Chapter 1 Class Notes

INTRODUCTION, CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS
Prof. Cynthia A. Cruickshank
Carleton University
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
Do not reproduce without permission.
Notes adapted from Prof. Glenn McRae (2010)
MAAE 2400
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
1 1
you go through it, you don't understand it at all. The
second time you go through it, you think you
understand it, except for one or two small points.
The third time you go through it, you know you don't
understand it, but by that time you are so used to it,

- Arnold Sommerfeld
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
MAAE 2400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Basic concepts of thermodynamics: temperature,
work, heat, internal energy and enthalpy.
First law of thermodynamics for closed and
steady-flow open systems.
Thermodynamic properties of pure substances;
changes of phase; equation of state.
Second law of thermodynamics: concept of
entropy. Simple power and refrigeration cycles.
Introduction to heat transfer: conduction,
convection and radiation.
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
MAAE 2400 Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Moran and Shapiro (material covered in MAAE 2400)
- Chapters 1 6
- Chapter 8 (8.1 through 8.4)
- Chapter 9 (9.5 through 9.8)
- Chapter 10 (10.1 through 10.3)
- Introduction to Conduction, Convection and
Radiation (class notes)
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
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Distribution of Marks for MAAE 2400 (Fall 2009)
Course Introduction
Reading assignment:
Chapter 1 of Moran & Shapiro.
Problem assignment:
Assignment #1.
The science of energy (energy conversion).
The study of how to use hot and cold bodies
to do work.
Thermodynamics is derived from Greek words
therme (heat) and dynamis (power), so
-
What is Engineering Thermodynamics
????
Hot cold bodies.
L
from a high energy state to a lower energy state).
1
W
machines that do work.
How can we use hot and cold bodies
to do work for us?
Recall, energy moves, or

state to a lower energy state.
Energy flows through a system
(e.g., a machine) that we use
for some sort of work output.
Power Engine
How can we use hot and cold bodies
to do work for us?
What would happen if instead of
using hot and cold bodies to do
work, we put work into our system?
Putting energy
into the system
lets you make cold
bodies colder, by
taking energy out
of the cold body
and moving it to a
hot body.
Refrigerator and Heat Pump
How can we use hot and cold objects
to do work for us?
Power Engine
The Language of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics has words and terms
(jargon) that make up the language engineers
use to communicate precisely.
Often, words used by engineers are also used
in everyday conversations in which they can
have different meaning, usually not as precise.
This can be confusing.
The Language of Thermodynamics
So, what is energy?
In the general sense, energy is a property or
characteristic of matter that makes things happen
(e.g., a change in condition), or, in the case of
stored or potential energy, has the "potential" to
make things happen.
What do engineers mean by:
Hot
Cold
Heat Transfer
Work
System
The Language of Thermodynamics
What does it mean to say something is hot or
cold?
Hot and Cold are relative terms: One thing
is said to hotter than another thing if its
temperature is higher.
The Language of Thermodynamics
But, what is temperature?
Temperature can be related to the energy of
motion for atoms and molecules. You can
define:
rotational temperature
vibrational temperature
translational temperature
The temperature we measure with a thermo-
meter is the translational temperature, and it can
be related to the average kinetic energy of the
atoms or molecules in an object or system.
These contribute to
the internal energy, U.
The Language of Thermodynamics
Temperature
Scales
Temperature
Conversion
K =
o
C + 273.15
o
R =
o
F + 459.67
K =
o
R / 1.8
o
F = (
o
C x 1.8) + 32
Hot atoms have high temp-
eratures (higher kinetic
energies), which are shown
by longer arrows.
Cold atoms have shorter
arrows.
Energy can be transferred by
collisions: this is called
conductive heat transfer.
1 L P 1
Heat transfer is the energy transfer between two objects
when the two objects are at different temperatures.
High Temperature Low Temperature
Heat Transfer
If there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces)
within the system, the system
is in thermal equilibrium, i.e.,
no energy is transferred.
This is the Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics and the
underlying assumption of any
temperature measurement.
High Temperature Low Temperature
Heat Transfer
Thermal Equilibrium
Net heat transfer has ceased
If two things are at the same temperature then
no work can be obtained by connecting them.
This is a very basic description of the 2
nd
Law of
Thermodynamics.
The Language of Thermodynamics
No Flow No Go
What do engineers mean by work?
Language of Thermodynamics:
W
MAAE 2400 is a lot of work.
What do engineers mean by work?
Language of Thermodynamics:
W
2
1
=
}
x
x
W F ds
Mechanical work is the amount of
energy transferred by a force acting
through a distance.
In the equation, F is the force, ds is the differential
displacement, and x
1
and x
2
are the initial and final positions.
8 1 l
there is more than one way to get from x
1
to x
2
then the
work depends on the path!
Energy
classified as
Heat Transfer
energy of
unordered
motion
Energy
classified as
Work
energy of
ordered
motion
=
=
Language of Thermodynamics:
P W
A
of the analysis).
e.g., a combustion chamber, a nuclear power
plant, a solar photovoltaic panel.
1
may or may not change in time.
The composition of the matter within the system
may be fixed or may be changing through reactions.
Language of Thermodynamics:
S
S
8
System is identified
using a boundary
Language of Thermodynamics:
S
EXHAUST GAS
WORK
(drive shaft)
HEAT
(hot engine block)
FUEL
AIR
System boundary
Surroundings
SYSTEM
Source: G. Ciccarelli (2009)
As an example, consider
an Internal Combustion
Engine
A
Language of Thermodynamics:
S
System
Closed Open
The distinguishing feature of a closed systemis that it
has a fixed quantity of matter: nothing gets in or out!
CYLINDER
GAS
PISTON
SYSTEM
ENERGY
No mass transfer across system boundary but can
have energy exchange with the surroundings (e.g.,
piston-cylinder assembly).
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
Closed System C M
Fixed non-changing mass
of fluid within the system:
no transfer of mass
across boundary.
It is important to define
the boundary!
Language of Thermodynamics:
C S C M
A
INSULATED
WALLS
ENERGY
This is a system that does not interact with the surr-
oundings (e.g., no heat transfer across boundary).
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
C S C M
An open system can be defined as a region of space
through which mass may flow. For example, consider
the figure below.
Engine
Air
Fuel
Exhaust
Use dashed lines
to indicate the
boundary of the
open system
The term open system is interchan-
geable with control volume (CV).
Language of Thermodynamics:
Open System C v
The boundary defines a volume through which
mass flows.
Language of Thermodynamics:
C S C v
Property: macroscopic characteristic of a system to
which a numerical value can be assigned without
knowledge of the history of the system
- how fast we compress
does not matter for
property
State 1
m = 2 kg
T
1
= 20
o
C
V
1
= 2 m
3
m = 2 kg
T
2
= 20
o
C
V
2
= 1.5 m
3
State 2
Process
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:

A
Language of Thermodynamics:

Property
Extensive
Mass of
is equal to sum of
Property is the sum of
the values of the parts
into which the sum is
divided, e.g., mass,
volume, energy
A
Language of Thermodynamics:

Property
Extensive Intensive
Property is the sum of
the values of the parts
into which the sum is
divided, e.g., mass,
volume, energy
Property is independent
of system size, e.g.,
pressure, temperature
Intensive OR Extensive ?
V
S
= V
A
+V
B
M
S
= M
A
+M
B
T
S
= T
A
+T
B
V
A
T
A
M
A
V
B
T
B
M
B
System B
System A
V
s
, T
s
, M
s
System
Extensive
Extensive
Intensive
EXAMPLE
Language of Thermodynamics:

Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University

Refers to the condition of a system as described by
its properties (at a given state, all properties of a
system have fixed values)
S

For the problems we will study, we will require
two intensive variables, and one extensive
variable to completely describe the state of our
systems, e.g., T, p and mis one possibility.
Language of Thermodynamics:
S
An example of an equation with two intensive
variables and one extensive variable:
The Ideal Gas Law:
p and T are the two intensive variables, and you only
need to know one of the extensive variables, n or V,
and you can calculate the other.
So, we look to develop equations in terms of two
intensive variables and one extensive variable.
Putting in any more variables is redundant.
pV nRT =

1
S

with time:
(Any Property)
0
d
dt
=
Language of Thermodynamics:
S S
A
If a body experiences no thermal interaction with
its surroundings
l
If a process occurs at constant temperature
Language of Thermodynamics:
A and l
Fundamental Units
Derived Units
TO GET FULL MARKS, include units in your calculations and answers.
Property SI Units English Units
Mass kilogram, kg pound mass, lbm
Length meter, m foot, ft
Time second, s second, s
Temperature Celcius (
o
C), Kelvin (K) degree Rankine (
o
R)
Property SI Units English Units
Force newton, N (kgm/s
2
) pound force, lbf
Pressure Pascal, Pa (N/m
2
) pound per sq. inch, psi
Work joule, J (Nm) foot-pound, ft-lbf
Power watt, W (J/s) horsepower, hp
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Notation Convention
n S L
Weight to Mass Relationship
Language of Thermodynamics:
W M 8
2
2
2
m
1N = 1kgx 1 inSIUnits
s
ft
1lbf = 32.174lbm x1 inEnglishUnits
sec
32.174lbm = 1 slug
ft
1lbf =1slugx1
sec
1 metric tonne = 1000 kg
= F ma
Weight = mg
u
where m is the mass and V is the volume.
S
Language of Thermodynamics:
u S v
( (
( (

3 3
kg lbm
,
m ft
/ = m V
volume 1
mass
u

= =
( (
( (

3 3
m ft
,
kg lbm
Periodic Chart of Elements
1 mole of any substance contains 6.02214x10
23
atoms
A Number
= = =
The molecular mass of Oxygen (O) is:
g kg lbm
15.994 15.994 15.994
mol kmol lbmol
We show molecular weight (mass) by .
M
M
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
M M
p
Language of Thermodynamics:

2 2
N lbf
or Pa , or psi
m in
( (
( (

F

F
//
F
A
x
y
z
/ = p F A
where F is the force perpen-
dicular to the area and A is the
area.
5 2
2
1 standard atmosphere (atm) 1.01325x10 N/m or Pa
1 standard atmosphere (atm) 14.696 lbf/in or psi
=
=
Pressure
Absolute Pressure, p(abs): measured relative to a perfect
vacuum
absolute
vacuum
p*
p(vac)
p(atm)
p(abs) = 0
p(abs)
p(vac) = p(atm) - p(abs)
if p* < p(atm)
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
A
Pressure
Gauge Pressure, p(gauge): measured relative to the local atm.
pressure, p(atm)
absolute
vacuum
p(abs)
p (gauge)
p(atm)
p(atm)
p(abs) = 0
p*
p(gauge) = p(abs) - p(atm)
if p* > p(atm)
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
C
e.g., if p
atm
= 100 kPa and p
abs
= 80 kPa,
then p
gauge
= ??
-20 kPa gauge (or 20 kPa vacuum)
gL P(abs) - P(atm) =
The hydrostatic pressure is the pressure due to the weight of the
fluid. Consider the measurement of pressure via a manometer.
Gas at
P(abs)
P(atm)
L
Mercury/water
P(hydrostatic) =
Aside: the density of mercury is 13.5 times the density of water
Note: 1 standard atmosphere = 760 mm (29.9 in.) mercury =
10,260 mm water
g = 9.81 m/s
2
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
P
For liquids:
For gases:

ref
Specific Gravity

2
o o
ref H O 3 3
kg lbm
= at 4 C(39 F) =1000 =62.428
m ft

o o
ref air
3 3
= at 15 C(59 F) and101,325Pa (1 atm)
kg lbm
=1.225 =0.0765
m ft
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Language of Thermodynamics:
S C
S l C SlC
1 S l C 1SlC
(

=
hp
lbm/hr
,
kW
kg/s
output power
fuel of rate flow mass
SFC
(

=
lbf
lbm/hr
,
N
kg/s
thrust
fuel of rate flow mass
TSFC
Language of Thermodynamics:
SlC 1SlC
Notation Typical Meaning Examples [Units]
Capital letters Extensive property E, U, H, Q or W [J]
Small letters Specific property
(i.e., per unit mass)
e, u, h, q or w [J/kg]
Small letters with
overbar
Molar property
(i.e., per unit mole)
e, u or h [J/mole]
Notes:
- There are exceptions to these guidelines.
- It is a good practice to follow a consistent notation.
= = =
= = =
E m e U m u H m h
e M e u M u h M h
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Prof. C. A. Cruickshank, Carleton University
Notation Convention
An example of how to calculate the work derived
from a temperature difference:
First, some symbol definitions:
High Temperature
Low Temperature
These arrows represent the
kinetic energies of the atoms
(in four directions)
Gas Piston
2
4
Add energy to the gas by
heat transfer to double T.
The symbol for this is Q.
Q
Change in Energy
AE = Q = 4*(4-2) = 8 units
No work done
This is also the difference in
the internal energy of the gas
(more on this later)
2
2
An example of how to calculate the work derived
from a temperature difference:
Same # of balls, but
with slightly longer
arrows
4
After heat input, the temperature of the molecules has now doubled.
Q
Change in Energy
AE = Q = 4*(4-2) = 8
No work done
AE = Q W= 4 units
Work has been done
2
1
=
}
x
x
W F ds
2 4
4
2
Gas Piston
Gas Piston
0
The gas atoms now have a higher energy density
and push on the piston head in the positive x
direction (momentum is transferred to the
piston atoms resulting in work being done, W).
Same # of balls, but
with slightly longer
arrows
4
After heat input, the temperature of the molecules has now doubled.
Q
Change in Energy
AE = Q = 4*(4-2) = 8
No work done
AE = Q W= 4 units
Work has been done
After collisions, the
kinetic energies in the
different directions all
go to the same
average value.
3
2 4
3
4
2
Gas Piston
Gas Piston
0
We start off with the piston and the gas at the same
temperature.
We heat the gas, which raises its temperature.
Heat transfer can now happen between the hot gas
and the cold piston.
The hot gas atoms collide with the atoms in the piston
head, and transfer momentum to them.
The piston moves, because the momentum of all the
little piston atoms give a net momentum to the piston.
In this ideal example, the overall momentum of the gas
atoms goes to zero in the direction the piston moves.
So, why is thermodynamics cool?
If you had to calculate all of the little forces for all of
the gas atoms hitting the atoms of the piston head,
and work out all of the little displacements and then
calculate the amount of energy transferred you
would go insane!
1 ?

need to consider the gas (i.e., the closed system: the
part within the dashed red box)
So, why is thermodynamics cool?
You just follow the energy:
AE = Q - W
This is the First Law of Thermodynamics
(more about this next week)
So, why is thermodynamics cool?
That is, the change in energy of a system, AE, is equal
to the energy transfer by heat, Q, minus the work
done by the system, W.
In our example we put in 8 units of energy by heat
transfer, and got out 4 units of work.
This is a good as 100% of the energy by heat transfer is
transferred as momentum in the +x direction.
How do we know this is true?
Our Work Machine
ANSWER: At the end of the process, there was no
temperature difference left, so no more energy
would flow. We got as much out as we could.
Not all working fluids are hard spheres.
When we heat up molecules, not all of the energy goes into
translational motion.
Some may go into rotational motion or vibrational motion
Putting the same amount of energy into different working
fluids and gases will not give the same temperature rise.
Different working fluids and gases have different heat
capacities, which we will discuss later.
Fortunately, people have done many experiments to
measure properties like internal energies for different
conditions, and these are available in tables.
Real World Example
A gas in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes a energy
transfer process from State 1 to State 2. The energy
transfer by heat to the gas is 500 kJ. The internal energies
at both states are U
1
= 2000 kJ and U
2
= 1700 kJ.
What work does the gas do on the piston?
Recall, the change in energy
is equal to the energy
transfer by heat minus
the work done by the system
Real World Example
Q
AE = Q - W
W
State 1
State 2
Real World Example
Q
U
1
= 2000 kJ
W
Same # of balls, but
with slightly longer
arrows
U
2
= 1700 kJ
We know that
We also know that the change
in energy of the system is
equal to the difference in the
internal energy of the gas
A = E Q W
2 1
A = A = E U U U
State 1
State 2
Real World Example
Q
U
1
= 2000 kJ
W
Same # of balls, but
with slightly longer
arrows
U
2
= 1700 kJ
2 1
A = = E U U Q W
Therefore,
and rearranging the above
equation gives:
500 kJ (2000 1700) kJ
800 kJ
W
W
= +
=
1 2
= + W Q U U
Closed vs. Open Systems
The Language of Thermodynamics
- extensive vs. intensive property
- what is meant by steady state?
- what is an adiabatic process?
- what is an isothermal process?
- what is the difference between gauge and absolute
pressure?
- how do we find hydrostatic pressure?
SI and English units
The Notation Convention
Key Points to Remember