Compact Disc The Compact Disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology.

Prototypes is developed by Philips and Sony independently from the mid-to-late 1970s. The two companies then collaborated to produce a standard format and related player technology which was made commercially available in 1982.

Digital audio optical disc prototypes[edit]

In 1974, an initiative was taken by L. Ottens, a director of the audio industry group within the Philips Corporation in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. A seven-person project group was formed to develop an optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm with a sound quality superior to that of the large and [3] fragile vinyl record. In March 1974, during a meeting of the audio group, two engineers from the Philips research laboratory recommended the use of a digital format on the 20 cm optical disc, [3] because an error-correcting code could be added. It wasn't until 1977 that the directors of the group decided to establish a laboratory with the mission of creating a small optical digital audio disc and a small player. They chose the term "compact disc" in line with another Philips product, [3] the compact cassette. Rather than the original 20 cm size, the diameter of this compact disc was [3] set at 11.5 cm, the diagonal measurement of a compact cassette. Meanwhile, Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. In September 1978, the company demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150 minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear resolution, and cross-interleaved error correction codespecifications similar to those later settled upon for the standard Compact Disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were presented during the [4] 62nd AES Convention, held on March 1316, 1979, in Brussels. Just before that, on March 8, 1979 Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference [5] [6] called "Philips Introduce Compact Disc" in Eindhoven, Netherlands. Thirty years later, on March 6, 2009, Philips received an IEEE Milestone award with the following citation: "On 8 March 1979, N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated for the international press a Compact Disc Audio Player. The demonstration showed that it is possible by using digital optical recording and playback to reproduce audio signals with superb stereo quality. This research at Philips established the [7] technical standard for digital optical recording systems." Sony executive Norio Ohga, who later became the CEO and chairman of Sony, was convinced of [8] the format's commercial potential and pushed further development despite widespread skepticism.

El disco compacto es una evolucin de la tecnologa LaserDisc. Los prototipos fueron desarrollados por Philips y Sony de forma independiente a partir de mediados de la dcada de 1970. Las dos empresas y luego colaboraron para producir un formato estndar y la tecnologa relacionada jugador que se hizo disponible en el mercado en 1982.

Prototipos de discos pticos de audio digital [editar]

En 1974, la iniciativa fue tomada por L. Ottens, director del grupo de la industria de audio dentro de la empresa Philips en Eindhoven, Pases Bajos. Se form un grupo de proyecto de siete personas para desarrollar un disco de audio ptico con un dimetro de 20 cm, con una calidad de sonido superior a la de los discos de vinilo grandes y frgiles. [3] En marzo de 1974, durante una reunin del grupo de audio, dos ingenieros del laboratorio de investigacin de Philips recomienda el uso de un formato digital en el disco ptico de 20 cm, debido a que un cdigo de correccin de errores se podra aadir. [3] No fue hasta 1977 que los directores del grupo decidieron establecer un laboratorio con la misin de crear un pequeo disco de audio digital ptico y un pequeo reproductor. Eligieron el trmino "disco compacto", en lnea con otro producto de Philips, el cassette compacto. [3] Ms que el tamao original de 20 cm, el dimetro de este disco compacto se fij en 11,5 cm, la diagonal de un cassette compacto. [3] Mientras tanto, Sony primera demostracin pblica de un disco de audio digital ptica, en septiembre de 1976. En septiembre de 1978, la empresa demostr un disco de audio digital ptica con un tiempo de 150 minutos de juego, 44,056 Hz velocidad de muestreo, resolucin lineal de 16 bits, y de correccin de errores de cdigo especificaciones de entrelazamiento cruzado similares a las establecidas ms adelante en el disco compacto estndar formato en el 1980. Ficha tcnica del disco de audio digital de Sony se han presentado durante la 62 Convencin AES, celebrada el 1316 marzo 1979, en Bruselas. [4] Justo antes de que, el 08 de marzo 1979 Philips demostr pblicamente un prototipo de un disco de audio digital ptica en una conferencia de prensa convocada "Philips Introduce Compact Disc" [5], en Eindhoven, Pases Bajos [6] Treinta aos ms tarde, el 6 de marzo de 2009, Philips recibi un premio IEEE Milestone con la siguiente cita:. "El 8 de marzo de 1979, NV Philips Gloeilampenfabrieken demostrado por la prensa internacional un disco compacto reproductor de audio. La demostracin mostr que es posible mediante el uso de grabacin ptica digital y la reproduccin para reproducir seales de audio con una calidad estreo. Esta investigacin en Philips establece la norma tcnica para los sistemas pticos de grabacin digitales . [7] Ejecutivo de Sony Norio Ohga, quien ms tarde se convirti en el CEO y presidente de Sony, estaba convencido del potencial comercial del formato y empuj un mayor desarrollo a pesar del escepticismo generalizado. [8]

Pocket calculators[edit]
"Pocket calculator" redirects here. For the song, see Computer World. By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. The first portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the Canon Pocketronic, and the Sharp QT-8B "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development of the "Cal-Tech" project which had been started at Texas Instruments in 1965 as a research project to produce a portable calculator. The Pocketronic has no traditional display; numerical output is on thermal paper tape. As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators. Sharp put in great efforts in size and power reduction and introduced in January 1971 the Sharp EL-8, also marketed as the Facit 1111, which was close to being a pocket calculator. It weighed about 455 grams or one pound, had a vacuum fluorescent display, rechargeable NiCad batteries, and initially sold for $395. However, the efforts in integrated circuit development culminated in the introduction in early 1971 of [18] the first "calculator on a chip", the MK6010 byMostek, followed by Texas Instruments later in the year. Although these early hand-held calculators were very expensive, these advances in electronics, together with developments in display technology (such as the vacuum fluorescent display, LED, and LCD), led within a few years to the cheap pocket calculator available to all. In 1971 Pico Electronics. and General Instrument also introduced their first collaboration in ICs, a complete single chip calculator IC for the Monroe Royal Digital III calculator. Pico was a spinout by five GI design engineers whose vision was to create single chip calculator ICs. Pico and GI went on to have significant success in the burgeoning handheld calculator market. The first truly pocket-sized electronic calculator was the Busicom LE-120A "HANDY", which was [20] marketed early in 1971. Made in Japan, this was also the first calculator to use an LED display, the first hand-held calculator to use a single integrated circuit (then proclaimed as a "calculator on a chip"), the Mostek MK6010, and the first electronic calculator to run off replaceable batteries. Using four AA-size cells the LE-120A measures 4.9x2.8x0.9 in (124x72x24 mm). The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly referred to as The Bowmar Brain), measuring 5.2 3.0 1.5 in (131 77 37 mm), came out in the Autumn of 1971, with four functions and an eight-digit red LED display, for $240, while in August 1972 the fourfunctionSinclair Executive became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4 2.2 0.35 in (138 56 9 mm) and weighing 2.5 oz (70g). It retailed for around $150 (79). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than $10 (5). The first Soviet-made pocket-sized calculator, the "Elektronika B3-04" was developed by the end of 1973 and sold at the beginning of 1974. One of the first low-cost calculators was the Sinclair Cambridge, launched in August 1973. It retailed for 29.95, or 5 less in kit form. The Sinclair calculators were successful because they were far cheaper than the competition; however, their design was flawed and their accuracy in some functions was questionable. The scientific programmable models were particularly poor in this
[19]

respect, with the programmability comings at a heavy price inTranscendental [original research?] function accuracy. Meanwhile Hewlett Packard (HP) had been developing a pocket calculator. Launched in early 1972 it was unlike the other basic four-function pocket calculators then available in that it was the first pocket calculator with scientific functions that could replace a slide rule. The $395 HP-35, along with nearly all later HP engineering calculators, used reverse Polish notation (RPN), also called postfix notation. A calculation like "8 plus 5" is, using RPN, performed by pressing "8", "Enter", "5", and "+"; instead of the algebraic infix notation: "8", "+", "5", "=". The first Soviet scientific pocket-sized calculator the "B3-18" was completed by the end of 1975. In 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) introduced the SR-10, (SR signifying slide rule) an algebraic entry pocket calculator using scientific notation for $150. Shortly after the SR-11 featured an additional key for entering "". It was followed the next year by the SR-50 which added log and trig functions to compete with the HP-35, and in 1977 the mass-marketed TI-30 line which is still produced. In 1978 a new company, Calculated Industries, came onto the scene, focusing on specific markets. [21] Their first calculator, the Loan Arranger (1978) was a pocket calculator marketed to the Real Estate industry with preprogrammed functions to simplify the process of calculating payments and future values. In 1985, CI launched a calculator for the construction industry called the Construction [22] Master which came preprogrammed with common construction calculations (such as angles, stairs, roofing math, pitch, rise, run, and feet-inch fraction conversions). This would be the first in a line of construction related calculators.

En 1970, una calculadora podra hacerse usando slo unos pocos chips de bajo consumo de energa, permitiendo que los modelos porttiles alimentados por bateras recargables. Las primeras calculadoras porttiles aparecieron en Japn en 1970, y pronto se comercializan en todo el mundo. Estos incluyen el Sanyo ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", la Canon Pocketronic y el QT-8B Sharp "micro Compet". La Canon Pocketronic era un desarrollo del proyecto "Cal-Tech", que se haba iniciado en Texas Instruments en 1965 como un proyecto de investigacin para producir una calculadora porttil. El Pocketronic tiene pantalla tradicional, y la salida numrica est en la cinta de papel trmico. Como resultado del proyecto "Cal-Tech", Texas Instruments se otorgan patentes maestros en las calculadoras porttiles. Afilado poner en un gran esfuerzo en la reduccin de tamao y poder e introdujo en enero de 1971, la Sharp EL-8, tambin comercializado como el Facit 1111, que estaba cerca de ser una calculadora de bolsillo. Pesaba alrededor de 455 gramos o una libra tenido una pantalla fluorescente, las bateras recargables de nquel-cadmio, y vendidos inicialmente por $ 395. Sin embargo, los esfuerzos en el desarrollo de circuitos integrados culminaron con la introduccin a principios de 1971 de la primera "calculadora en un chip", la MK6010 por Mostek, [18] seguido por Texas Instruments, ms tarde en el ao. A pesar de estas calculadoras de mano tempranos eran muy caras, estos avances en la electrnica, junto con la evolucin de la tecnologa de visualizacin (por ejemplo, la pantalla fluorescente de vaco, LED y LCD), dirigidos a los pocos aos de la calculadora de bolsillo barato al alcance de todos.

En 1971 Pico Electrnica. [19] y General Instrument tambin present su primera colaboracin en el ICS, una completa calculadora solo chip IC para la Monroe Royal calculadora Digital III. Pico fue un regalo de cumpleaos por cinco ingenieros de diseo GI cuya visin era crear un solo CI calculadora chip. Pico y GI pas a tener un xito significativo en el creciente mercado de las calculadoras de mano. La primera calculadora electrnica autnticamente de bolsillo fue la Busicom LE-120A "perfecta", que fue comercializado a principios de 1971. [20] Hecho en Japn, esta fue tambin la primera calculadora de usar una pantalla LED, la primera calculadora de mano utilizar un solo circuito integrado (luego proclamado como una "calculadora en un chip"), el Mostek MK6010, y la primera calculadora electrnica para funcionar con bateras reemplazables. Usando cuatro celdas de tamao AA mide la LE-120A 4.9x2.8x0.9 in (124x72x24 mm). La primera calculadora de bolsillo hecho en Estados Unidos, el Bowmar 901B (conocido popularmente como The Brain Bowmar), que mide 5,2 3,0 1,5 in (131 77 37 mm), sali en el otoo de 1971, con cuatro funciones y una pantalla LED roja de ocho dgitos, por $ 240, mientras que en agosto de 1972, el cuatro funciones Sinclair Ejecutivo se convirti en la primera calculadora de bolsillo delgado de 5,4 2,2 0,35 in (138 56 9 mm) y un peso de 2,5 oz (70 g) . El precio de venta de alrededor de $ 150 (79 ). A finales de la dcada, las calculadoras similares a un precio de menos de $ 10 ( 5). La primera calculadora de bolsillo de fabricacin sovitica, el "Elektronika B3-04" fue desarrollado a finales de 1973 y vendido a principios de 1974. Una de las primeras calculadoras de bajo coste fue la Sinclair Cambridge, lanzada en agosto de 1973. El precio de venta de 29.95, 5 o menos en forma de kit. Las calculadoras Sinclair tuvieron xito porque eran mucho ms barato que la competencia, sin embargo, su diseo no era correcta y su precisin en algunas funciones era cuestionable. Los modelos cientficos programables eran particularmente pobres en este sentido, con el ir programabilidad a un precio muy alto en la precisin de la funcin trascendental. [Investigacin original?] Mientras tanto, Hewlett Packard (HP) ha venido desarrollando una calculadora de bolsillo. Lanzado a principios de 1972 era diferente a las otras calculadoras de bolsillo de cuatro funciones bsicas disponibles entonces en que se trataba de la primera calculadora de bolsillo con funciones cientficas que podran sustituir a una regla de clculo. La notacin polaca $ 395 HP-35, junto con casi todas las calculadoras HP ingeniera posteriores, usado inversa (RPN), tambin llamada la notacin de sufijo. Un clculo como 8 ms 5", es decir, utilizando RPN, realizado con la tecla "8", "Enter ", "5" y "+", en lugar de la notacin infija algebraica: "8", "+", " 5 "," = ". La primera calculadora cientfica sovitica de bolsillo del "B3-18" se complet a finales de 1975. En 1973, Texas Instruments (TI) present el SR-10 (SR significa regla de clculo) de una calculadora algebraica utilizando notacin cientfica por $ 150. Poco despus de la SR-11 cont con una clave adicional para la entrada "". Fue seguido el ao siguiente por el SR-50, que aaden funciones

trigonomtricas registro y competir con el HP-35, y en 1977 la masa comercializada TI-30 de la lnea que todava se produce. En 1978 una nueva empresa, Industrias calculados, entr en escena, centrndose en mercados especficos. Su primera calculadora, el Arranger Loan [21] (1978) era una calculadora de bolsillo comercializado para la industria de Bienes Races con funciones preprogramadas para simplificar el proceso de clculo de los pagos y los valores futuros. En 1985, CI lanz una calculadora para la industria de la construccin llamado el Maestro de Construccin [22] que entr preprogramado con clculos comunes de construccin (tales como ngulos, escaleras, techos matemticas, tono, subida, ejecutar y conversiones de fracciones pies-pulgadas). Este sera el primero de una lnea de calculadoras relacionadas con la construccin.