Important Inventors...

Alexander Graham Bell (March 3, 1847 - August 2, 1922): Invented the first practical telephone following extensive work on elocution and deafness. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (October 24, 1632 - August 26, 1723): Invented the microscope. Leeuwenhoek is also considered as the first microbiologist in the world and the father of microbiology. Archimedes (c. 287-212 BC): Invented the Archimedean Screw, used for drawing water out of flooded ships, or from canals for irrigation. Archimedes also discovered the method for determining the volume of irregular objects. Benjamin Franklin (January 17, 1706 - April 17, 1790): Invented the lightning rod and bifocals, among other inventions. He is also famous as one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Brahmagupta (c. 597 - 668 AD): Brahmagupta was the first to use zero as a number, although it had been in use before his time as a symbol, representing the order of magnitude of the number in question (7 - 70 - 700 etc.). Consequently, he devised the rules of arithmetic involving zero. Brahmagupta was also the first to note that the product of two negative numbers is a positive number. Eli Whitney (December 8, 1765 - January 8, 1825): Invented the cotton gin, which helped speed up the industrial revolution by a great degree. Elias Howe (July 9, 1819 - October 3, 1867): The Sewing machine Emile Berliner (May 20, 1851 - August 3, 1929): Phonograph records Felix Hoffmann (January 21, 1868 - February 8, 1946): Formulated aspirin and heroin in medically usable forms. Fritz Pfleumer (March 20, 1881 - August 29, 1945): Invented the magnetic tape used in audio cassettes. Galileo Galilei (February 15 1564 - January 8 1642): Invented, among other devices, the telescope and the military compass. Galilei made several crucial astronomical observations (such as Jupiter's four largest moons, which are called the Galilean moons in his honor), and promoted the Copernican view that the earth revolves around the sun -- the latter inviting the wrath of the Church. Garrett Augustus Morgan (March 4, 1877 - July 27, 1963): Invented the traffic signal and a version of the gas mask (mainly for firefighters). Hans von Ohain (December 14, 1911 - March 13, 1998): Jet engine Heinrich Focke (October 8, 1890 - February 25, 1979): Built the first practicably functional helicopter. Jagadish Chandra Bose (Basu) (November 30, 1858 - November 23, 1937): Invented the crescograph, a device to measure growth in plants. Bose invented the crescograph to aid his own research on the effects of external stimuli on the growth of plants. Bose also made pioneering research in the field of

radio transmission, and demonstrated the first wireless signalling in the world. Marconi's future (and patent-yielding) research was aided by Bose, who made his research available to the scientific community instead of rushing off to privatize the invention of the radio. Johannes Gutenberg (1395 - February 3, 1468): Invented the letterpress printing press also known as mechanical printing press. This invention is regarded as one of the most important in human history. Johann Philipp Reis (January 7, 1834 - January 14, 1874): Invented an early version of the telephone that only worked on an 'on/off' basis, and thus could only convey a steady note when spoken into. It failed at reproducing articulated speech (which is a constantly changing mixture of different vibrations) and was thus impractical. John Logie Baird (August 13, 1888 - June 14, 1946): Invented the first practical Television. Baird's original design was electromechanical rather than fully electronic. He also invented the color television tube. Karl Benz (November 25, 1844 - April 4, 1929): Invented the first self-propelled, gasoline-powered automobile. Karl Friedrich von Drais (April 29, 1785 - December 29, 1851): Invented a pedal-less early version of the bicycle, the draisine. Karlheinz Brandenburg (b. June 20, 1954): Co-inventor of MP3 Technology Konrad Zuse (June 22, 1910 - December 18, 1995): Built the first working, programmable, electromechanical computer. Laszlo Jozsef Bro (September 29, 1899 - October 24, 1985): Invented the ballpoint pen, still commonly called biro after him. Levi Strauss (February 26, 1829 - September 26, 1902): Denim trousers (Jeans) Melitta Bentz (January 31, 1873 - June 29, 1950): Coffee filter Nikola Tesla (July 10, 1856 - January 7, 1943): Built the Tesla induction motor, the Tesla coil and a pioneering mechanism for wireless (radio) communication. Orville and Wilbur Wright (Orville: August 19, 1871 - January 30, 1948 / Wilbur: April 16, 1867 May 30, 1912): Invented the airplane, i.e., successfully completed the first powered heavier-than-air flight. Otto Lilienthal (May 23, 1848 - August 10, 1896): An early pioneer of gliders. Lilienthal designed and built several flying machines, including monoplanes, biplanes and gliders. Percy Spencer (July 9, 1894 - September 8, 1970): Microwave oven Peter Henlein (1479 - 1542): Considered the inventor of the pocket watch (early history of watches has not been sufficiently determined).

 Rudolf Diesel (March 18, 1858 - disappeared September 29, 1913): Invented the compression combustion engine, which was named the Diesel engine after him. Rudolf Hell (December 19, 1901 - March 11, 2002): Formulated pioneering technology for the scanner and the fax machine (hellschreiber). Thomas Edison (February 11, 1847 - October 18, 1931): Edison was involved in countless inventions, either directly or through the several engineers he employed. He is known for the invention and commercialization of the electric light and the phonograph. William Henry Perkin (March 12, 1838 - July 14, 1907): First to produce a synthetic aniline dye -mauveine, of the color mauve. ... And Discoverers Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955): Perhaps the most famous scientist in history, Einstein formulated the theory of general relativity, and the famous equation of mass-energy equivalence -- E=mc2. Alexander Fleming (August 6, 1881 - March 11, 1955): Discovered the fungus responsible for the production of penicillin, Penicillium notatum. Andreas Vesalius (December 31, 1514 - October 15, 1564): First to describe the human skeletal system and muscular system accurately and in great detail. Aryabhata (476 AD - 550 AD): Approximated the value of pi to 3.1416 -- 5 significant figures (4 decimal places), and was possibly the first to note the irrationality of pi. Aryabhata also did commendable work in trigonometry, creating one of the earliest trigonometric tables (later found to be accurate), and astronomy, discovering the daily rotation of the earth. Carl Linnaeus (May 12, 1707 - January 10, 1778): Formed the taxonomical system of binomial nomenclature, wherein the name of the genus is followed by the name of the species. For instance, human beings are termed as Homo sapiens, wherein Homo is the genus and sapiens is the species. Carl Wilhelm Scheele (December 9, 1742 - May 21, 1786): Discovered oxygen, although Joseph Priestly published his findings first and is thus given credit for the discovery. Sir Chandrashekhar Venkata Raman (November 7, 1888 - November 21, 1970): Discovered the change in the wavelength -- and thus the color -- of light traveling through a transparent medium, a phenomenon later named after him -- the Raman effect. Charles Darwin (February 12, 1809 - April 19, 1882): Formulated the theory of evolution, explaining the huge diversity in organisms as a result of millions of years of unceasing evolution programmed by natural selection. Copernicus (February 19, 1473 - May 24, 1543): The first to accurately describe the solar system as heliocentric (having the sun at the center) rather than geocentric (having the earth at the center); some Greek scholars had previously described a heliocentric solar system, but none was accurate. Weirdly --

given the travails Galileo would later face -- the Church was curious, even accepting, about Copernicus' findings. However, a few months after Copernicus published his findings, they were ridiculed and "refuted" on the basis of wrong but conventionally accepted wisdom. Dmitri Mendeleev (February 8, 1834 - February 2, 1907): Created a comprehensive periodic table of elements, incorporating the Newland's law of octaves and leaving blanks where he theorized the presence of elements that had not yet been discovered. Most of these gaps were later found to be correct. Edward Jenner (May 17, 1749 - January 26, 1823): Discovered the process of vaccination by proving that deliberate (or accidental) infection of cowpox provided immunity against smallpox, an untreatable disease in Jenner's time. Jenner is said to have saved more lives than any other man in history! Ernest Rutherford (August 30, 1871 - October 19, 1937): Discovered the phenomenon of radioactive half-life and the change in the atomic number of the element due to radiation, sowing the seeds of the extensive future research into nuclear fission. Due to his highly influential findings, Rutherford is termed the 'father of nuclear physics'. Francis Crick - James Watson (Crick: June 8, 1916 - July 28, 2004 / Watson: b. April 6, 1928): Discovered the double-helical structure of the DNA molecule. Georg Ohm (March 16, 1789 - July 6, 1854): Discovered the proportionality between the voltage and the resultant current in a circuit, now known as Ohm's law: I (current) = V (voltage)/ R (resistance) Heinrich Hertz (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894): Proved the existence of electromagnetic waves by constructing radio equipment. Although Hertz didn't realize the full ramifications of his work, the seminal research led to the discoveries made by Jagadish Chandra Bose, Marconi et al. Henri Becquerel (December 15, 1852 - August 25, 1908): Discovered radioactivity in uranium salts. Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727): One of the most revered scientists in history (and rightly so), Newton discovered and formulated the laws of gravity and the three laws of motion, along with invaluable work in several other fields. He was also closely involved in the development of calculus. James Chadwick (October 20, 1891 - July 24, 1974): Discovered the electrically neutral particle in atoms, neutron. Johann Kepler (December 27, 1571 - November 15, 1630): Formulated the laws of planetary motion, which are named after him. Marie Sklodowska-Curie - Pierre Curie (Marie: November 7, 1867 - July 4, 1934 / Pierre: May 15, 1859 - April 19, 1906): Expounding on the work of Marie's Doctoral Advisor Henri Becquerel, Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the radioactive elements Radium (Ra) and Polonium (Po). Their work in radioactivity (a term coined by Marie Curie, incidentally) resulted in Marie Curie, Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel receiving the 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics. Max Planck (April 23, 1858 - October 4, 1947): A theoretical physicist by nature and profession, Planck formulated the quantum theory, considered one of the most important theories of modern

physics. Michael Faraday (September 22, 1791 - August 25, 1867): Discovered electromagnetic induction, laws of electrolysis and fundamental relations between light and magnetism. Faraday is considered the greatest experimentalist. Neils Bohr (October 7, 1885 - November 18, 1962): Formulated the Bohr model of the atom. Otto Hahn (March 8, 1879 - July 28, 1968): Discovered nuclear fission. During the related research, Hahn collaborated with Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch, who confirmed Hahn's results and coined the term 'nuclear fission'; Hahn was initially baffled by the results, which did not fit in the prevalent scientific paradigm. Robert Koch (1843-1910): Renowned for the isolation of Bacillus anthracis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Vibrio cholerae, the bacteria responsible for the diseases anthrax, tuberculosis and cholera, respectively. Although the diseases may not sound sinister in the 21st century, they were among the deadliest in the 19th century. Koch is also known for his eponymous postulates about the determination of the particular microbe responsible for a disease. Srinivasa Ramanujan (December 22, 1887 - April 26, 1920): Isolated from the European mathematics community, Srinivasa Ramanujan rediscovered several previously discovered theorems, as well as several new ones. Ramanujan's groundbreaking and unorthodox derivations are still being heavily researched by mathematicians all over the world. Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen (March 27, 1845 - February 10, 1923): Discovered the X-ray, and thus considered the father of diagnostic radiology. William Harvey (April 1, 1578 - June 3, 1657): Described the 'double cycle' nature of the human circulatory system (organs-veins-heart-lungs-heart-arteries-organs). Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/famous-scientists-and-their-inventions.html FAMOUS SCIENTISTS LIFE PERIOD INVENTIONS
Archimedes 287-212 BC Archimedean principle, famous theory of buoyancy and many mathematical and mechanical discoveries. Heinrich Hertz 1857-1894 Electromagnetic theory of light and electromagnetic waves. Andre Marie Ampere 1775-1836 Unit of measurement to measure electric current Amedeo Avogadro 1776-1856 Avogadro's Law, that is, "equal volumes of different gases, pressure and temperature being equal, contain the same number of molecules".

Neils Hendrik David Bohr 1885-1962 Bohr Model of Atom Johannes Gutenberg 1398-1468 Letterpress printing press also known as mechanical printing press. Albert Einstein 1879-1955 Theory of Relativity, photoelectric effect and lots more Rudolf Diesel 1858-1913 Combustion engine. Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen 1845-1923 X-ray Karl Friedrich von Drais 1785-1851 Bicycle Peter Henlein 1479-1542 Pocket Watch Ferdinand Verbiest 1623-1688 first ever car. Graham Bell 1847-1922 first practical telephone. Philipp Reis 1834-1874 early invention of telephone John Logie Baird 1888-1946 Television. Werner von Siemens 1816-1892 Dynamo Hans von Ohain 1911-1998 Jet engine Artur Fischer 1919 Fischertechnik Felix Hoffmann 1868-1946 Aspirin

Hugo Junkers 1859-1935 Civilian avion Otto Lilienthal 1848-1896 Gliding flights Melitta Bentz 1873-1950 Coffee Filter Konrad Zuse 1910-1995 First 'working' computer. You can read more on the original idea of computers and also about Charles Babbage who invented the computer. Gottlieb Daimler 1834-1900 Automobile and internal combustion machine Robert Koch 1843-1910 Isolation of Bacillus anthracis, tuberculosis bacteria and Vibrio cholerae. Also known for his Koch's postulates. Karlheinz Brandenburg 1954 MP3 Technology Heinrich Gobel 1818-1893 Incandescent light bulb Samuel Hahnemann 1755-1843 Creation of alternative medicine practice called Homeopathy Heinrich Focke 1890-1979 Helicopter Levi Strauss 1829-1902 Jeans Otto Hahn 1879-1968 Nuclear fission and known as the 'father of nuclear chemistry'. Julius Lothar Meyer 1830-1895 First person to draw the periodic table of chemical elements Emil Berliner 1851-1929 Record Player Rudolf Hell 1901-2002 Formulated technology for Scanner and Fax

Fritz Pfleumer 1881-1945 Audio tape Thomas Edison 1847-1931 Electric light bulb. Elias Howe 1819-1867 Sewing machine Laszlo Jozsef Bro 1899-1985 Ballpoint pen Garrett Augustus Morgan 1877-1963 Traffic signal, respiratory protective mask (gas mask), hair straightening preparation. Samuel F. B. Morse 1791-1872 Telegraph Percy Spencer 1894-1970 Microwave oven Orville Wright, Wilbur Wright 1871-1948, 1867-1912 Airplane Benjamin Franklin 1706-1790 One of the founding fathers of America, Franklin is attributed to have invented electricity

From C. V. Raman to Salim Ali, the talents of Indian scientists and inventors have been fully established in many different areas, including physics, medicine, mathematics, chemistry and biology. Some of them have also contributed in a substantial way to advanced scientific research in many different regions of the world. This article will discuss the famous Indian scientists and inventors throughout history and their wonderful contributions.

Prafulla Chandra Ray

Famous academician and chemist, known for being the founder of Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, Indias first pharmaceutical company.

Salim Ali
Naturalist who helped develop Ornithology; also known as the birdman of India.

Srinivasa Ramanujan
Mathematician known for his brilliant contributions to contributions to mathematical analysis, number

theory, infinite series and continued fractions.

C. V. Raman
Physicist who won Nobel Prize in 1930 for his Raman Effect.

Homi Jehangir Bhabha

Theoretical physicist; best known as the chief architect of the Indian atomic energy program.

Jagadish Chandra Bose

Physicist, biologist and archaeologist who pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics.

Satyendra Nath Bose

Mathematician and physicist; best known for his collaboration with Albert Einstein in formulating a theory related to the gaslike qualities of electromagnetic radiation.

A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

Known for his crucial role in the development of Indias missile and nuclear weapons programs.

Har Gobind Khorana

Biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in 1968 for demonstrating how the nucleotides in nucleic acids control the synthesis of proteins.

S.S. Abhyankar
Mathematician; famous for his outstanding contributions to algebraic geometry.

Meghnad Saha
Astrophysicist who developed the Saha equation, which explains chemical and physical conditions in stars.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Astrophysicist won the Nobel Prize in 1983 for his research on the evolutionary stages of massive stars.

Raj Reddy
A.M. Turing Award-winning computer scientist, best known for his work related to large scale artificial intelligence systems.

Birbal Sahni
Paleobotanist known for his research on the fossils of the Indian subcontinent.

Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis

Statistician and physicist who founded the Indian Statistical Institute.

Women have made valuable contributions to science. Some of the women scientists of the very ancient times have faced difficulties in getting the due recognition of their work from the society. With the passing years, the society realized the value of their scientific works and today, they are held in high regard. Anita Roberts: She was a molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the protein TGF-beta. This protein has the potential of playing a dual role of blocking as well as stimulating cancer and it helps in the healing of wounds and fractures. Anita Roberts is one of the most-cited scientists in the world. Annie Easley: She is an African-American computer scientist who worked for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Lewis Research Center. She was a part of the team that developed the software for the Centaur rocket stage. Barbara McClintock: She was an American scientist who won the prestigious Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983. She led the development of the maize cytogenetics and studied the changes that the chromosomes in maize undergo during the process of reproduction. She discovered the process of transposition and used it to demonstrate how genes are associated with the presence or absence of certain physical characteristics in human beings. She is one of the most famous cytogeneticists of the world. Christiane Nusslein-Volhard: She is a German biologist who conducted a successful research in mutagenesis to demonstrate the embryonic development in fruit flies. For her research on the genetic control of embryonic development, she won the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1991 and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995. Diane Fossey: She was an American zoologist who completed an extensive study of eight gorilla groups by closely observing their lives in the mountain forests of Rwanda. Her work was similar to Jane Goodall's research on chimpanzees. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin: She was a British chemist who worked in the field of protein crystallography. She was instrumental in determining the structure of penicillin and vitamin B12. This work earned her a Nobel Prize in Chemistry. She also discovered the chemical composition of insulin. Passionate and peace-loving by nature, Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin is one of the most notable scientists in the field of X-ray crystallography. Grace Hopper: She was a computer scientist and a naval officer of the United States. She developed the first compiler for a computer programming language. She pioneered the idea of writing computer programs in a language close to English. She was instrumental in the establishment of testing standards for computer systems and components. She made an excellent naval career while also making valuable contributions to the computer technology. Gertrude B. Elion: She is a notable American biochemist and pharmacologist who received the Nobel

Prize in Physiology or Medicine. She is attributed with the discovery many drugs, the most significant one being the AIDS drug, AZT. She received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1988 followed by the National Medal of Science in 1991 and the Lemelson-MIT Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997. She was inducted to the National Inventors Hall of Fame and was the first woman to receive this honor. Gerty Theresa Cori: She was an American biochemist and the proud winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, which she shared with her husband. The Cori couple was awarded the Nobel Prize for their discovery of glycogen. Helen Flanders Dunbar: She has made a valuable contribution to psychosomatic medicine and psychobiology. Henrietta Swan Leavitt: She was an American astronomer who began working at the Harvard College Observatory as a woman 'computer' to record the brightness of stars. She was among the first ones to note that variable stars followed a pattern. She deduced that the brighter ones have longer periods. This relationship derived by her proved helpful for measuring distances in the Universe. It was due to her research that we realized that many galaxies are outside the Milky Way. The Leavitt crater on the Moon was named in her honor. She continues to be one of the most notable figures in astronomy and physics. Irene Joliot-Curie: She was a French scientist who started as a teacher of laboratory techniques for radiochemical research to Frederic Joliot, who later became her husband. Their joint accomplishment of the discovery of artificial radioactivity earned them a Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Jane Goodall: She is an English UN Messenger of Peace as also an anthropologist who is renowned for her study of the chimpanzees. She spent long years in studying the social and family interactions between chimpanzees and went on to found the Jane Goodall Institute. Jocelyn Bell Burnell: She is an astrophysicist who discovered the first radio pulsars. This accomplishment earned her a Nobel Prize. Linda B. Buck: She is an American biologist who has made a noteworthy contribution to the research on olfactory system. In 2004, she won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Lise Meitner: Born in Austria, Lise Meitner was a Swedish physicist who worked in the fields of radioactivity and nuclear physics. She was a part of the team that discovered nuclear fission and was one of the potential winners of the Nobel Prize. Marie Curie: Raised in Poland and a citizen of France, Marie Curie was a physicist and chemist and the only person to receive Nobel Prizes in two different sciences. She served the University of Paris as a professor and became the first woman to do so. She is credited with the creation of the theory of radioactivity and the discovery of polonium and radium. Maria Goeppert Mayer: She was a German-born American physicist and the winner of the prestigious Nobel Prize in Physics. She was the second woman scientist receiving a Nobel Prize in Physics, after Marie Curie. She received the Nobel Prize for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. Rachel Zimmerman: At a very young age, she came up with a software that made it possible to use Blissymbols that enable those with severe physical disabilities to communicate. She designed a printer

that could translate symbols into the written language. Rita Levi-Montalcini: For her discovery of the nerve growth factor, she received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1986. This Italian neurologist, aged 99, is the oldest living Nobel Prize winner. Rosalind Franklin: She was an English biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer who contributed to understanding the compositions of DNA and viruses. She also contributed to understanding the structures of graphite and coal. Her most noteworthy work is that on the X-ray diffraction images of DNA. These were some of the famous women who have made a remarkable contribution to science. They have made some brilliant discoveries and gifted the world their inventions.

Inventions
Button, ornamental: Buttonsmade from seashellwere used in the Indus Valley Civilization for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.[1] Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread.[1] Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old."[2] Calico: Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.[3] The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from Gujarat appeared in Egypt.[3] Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards.[3] Within India, calico originated in Kozhikode.[3] Carding, devices for: Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bowinstruments used in textile technology to India.[4] The earliest evidence for using bowinstruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE).[4] These carding devices, called kaman and dhunaki would loosen the texture of the fiber by the means of a vibrating string.[4] Map showing origin and diffusion of chess from India to Asia, Africa, and Europe, and the changes in the native names of the game in corresponding places and time. Chaturanga and Shatranj: The precursors of chess originated in India during the Gupta dynasty (c. 280 - 550 CE).[5][6][7][8] Both the Persians and Arabs ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.[7][9][10] The words for "chess" in Old Persian and Arabic are chatrang and shatranj respectively terms derived from caturaga in Sanskrit,[11][12] which literally means an army of four divisions or four corps.[13][14] Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.[15] This game was introduced to the Near East from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.[13] Buddhist pilgrims, Silk Road traders and others carried it to the Far East where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares.[15] Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the Byzantine empire and the expanding Arabian empire.[14][16] Muslims carried Shatranj to

North Africa, Sicily, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess. [15] Chintz: The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.[17] The origin of the word chintz itself is from the Hindi language word (chitr), which means a spot. [17][18] Coherer, iron and mercury: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[19] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver. Cotton gin, single-roller: The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century.[20] This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.[21] The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.[4] Crescograph: The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose.[22][23] Crucible steel: Perhaps as early as 300 BCEalthough certainly by 200 CEhigh quality steel was being produced in southern India also by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique.[24] In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon.[24] The first crucible steel was the wootz steel that originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26][27][28][29] Dock (maritime): The world's first dock at Lothal (2400 BCE) was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt.[30] Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering.[30] This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.[30][31] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks.[32] This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary.[32] Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India. Incense clock: Although popularly associated with China the incense clock is believed to have originated in India, at least in its fundamental form if not function.[33][34] Early incense clocks found in China between the 6th and 8th century CEthe period it appeared in China all seem to have Devangar carvings on them instead of Chinese seal characters.[33][34] Incense itself was introduced to China from India in the early centuries CE, along with the spread of Buddhism by travelling monks.[35][36][37] Edward Schafer asserts that incense clocks were probably an Indian invention, transmitted to China, which explains the Devangar inscriptions on early incense clocks found in China.[33] Silvio Bedini on the other hand asserts that incense clocks were derived in part from incense seals mentioned in Tantric Buddhist scriptures, which first came to light in China after those scriptures from India were translated into Chinese, but holds

that the time-telling function of the seal was incorporated by the Chinese.[34] India ink, carbonaceous pigment for: The source of the carbon pigment used in India ink was India.[38][39] In India, the carbon black from which India ink is produced is obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[39][40] Ink itself has been used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[41] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.[41] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been unearthed in Xinjiang.[42] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[43] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[44] Indian clubs: The Indian clubwhich appeared in Europe during the 18th centurywas used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.[45] During the British Raj the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in for physical conditioning.[45] From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world.[45] Kabaddi: The game of kabaddi originated in India during prehistory.[46] Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective selfdefense but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE.[46] Ludo: Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.[47] The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta.[47] This game was played by the Mughal emperors of India; a notable example being that of Akbar, who played living Pachisi using girls from his harem.[47][48] A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj.[47] Muslin: The fabric was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh.[49] [50] In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic).[50] The Great Stupa at Sanchi (4th-1st century BCE). The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. Palampore: (Hindi language) of Indian origin[51] was imported to the western world notable England and Colonial americafrom India.[52][53] In 17th century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design.[52] Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting.[53] Prayer flags: The Buddhist stras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.[54] These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags.[54] Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the devas against their adversaries, the asuras.[55] The legend may have given the Indian bhikku a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ahimsa.[56] This knowledge was carried into Tibet by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified.[56] The Indian monk Atisha (980-1054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet.[55] Prefabricated home and movable structure: The first prefabricated homes and movable structures were invented in 16th century Mughal India by Akbar. These structures were reported by Arif Qandahari in 1579.[57]

Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) in Wayang Purwa type, depicting five Pandava, from left to right: Bhima, Arjuna, Yudhishtira, Nakula, and Sahadeva (Museum Indonesia, Jakarta). Ghosh, Massey, and Banerjee (2006) trace the origins of puppetry in India to the Indus Civilization. Rocket artillery, iron-cased and metal-cylinder: The first iron-cased and metal-cylinder rockets were developed by Tipu Sultan, ruler of the South Indian Kingdom of Mysore, and his father Hyder Ali, in the 1780s. He successfully used these iron-cased rockets against the larger forces of the British East India Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore rockets of this period were much more advanced than what the British had seen, chiefly because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range). After Tipu's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, they were influential in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve rocket, and were soon put into use in the Napoleonic Wars.[58][59] Ruler: Rulers made from Ivory were in use by the Indus Valley Civilization in what today is Pakistan and some parts of Western India prior to 1500 BCE.[60] Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about 1/16 of an inchless than 2 millimeters. [60] Ian Whitelaw (2007) holds that 'The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracyto within 0.005 of an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.'[61] Shigeo Iwata (2008) further writes 'The minimum division of graduation found in the segment of an ivory-made linear measure excavated in Lothal was 1.79 mm (that corresponds to 1/940 of a fathom), while that of the fragment of a shell-made one from Mohenjo-daro was 6.72 mm (1/250 of a fathom), and that of bronze-made one from Harapa was 9.33 mm (1/180 of a fathom).'[62] The weights and measures of the Indus civilization also reached Persia and Central Asia, where they were further modified.[62] Seamless celestial globe: Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, it was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in between 1589 and 1590 CE, and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire.[63] [64] Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology.[64] These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[64] Snakes and ladders: Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.[65] During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943.[65] Stepwell: Earliest clear evidence of the origins of the stepwell is found in the Indus Valley Civilization's archaeological site at Mohenjodaro in Pakistan.[66] The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure.[66] The early centuries immediately before the common era saw the Buddhists and the Jains of India adapt the stepwells into their architecture.[66] Both the wells and the form of ritual bathing reached other parts of the world with Buddhism.[66] Rockcut step wells in the subcontinent date from 200 to 400 CE.[67] Subsequently the wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) were constructed.[67]

 Stupa: The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd century BCE India.[68] It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.[68] The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics.[68] Toe stirrup: The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCE[69] or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.[70][71] This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather.[71] Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot.[71] A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else.[72] Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi, Mathura and the Bhaja caves dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.[73][74][75] Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world".[75] In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups.[70] However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.[71][74] Suits game: Kridapatram is an early suits game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term kridapatram literally means "painted rags for playing."[76][77][78][79][80] Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century.[76][81] The medieval Indian game of ganjifa, or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century.[82] Wootz steel: Wootz originated in India before the beginning of the common era.[25] Wootz steel was widely exported and traded throughout ancient Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the Christian era.[26][27]

Discoveries
Agriculture
Jute plants Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus capsularis cultivated first in India. Cashmere wool: The fiber is also known as pashm or pashmina for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India.[83] The woolen shawls made from wool in Kashmir region of India find written mention between 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.[84] However, the founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who employed weavers from Central Asia.[84] Cotton cultivation: Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 5th millennium BCE - 4th millennium BCE.[85] The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practiced till the modern Industrialization of India.[86] Well before the Common Era, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the Mediterranean and beyond.[87] Indigo dye: Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest

major center for its production and processing.[88] The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India.[88] Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product.[88] Jute cultivation: Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times.[89] Raw jute was exported to the western world, where it was used to make ropes and cordage.[89] The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernized during the British Raj in India.[89] The region of Bengal was the major center for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernization of India's jute industry in 1855, when Kolkata became a center for jute processing in India.[89] Sugar refinement: Sugarcane was originally from tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[90] Different species likely originated in different locations with S. barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[90] The process of producing crystallized sugar from sugarcane was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas,[91] and the earliest reference of candied sugar comes from India.[92] The process was soon transmitted to China with traveling Buddhist monks.[92] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.[93] Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.[93]

Mathematics
Number System Gurmukhi Odia E. Nagari Devanagari Gujarati Tibetan Brahmi Telugu Kannada Malayalam Tamil

Burmese Khmer Thai Lao Balinese Javanese

The half-chord version of the sine function was developed by the Indian mathematician Aryabhatta. Brahmagupta's theorem (598668) states that AF = FD. AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by three Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[94][95] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".[95][96] Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[97] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[97] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[97] Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[98][99] BrahmaguptaFibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598668 CE). [100][101][102][103] Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhskara II, (c. 11141185 CE)[104][105][106] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950 ~ 1000 CE).[107] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmaguptas approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[108] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakra ) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[108][109] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[104][108][110] Hindu number system: The Hindu numeral system was developed in India between the 2000

1500 BC during the Indus Valley Civilization. Zero: Indians were the first to use the zero as a symbol and in arithmetic operations, although Babylonians used zero to signify the 'absent'.[111] In those earlier times a blank space was used to denote zero, later when it created confusion a dot was used to denote zero(could be found in Bakhshali manuscript).[112] In 500 AD circa Aryabhata again gave a new symbol for zero(0) with some new rules. Infinite series for Sine, Cosine, and arctangent: Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosin, and arttangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.[113] [114][115] Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.[116] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[116] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,[116] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.[117] Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,[118] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.[117] Pell's equation, integral solution for: About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to vargaprakiti (Pell's equation):[119][120] siddhnta treatise.[120] where N is a nonsquare integer, in his Brhma-sphua-

Pi, infinite series: The infinite series for is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 13401425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.[121][122] He made use of the series expansion of to obtain an infinite series expression for .[121] Their rational approximation of the error for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for .[123] They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,[123] decimal places, i.e. .[124][125] for correct up to eleven

Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation, Ramanujan graph and Ramanujan's sum: Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century.[126] Shrikhande graph: Graph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959. Sign convention: Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.[97] By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[97] Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.

[97] By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the denominator.[97] A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed.[97] The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolized subtraction when written just after the number affected.[97] The '=' sign for equality did not exist.[97] Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.[127] Trigonometric functions, adapted from Greek: The trigonometric functions sine and versine were adapted from the full-chord Greek version (to the modern half-chord versions) by the Indian mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century.[128][129]

Medicine
Cataract in the Human Eyemagnified view seen on examination with a slit lamp. Indian surgeon Susruta performed cataract surgery by the 6th century BCE. Amastigotes in a chorionic villus. Upendranath Brahmachari (19 December 1873February 6, 1946) discovered Urea Stibamine, a treatment which helped nearly eradicate Visceral leishmaniasis. Traditional Medicine: Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient & traditional systems of medicine. Ayurveda dates back to Iron Age India[130] (1st millennium BC) and still practiced today as a form of complementary and alternative medicine. It Means "knowledge for longevity".[130] Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of Siddha system.[131][132] Cataract surgery: Cataract surgery was known to the Indian physician Sushruta (6th century BCE).[133] In India, cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. [133] The eye would later be soaked with warm butter and then bandaged.[133] Though this method was successful, Susruta cautioned that cataract surgery should only be performed when absolutely necessary.[133] Greek philosophers and scientists traveled to India where these surgeries were performed by physicians.[133] The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India.[134] Leprosy: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[135] However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Atharva-veda (15001200 BCE), written before the Sushruta Samhita.[136] Plastic surgery: Plastic surgery was being carried out in India by 2000 BCE.[137] The system of punishment by deforming a miscreant's body may have led to an increase in demand for this practice.[137] The surgeon Sushruta contributed mainly to the field of Plastic and Cataract surgery.[138] The medical works of both Sushruta and Charak were translated into Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate (750 CE).[139] These translated Arabic works made their way into Europe via intermidiateries.[139] In Italy the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi of Bologna became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.[139] Lithiasis treatment: The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE).[140] The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.[140]

 Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of: The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendra Nath Brahmachari (19 December 1873 6 February 1946) was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine (antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'[141] Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.[142] Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions. [142]

Mining
Diamond, mining, engraving, and use as tool: Diamonds were first recognized and mined in central India,[143][144][145] where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner, Krishna and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.[146] India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 18th century.[147] [148][149] Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds in central India.[150] Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe.[150] Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts.[151] The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.[149] Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting. [143] Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.[143] A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it [diamond] in the belief that it can ward off evil influences".[143] The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel.[143] Zinc, mining and medicinal use: Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India.[152] Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during early Christian era.[153][154] There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the Charaka Samhita (300 BCE).[155] The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period (c. 5th - 13th century CE) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.[155][156]

Science
Bengali Chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form. A Ramachandran plot generated from the protein PCNA, a human DNA clamp protein that is composed of both beta sheets and alpha helices (PDB ID 1AXC). Points that lie on the axes indicate N- and Cterminal residues for each subunit. The green regions show possible angle formations that include Glycine, while the blue areas are for formations that don't include Glycine. Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure form: Prafulla Chandra Roy synthesized NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so.[157] Prior to Rays synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process.[157] Ashtekar variables: In theoretical physics, Ashtekar (new) variables, named after Abhay

Ashtekar who invented them, represent an unusual way to rewrite the metric on the threedimensional spatial slices in terms of a SU(2) gauge field and its complementary variable. Ashtekar variables are the key building block of loop quantum gravity. Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties.[158] The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a Royal Society exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.[158] Bhabha scattering: In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A, in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering.[159] Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honor of his contributions in the field.[159] BoseEinstein statistics, condensate and Boson: On 4 June 1924 the Bengali professor of Physics Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to Albert Einstein entitled Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal Philosophical Magazine.[160] The paper introduced what is today called Bose statistics, which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of photons.[160][161] Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious Zeitschrift fr Physik.[160][161] Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the Bose-Einstein condensate.[161] [162] Chandrasekhar limit and Chandrasekhar number: Discovered by and named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.[163] Galena, applied use in electronics of: Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers.[164] The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light.[164] In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called Point Contact Diode using Galena. [165] Mahalanobis distance: Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893June 28, 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base.[166] Mercurous Nitrite: The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.[157] The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry.[157] Ramachandran plot, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the Journal of Molecular Biology in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for communication, representation, and various kinds of data analysis.[167] Raman effect: The Encyclopdia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light

that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect."[168] Raychaudhuri equation: Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of general relativity.[169] Saha ionization equation: The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualizes ionizations in context of stellar atmospheres.[170]

Innovations
Iron working: Iron works were developed in the Vedic period of India, around the same time as, but independently of, Anatolia and the Caucasus. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE1200 BCE.[171] Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of radiocarbon dating. Spikes, knives, daggers, arrow-heads, bowls, spoons, saucepans, axes, chisels, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.[172] Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC, iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier.[171] In Southern India (present day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.[173] In the time of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years.[174]