.34953 g 0.4535924 kg 0.4535924 kg 45.35924 kg 45.35924 kg 1.016047 t 1.016047 t 1 milligram (mg) 1 milligram (mg) 1 gram (g) 1 gram (g) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg) 1kilogram (kg) 1 kilogram (kg) 1 ton 1 ton 0.01543236 gr (US) 0.01543236 gr (UK) 0.03527396 oz av. (US) 0.03527396 oz av. (UK) 2.204622 lb av. (US) 2.204622 lb av. (UK) 0.02204622 sh.cwt (US) 0.02204622 ctl (UK) 0.9842064 l.tn (US) 0.9842064 tn (UK)
US/UK >> Metric system 1Grain (gr) - US 1Grain (gr) - UK 1Ounce (oz) - US 1Ounce (oz) - UK 1Pound (Ib) = 16 oz - US 1Pound (Ib) = 16 oz - UK 1Short hundredweight(sh cwt)= 100 Ib - US 1Cental (UK) 1Long ton (l tn) = 2240 Ib - US 1Ton (UK)
Speed (the unit speed of the S.I = meter per second)

Symbol 1 Bz 1 cm/min 1 cm/s 1 ft/h, fph 1 ft/min, fpm 1 ft/s, fps 1 furlong/fortnight 1 in/s, ips 1 km/h 1 kn, knot 1 cm/s 1 m/min 1 m/s 1 mpy 1 knot 1 mph, mi/h 1 mi/min 1 mm/min 1 mm/s SI equivalent = 1 m/s = 1.66667 x 10-4 m/s = 0.01 m/s = 8.46667 x 10-5 m/s = 0.00508 m/s = 0.3048 m/s = 1.66309 x 10-4 m/s = 0.0254 m/s = 0.277778 m/s = 0.514444 m/s = 0.01 m/s = 166.667 m/s = 1 m/s = 8.04327 x 10-13 m/s = 0.514444 m/s = 0.44704 m/s = 26.8224 m/s = 1.66667 x 10-5 m/s = 0.001 m/s Designation of unit measure - benz - centimeter per minute - centimeter per second - foot per hour - foot per minute - foot per second - furlong per fortnight - inch per second - kilometer per hour - knot (node) - kyne - meter per minute - meter per second - mil per year - mile (naut.) per hour (knot. node) - mile (stat.) per hour - mile (stat.) per minute - millimeter per minute - millimeter per second
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APPENDICES
Temperature
Conversion Type Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Kelvin (K) Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Fahrenheit (F) Degrees Celsius (C) to degrees Rankine (R) Degrees Fahrenheit (F) to degrees Kelvin (K) Degrees Fahrenheit (F) to degrees Rankine (R) Degrees Kelvin (K) to degrees Rankine (R) Degrees Rankine (R) to degrees Celsius (C) Degrees Rankine (R) to degrees Kelvin (K) Conversion Formula = (C) + 273.15 = (K) = [(C) * 1.8] + 32 = (F) = [(C) * 1.8] + 491.67 = (R) = [(F) * 0.555556] + 255.37 = (K) = (F) + 459.67 = (R) = (K) * 1.8 = (R) = [(R) - 491.67] * 0.555556 = (C) = (R) * 0.555556 = (K)
Pressure
Symbol 1 at 1 atm 1 bar 1 cmHg (0 C) 1 cmH2O 1 dyn/cm2 1 ft H2O 1 hPa 1 inHg (0 C) 1 inHg (15.56 C) 1 inH2O (15.56 C) 1 inH2O (4 C) 1 kgf/cm2 1 kgf/dm2 1 kgf/m2 1 kgf/mm2 1 kPa 1 kip/in2, ksi, KSI 1 MPa 1 mH2O, mCE (15.56 C) 1 mH2O, mCE (4 C) 1 bar 1 Hg (0 C) 1 mbar 1 mmHg, torr, Torr (0 C) 1 mmH2O, mmCE (15.56 C) 1 mmH2O, mmCE (4 C) 1 N/m2 1 Pa, N/m2 1 lbf/ft2 1 psi, PSI, lbf/in2 1 atm 1 tonf/cm2 (metric) 1 tonf/m2 (metric) 1 torr SI equivalent = 98066.5 Pa = 101325 Pa = 100000 Pa = 1333.22 Pa = 98.0638 Pa = 0.1 Pa = 2988.98 Pa = 100 Pa = 3386.38 Pa = 3377.18 Pa = 248.845 Pa = 249.082 Pa = 98066.5 Pa = 980.665 Pa = 9.80665 Pa = 9806650 Pa = 1000 Pa = 6894760 Pa = 1000000 Pa = 9797.06 Pa = 9806.38 Pa = 0.1 Pa = 0.133322 Pa = 100 Pa = 133.322 Pa = 9.79706 Pa = 9.80638 Pa = 1 Pa = 1 Pa = 47.8803 Pa = 6894.76 Pa = 101325 Pa = 98066500 Pa = 9806.65 Pa = 133.322 Pa Designation of unit measure - atmosphere (metric) - atmosphere (standard) - bar - centimeter of mercury (0 C) - centimeter of water (4 C) - dyne per square centimeter - foot of water (4 C) - hectopascal - inch of mercury (0 C) - inch of mercury (15.56 C) - inch of water (15.56 C) - inch of water (4 C) - kilogram force per square centimeter - kilogram force per square decimeter - kilogram force per square meter - kilogram force per square millimeter - kilopascal - kilopound force per square inch - megapascal - meter of water (15.56 C) - meter of water (4 C) - microbar (barye, barrie) - micron of mercury (millitorr) - millibar - millimeter of mercury (0 C) - millimeter of water (15.56 C) - millimeter of water (4 C) - newton per square meter - pascal - pound force per square foot - pound force per square inch - standard atmosphere - ton force (metric) per square centimeter - ton force (metric) per square meter - torr
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Flows rate (Equivalence)
Symbol 1 acre-ft/month 1 bbl (US, liq.)/day 1 bbl (US, petrol)/day 1 cm3/s 1 CFM, cfm, ft3/min 1 cfs, ft3/s 1 in3/min 1 in3/s 1 m3/h 1 m3/min 1 m3/s 1 yd3/min 1 cumec 1 gal (UK)/day 1 gph (UK) 1 gpm (UK) 1 gps (UK) 1 gal (US, liq.)/day 1 gph (US) 1 gpm (US) 1 gps (US) 1 l/h 1 l/min 1 l/s SI equivalent = 4.69361 x 10-4 m3/s = 1.3801 x 10-6 m3/s = 1.84013 x 10-6 m3/s = 1 x 10-6 m3/s = 4.71947 x 10-4 m3/s = 0.0283168 m3/s = 2.73118 x 10-7 m3/s = 1.63871 x 10-5 m3/s = 2.77778 x 10-4 m3/s = 0.0166667 m3/s = 1 m3/s = 0.0127426 m3/s = 1 m3/s = 5.26168 x 10-8 m3/s = 1.2628 x 10-6 m3/s = 7.57682 x 10-5 m3/s = 4.54609 x 10-3 m3/s = 4.38126 x 10-8 m3/s = 1.0515 x 10-6 m3/s = 6.30902 x 10-5 m3/s = 0.00378541 m3/s = 2.77778 x 10-7 m3/s = 1.66667 x 10-5 m3/s = 0.001 m3/s
APPENDICES
Designation of unit measure - acre foot per month - barrel (US, liq.) per day - barrel (US, petrol) per day - cubic centimeter per second - cubic foot per minute - cubic foot per second - cubic inch per minute - cubic inch per second - cubic meter per hour - cubic meter per minute - cubic meter per second - cubic yard per minute - cumec (musec) - gallon (UK) per day - gallon (UK) per hour - gallon (UK) per minute - gallon (UK) per second - gallon (US, liq.) per day - gallon (US, liq.) per hour - gallon (US, liq.) per minute - gallon (US, liq.) per second - liter per hour - liter per minute - liter per second
Material Constants
Density (kg/m^3) Aluminum 2024-T3 Aluminum 6061-T6 Aluminum 7079-T6 Concrete Copper - pure Gold - pure Iron Lead - pure Magnesium AZ31B-H24 Magnesium HK31A-H24 Nickel - pure Platinum Silver - pure Steel AISI 304 Steel AISI C1020 Tantalum Titanium B 120VCA Tungsten 2770 2700 2740 2242 8900 19320 7830 11340 1770 1790 8900 21450 10500 8030 7850 16600 4850 19300 1.379E+10 4.483E+10 4.414E+10 2.207E+11 1.469E+11 7.241E+10 1.931E+11 2.034E+11 1.862E+11 1.021E+11 3.448E+11 0.3900 0.3700 0.2900 0.2900 0.3500 0.3000 0.2800 0.4200 0.3500 0.3500 52.74 26.10 25.20 12.96 9.0000 19.80 17.82 11.34 6.4800 9.3600 4.5000 1.172E+11 7.448E+10 0.4200 16.56 4.39 Elastic Modulus (Pa) 7.310E+10 7.310E+10 7.172E+10 Poisson's ratio 0.3300 0.3300 0.3300 Thermal expansion coefficient (microns/m C) 22.68 24.30 24.66 Heat capacity J/kg(C)
963.00 963.00 963.00 1000 385.00 130.00 440.00 130.00 1047 544.00 461.00 130.00 235.00 503.00 419.00 126.00 544.00 138.00
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186
APPENDICES
Heat capacity coefficients

Molar Weight Gas Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Argon Neon Helium Hydrogen Water vapour Ammonia Hydrogen sulphide Benzene Nitrous oxide N2 O2 CO2 CO Ar Ne He H2 H2O NH3 H2S C6H
6
Heat Capacity a [J/(mol K)] 26,092000 29,659000 24,997350 25,567590 20,786000 20,786030 20,786030 33,066178 30,092000 19,995630 26,884120 -36,220000 27,679880 b [J/(mol K )] 8,2188E-03 6,1373E-03 5,5187E-02 6,0961E-03 2,8259E-10 4,8506E-13 4,8506E-13 -1,1363E-02 6,8325E-03 4,9771E-02 1,8678E-02 4,8475E-01 5,1149E-02
2
MW [kg/mol] 0,02801 0,032 0,04401 0,02801 0,03995 0,02018 0,004 0,00202 0,01802 0,01703 0,03408 0,07811 0,04401
c [J/(mol K )] -1,9761E-06 -1,1865E-06 -3,3691E-05 4,0547E-06 -1,4642E-13 -1,5829E-16 -1,5929E-16 1,1433E-05 6,7934E-06 -1,5376E-05 3,4342E-06 -3,1570E-04 -3,0645E-05
d [J/(mol K )] 1,5927E-10 9,5780E-11 7,9484E-09 -2,6713E-09 1,0921E-17 1,5251E-20 1,5251E-20 -2,7729E-09 -2,5345E-09 1,9212E-09 -3,3787E-09 7,7620E-08 6,8479E-09
e [J K/mol] 4,4434E+04 2,1966E+05 1,3664E+05 1,3102E+05 -3,6614E02 3,1963E-05 3,1963E-05 1,5856E+05 8,2139E+04 1,8917E+05 1,3588E+05 0,0000E+00 1,5791E+05
Temp.range [K] 298-6000 298-6000 298-1200 298-1300 298-6000 298-6000 298-6000 298-1000 500-1700 298-1400 298-1400 298-1500 298-1400
N2O
Conversion of Unit Systems

Length m m m m m m m mm mm mm mm mm mm cm cm cm cm Time s s s s ms ms ms s s s ms ms ms ms ms ms Mass Kg Kg g Mg (ton) Kg g Mg (ton) Kg g Mg (ton) Kg g Mg (ton) g Kg Mg (ton) g Force Kg m/s2 N mN KN MN KN GN mN Pressure N/m2 Pa mPa KPa MPa KPa GPa KPa Pa MPa GPa MPa TPa 10 Pa bar 10 N (KdaN) 10 N (MdaN) 10 N (MdaN)
7 7 4 5
Velocity m/s m/s m/s m/s Km/s Km/s Km/s mm/s mm/s mm/s m/s m/s m/s dam/s dam/s dam/s 10 m/s
4
Kg/m3 m Kg/l
Energy Kmg2/s2 J mJ KJ MJ KJ GJ
G 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81 9.81e-6 9.81e-6 9.81e-6 9.81e+3 9.81e+3 9.81e+3 9.81e-3 9.81e-3 9.81e-3 9.81e-4 9.81e-4 9.81e-4 9.81e-10
Kg/l
Kg/l m Kg/l
Kg/l
Kg/l M Kg/l K Kg/l G Kg/l M Kg/l K Kg/l G Kg/l Kg/l K Kg/l M Kg/l Kg/l
nJ mJ J mJ KJ dJ hJ 10 J 10 J
5 5
N KN N MN daN
10 Pa (Kbar) 10 Pa (Mbar) 10 Pa (Mbar)

11 11
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187
APPENDICES
Appendix B Me Grneisen Equation-of-State

Me Grneisen equation-of-state can be written as:
1 ~ p = K1 + K 2 2 + K 3 3 1 + E (1 + ) 2
with
EQ. B1
1 1 = 1 V 0
where V is the relative volume.
is the gas constant,
~ E the internal energy per
initial volume and p the pressure. The equation can be rewritten in polynomial expression in and linear in energy. Let Us be the shock velocity, C the sound speed and S a material constant. The particle velocity u and shock velocity Us are related by the following equation:
U S = C + Su
EQ. B2
The values of C and S for some materials are given in Table B1. The hydrodynamic shock pressure determined by:
pH =
with x = 1
0C 2 x
(1 Sx) 2
EQ. B3
= 1V 0
. The related energy to the pressure pH is:
EH =
1 1 1 1 pH = pH x 2 0 2 0
EQ. B4
The change in pressure with respect to the initial state can be expressed as:
pH p0 = (EH E0 ) p p0 = (E E0 )
This leads to:
EQ. B5 EQ. B6
p pH = (E EH )
or p = pH + E
EQ. B7
x x 1 pH = pH 1 2 + E 0 2 0
and
EQ. B8
where
x = 1 = 0 0
E=
~ 0 E = (1 + ) 0 E = (1 + )E . Therefore, the last equation can be 0
written as:
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APPENDICES
~ p = pH 1 + (1 + ) E 2
EQ. B9
The hydrodynamic shock pressure pH given by EQ. B3 can be expressed in linear polynomial terms:
p H = K1 + K 2 2 + K 3 3
with:
EQ. B10
K1 = 0 C 2 K 2 = 0C 2 (2 S 1) K 3 = 0C 2 (S 1)(3S 1)
which allows to obtain the Me Grneisen equation given by EQ. B1. The equation of state used in RADIOSS is written in a linear polynomial expression:
~ p = c1 + c2 2 + c3 3 + (c4 + c5 )E
EQ. B11
The parameters ci can be identified by using EQ. B10 and Me Grneisen equation. Under the assumption =cst, the following setting is obtained:
c1 = K1
c2 = K 2 c3 = K 3
K1 K2
EQ. B12
c 4 = c5 = 1
If
is not considered to be constant, then:
= 0 ax = 0 a
1+
EQ. B13
where a is a material characteristic parameter given for some materials in Table B1. The second part of EQ. B9 is expressed as:
(1 + ) E = ( 0 + ( 0 + a ) )E
which leads to:
EQ. B14
c1 = K1
c2 = K 2
K1 = K1 2 S 1 0 2 2
EQ. B15
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189
APPENDICES
c3 = K 3 c4 = 0
0
2
K 2 + aK1
EQ. B16
c5 = 0 a
Table B1: Equation-of-state parameters
Material
V0
(cm /g)
3
Be Mg(1) Al(2) Ti Stainless(3) Ni Cu Pb
0.540 0.562 0.359 0.221 0.1265 0.1124 0.1118 0.0882
C (cm/ s ) 0.800 0.452 0.533 0.470 0.457 0.465 0.394 0.201
0
1.16 1.63 2.18 1.3 2.0 2.0 1.97 2.84 1.0 1.3 1.7 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.3
1.124 1.242 1.338 1.146 1.490 1.445 1.489 1.54
Mg(1): Alloy AZ31B, 96%Mg, 3% Al, 1% Zn. Al(2): Alloy 2024, 93,5% Al, 4.5% Cu, 1.5% Mg. Stainless(3):Alloy 304, 72% Fe, 19% Cr, 9% Ni.
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APPENDICES
Appendix C Basic Relations of Elasticity

C.1 Isotropic material:
Hooke law 3D (principal stress and strain):
{ } = [D ]{ }
1 = D111 + D12 2 + D13 3 1 = ( + 2 )1 + ( 2 + 3 ) 1 = (1 + 2 + 3 ) + 21 1 = K kk + 2e1
with
kk = (1 + 2 + 3 ) and e1= 1 1 / 3(1 + 2 + 3 )
{ } = [D ]{ }
{ } = [C ]{ }
1 E ; [D ] = (1 + )(1 2 ) 1 E E 1 E [C ] = ; Symm.
0 0 0 1 2 2
Symm.
E E 1 E
0 0 0 2(1 + ) E
0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) E
0 0 1 2 0 2 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) E
0 0 0
0 0 0
Hooke law for 2D plan stress:
{ } = [H ]{ }
1 = H111 + H12 2
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191

1 0 0 0
APPENDICES
{ } = [H ]{ }
[H ] = E
1 2
0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 2 0
0 1 2
0 0 0
1 1 { } = [C ]{ } ; [C ] = 0 E 0 0 Hooke law for 2D plan strain:
1 0 0 0
0 0 2(1 + ) 0 0
0 0 0 2(1 + ) 0
0 2(1 + )
0 0 0
{ } = [H ]{ }
1 E [H ] = (1 + )(1 2 ) 0
1 0
0 0 1 2 2
{ } = [C ]{ }
1 1 + [C ] = 1 E 0 0
0 0 2
Material Constants Relations

E, E
E,G E
E,B E
G,
G,B
B,
2(1+v)G
9 BG 3B + G
3(1-2v)B
(3 + 2 )
+
G=
B=K
E 2(1 + v )
E 3(1 2v )
3EB 9B E
B
3(1 2v )B 2(1 + v )
B
3 + 2 3
EG 9G 3E E 2G 2G
2(1 + v )G 3(1 2v )
Ev
3B E 6B
2Gv 1 2v
3B 2G 6 B + 2G
3B 2G 3
3Bv
2( + )
(1 + v )(1 2v )
20-jan-2009
(E 2G )G
3G E
(3B E )3B
9B E
(1 + v )
192
APPENDICES
C.2 Orthotropic material:

General 3D orthotropic case:
The strain-stress relations are defined using 9 material constants:

12 21
=
Three Young modulus in orthotropic directions 1, 2 and 3 : E1, E2, E3 Three shear modulus in plans 12, 13 and 23 : G12, G13, G23 Three Poisson ratios satisfying the relations:
1 12 21 13 31 23 32 12 23 31 21 13 32 > 0
1 E1 12 E1 13 E1 [C ] = 0 0 0
E1 E2 E1 1 12 21 > 0 ;
13 31
=
= E3 E2 E3 1 13 31 > 0
23 32
1 23 32 > 0
{ } = [C ]{ }
21 E2 1 E2 23 E2 0 0 0
31 E3 32 E 1 E3 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 G12 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 G13 0
0 0 0 0 1 G23
2D in-plan orthotropic material:

Orthotropic plan 1-2, isotropic plan 2-3 o Orthotropy coefficients in the plan 1-2 : E1 , E2 , 12 , G12
o Isotropy coefficients in plan 2-3: E2 , Five independent coefficients
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193

1 E1 12 E1 12 E1 [C ] = 0 0 0
APPENDICES
{ } = [C ]{ }
12 E1 1 E2 E2 0 0 0
12 E1 E2 1 E2 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 G12 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 G12 0
0 0 0 0 2(1 + ) E2
C.3 Stiffness matrix of beam element:

Terms of the stiffness matrix:
EA L [k ] =
0 12 EI 3 L3 (1 + 2 )
0 0 12 EI 2 L3 (1 + 2 )
0 0 0 GJ L
0 0 L K 33 2 0
0 L K 22 2 0 0 0
K11 0 0 0 0 0 K11
0 K 22 0 0 0 K 26 0 K 22
0 0 K 33 0 K 35 0 0 0 K 33
0 0 0 K 44 0 0 0 0 0 K 44
0 0 K 35 0 2 3 K 55 4 + 3 0 0 0 K 35 0 K 55
(4 + 3 )EI 2 L(1 + 3 )
(4 + 2 )EI 3 L(1 + 2 )
Symm.
K 26 0 0 0 2 2 K 66 4 + 2 0 K 26 0 0 0 K 66 0
with :
2 = 3 =
I=
144(1 + )I 3 5 AL2 144(1 + )I 2 5 AL2
bh 3 12
for a rectangle cross-section.
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Radioss Theory Manual: 10.0 Version - January 2009 Large Displacement Finite Element Analysis

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RADIOSS THEORY MANUAL

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

6.2 TIED INTERFACE (TYPE 2)

6.3 RIGID WALL

6.4 RIGID LINK 6.5 SECTION

7.0 LINEAR STABILTY

8.2 INTERFACE OVERVIEW

8.3 TIED INTERFACE (TYPE 2) 8.4 AUTO CONTACTS

8.5 TYPE 3 - SOLID AND SHELL ELEMENT CONTACT - NO GAP

8.6 TYPE 5 - GENERAL PURPOSE CONTACT

8.7 TYPE 6 - RIGID BODY CONTACT

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

8.9 TYPE 14 - ELLIPSOIDAL SURFACE TO NODE CONTACT

9.0 MATERIAL LAWS

9.3 ELASTO-PLASTICITY OF ISOTROPIC MATERIALS

9.4 VISCOUS MATERIALS

9.5 MATERIALS FOR HYDRODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

9.6 VOID MATERIAL (LAW 0) 9.7 FAILURE MODEL

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

10.0 MONITORED VOLUME

10.4 AIRBAG TYPE MONITORED VOLUME

10.5 MONITORED VOLUME TYPE COMMU

11.2 STATIC SOLUTION BY IMPLICIT TIME-INTEGRATION

12.0 RADIOSS PARALLELIZATION

13.0 REFERENCES 14.0 APPENDICES

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

6.0 KINEMATIC CONSTRAINTS

6.1 Rigid Body

Figure 6.1.1 Idealized Rigid Body

6.1.1 Rigid body mass

The rigid body's center of mass is defined by:

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

m M is the master node mass

x G , y G , z G are the coordinates of the mass center.

6.1.2 Rigid body inertia

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

6.1.3 Rigid body force and moment computation

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

6.1.4 Time integration

EQ. 6.1.4.3 EQ. 6.1.4.4

6.1.5 Rigid body boundary conditions

6.2 Tied Interface (Type 2)

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

Figure 6.2.1 Fine and coarse mesh

6.2.1 Spotweld formulation

6.2.1.1 Default spotweld formulation SPOTflag=0

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

Figure 6.2.2 Default tied Interface (Type 2)

where p denotes the position of the slave point and equations.

is the weight function obtained by the interpolation

K master = K master + K slave i (p)

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

rotation VProtation = Vmaster i i ( p) i

The velocity of the slave node is then obtained:

6.2.1.2 Optimized spotweld formulation SPOTflag=1

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

r A is the normal vector to the segment.

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0

Yi 2 + Z i 2 .d , with I = X iYi i =1,..4 X i Zi

6.2.2 Formulation for search of closest master segment

6.2.2.1 Old search of closest master segment formulation Isearch=1

RADIOSS THEORY Version 10.0