Kurdistan Region - Iraq Cihan University College of Engineering Dept.

of Communications & Computer Engineering

Course Book

CCE42105Advanced Engineering Mathematics I

Year: Second Semester: First Academic Year: 2012 / 2013

Instructor: Dr. Bessam Z. Hassan E-mail: bessam.aljewad@ats-iraq.com Mobile: 0770 7874 561
Classes: Theory- Sunday 8:30 AM 10:30 AM Tutorial- Thursday 10:30 AM 11:30 AM Office Hours Tuesday 10:30 AM 12:30 AM

Cihan University Module Title: Advance Math. I Engineering College Module Code : CCE42105 Department of Communications Credits: 3 Hours & Computer Engineering ______________________________________________________________________________ Description: Vectors; Partial derivatives; Directional derivative; Functions of complex variables. Objective: The course will cover the following subjects: Vectors (Dot product, Cross product, Vector point functions, Gradient, Directional derivative, Curl); Complex variables; Functions of complex variables; Analytic functions; Cauchy-Riemann equations; and Laplace equations. All these subjects are to be covered to the standard basic level of the engineering department. Learning Outcomes By the end of the course, students should be able to: 1. Deal with vectors and perform basic operations of dot product, cross product 2. Describe and evaluate Vector point functions, Gradient, Directional derivatives, Curl and Divergence 3. Describe and evaluate Complex variables and Functions of complex variables. 4. Describe the meaning of Analytic functions. 5. Describe and check Cauchy-Riemann equations and conditions. 6. Describe and evaluate Laplace equations Teaching and Learning Strategy Contact hours: 2 theoretical weekly hours + 1 Hour tutorial and problem solving.

Assessment Method Semester Exam: 25% Classroom Participation: 10% Assignments: 5% Final Exam: 60%

List of Recommended Text Books

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin Kreyszig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics by H.K.DASS. Mathematics for Engineers and Technologists by Huw Fox, W. Bolton 2002. Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Vector Analysis by M. Spiegel Everyday Math Demystified by S. Gibilisco 2004. Engineering Mathematics by John Bird 2003. Advanced Calculus Demystified, D. Bachman, 2007.

Lectures schedule Week Lecture No 1 2 3 4 Topic

Introduction Vectors and Phasors

1 2 3 4

Dot product Cross product

1 2 3 4

Solve problems Vector calculus

1 2 3 4

Differentiation of vectors Scalar and vector point functions

1 2 3 4

Gradient, normal and directional derivative Solve problems

1 2 3 4

Divergence of a vector function Curl ,physical meaning of curl.

1 2 3 4

Solve problems Functions of two or more variables

1 2 3 4

Partial derivatives Chain rule for functions defined on surface

1 2 3

Higher order derivatives Solve problems

10

1 2 3 4

Complex variables Mid-Term Exam

11

1 2 3 4

Function of complex variables Polar form of complex numbers

12

1 2 3 4

Euler's formula Analytic functions

13

1 2 3 4

Cauchy-Riemann equations Assessment

14

1 2 3 4

Christmas and NewYear Vacation

15

1 2 3 4

Laplace equetion Solve problems

Final Examination

Communication & Computer Engineering Department

Subject: Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Dr. Bessam Z. Hassan

Chapter 1: Vectors and Phasors

1.1 Scalars, Vectors and Phasors

Mathematics is the language of physics. With it, we can quantitatively describe the world around us. In engineering, we will use two types of quantities to represent concepts like force, mass, fields and time numerically. These two types are known as scalars and vectors.

If we talk of the mass of a person then we quote just a number, this being all that is needed to give a specification of its mass. However, if we quote a force then in order to fully describe the force we need to specify both its size and the direction in which it acts. Quantities which are fully specified by a statement of purely size are termed scalars. Quantities for which we need to specify both size and direction in order to give a full specification are termed vectors. Vectors play a strong part in the formulation and analysis of engineering systems, both static and dynamic. Scalars are used to describe one-dimensional quantities, that is, quantities which require only one number to completely describe them. Examples of scalar quantities are: Temperature Time Speed Mass Location Along a Line (1-Dimensional) or distance Work and Energy

Vectors are used to describe multidimensional quantities. Multidimensional quantities are those which require more than one number to completely describe them. Vectors, unlike scalars, have two properties, magnitude and direction. Examples of vector quantities are: Location in a Plane (2D) or displacement Location in Space (3D) Velocity Acceleration Force To specify a vector we need to specify its magnitude and direction. Thus, we can represent it by a line segment AB (Figure 1.1) with a length which represents the magnitude of the vector and a direction, indicated by the arrow on the segment, which represents the direction of the vector.

1.1

We can denote this vector representation as ; the arrow indicating the direction of the line segment being from A to B. Note that: One of the vectors is directed from A to B while the other is directed from B to A. An alternative notation is often used, lower case bold notation a being used in print, or underlining a in writing. With this notation, if we write a or a for the vector from A to B then the vector from B to A is represented as -a or -a, the minus sign being used to indicate the vector is in the opposite direction. The length of the line

segment represents the magnitude of the vector. This is indicated by the notation: | | or | | or a We use vector diagrams to visualize what is going on in a physical system. Even though we can work out most problems algebraically, a picture can help point out subtleties of a problem. The first step when solving any problem in physics, mechanics and engineering is to draw a picture. The following diagram illustrates two points. The first is the concept of the tip and the tail of a vector. With vectors, direction is very important so we put an arrowhead in the direction that the vector is going. This is sometimes called the tip of a vector. The other end is usually called the tail.

A three-dimensional vector pointing outside of the paper will be represented by a circle with a point inside to represent the tip of the vector while a vector pointing inwards will be represented by a circle with an X

The second concept that the diagram shows is that two vectors with the same magnitude and direction are the same. This allows us to move vectors around the coordinate system to help simplify the math involved with them and they stay the same as long as their length (magnitude) and

angle (direction) relative to the coordinate system stayed the same. Phasors are a means by which sinusoidal alternating voltages, currents and fields can be specified in terms of a rotating radius and an angle; so they too behave like vectors and we will consider their properties later in details.

1.2 Vector Algebra

The operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication familiar in the algebra of numbers or scalars are, with suitable definition, capable of extension to algebra of vectors. To this end we need to specify some definitions Unit vector A vector which is defined as having a magnitude of 1 is termed a unit vector, such a vector often being denoted by the symbol . If arbitrary vector with magnitude | | the same direction as Like vectors Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction. Thus the vectors in Figure 1.2 are equal, even if their locations differ. A vector is only defined in terms of its magnitude and direction, its location is not used in its specification. Thus, for Figure 1.2, we can write: or or then and we can call it for example. is an | | is a unit vector having

1.2

Opposite vectors A vector having direction opposite to that of magnitude is denoted by Multiplication of vectors by a number If a vector is multiplied by a positive real number k then the result is another vector with the same direction but with a magnitude that is k times the original magnitude. This is multiplication of a vector by a scalar. We can consider a vector with magnitude | | as being a unit vector, i.e. but having the same

a vector with a magnitude 1, multiplied by the magnitude | | (note that the magnitude | | is a scalar), i.e. | | Adding and subtracting vectors Consider the following situation involving displacement vectors. An airplane flies 100 km due west, then 60 km in a north-westerly direction. What is the resultant displacement of the airplane from its start point? If the initial displacement vector is vector is determine , then what is required is the . One way we can the sum of two and vectors have vector sum and the second displacement

involves the triangle rule and is shown in Figure 1.3(a). Note that triangle and the sum directions that go in one sense round the has a direction in the opposite sense. An alternative way of determining the sum involves the parallelogram rule and is shown in Figure 1.3(b). Subtraction of vector carried out by adding to : from is
1.3

The addition of

and

is carried

out using the triangle (Figure 1.4(b)) or parallelogram rules (Figure 1.4(c)). Note that, whatever rule we use, the vector can be represented by (Figure 1.4(d)), being the vector from the end point of to the end point of to the end point of (Figure 1.4(e)). The triangle rule for the addition of vectors can be extended to the addition of any number of vectors. If the vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon then their sum is represented in magnitude and direction by the line segment used to close the polygon (Figure 1.5). Essentially what we are doing is determining the sum of vector 1 and vector 2 using the triangle, then adding to this sum vector 3 by a further triangle and repeating this for all the vectors. If we have a number of vectors and the vectors give a closed triangle or polygon, then, since the line segment needed to close the figure has zero length, the sum of the vectors must be a vector with no magnitude. This is a statement of equilibrium. Ex: An object is acted on by two forces, one of which is has a size of 10 N and acts horizontally and the other a size of 20 N which acts
1.5 1.4

the vector from the end point of

vertically. Determine the resultant force. Figure 1.6 shows the vectors and the use of the parallelogram rule to determine the sum. We can calculate, using the Pythagoras theorem, the diagonal as a having a size of It is at an angle to the horizontal force, with ( )
1.6

Ex: Determine the resultant velocity if we have velocities of 10 m/s acting horizontally to the right and -10 m/s acting vertically upwards. This problem requires the addition of two vectors. Figure 1.7 showing the vectors and the use of the parallelogram rule to determine the sum. A -10 m/s vector upwards is the same as a +10 m/s vector downwards. Hence, the magnitude of the sum, i.e. the diagonal of the parallelogram, is
1.7

given by the Pythagoras theorem as and it is at an angle below the horizontal of where ( ) Ex: For the triangle ABC (Figure 1.8) if the vector from A to B and in terms of and .
1.8

is

the vector

from B to C, express the vector from C to A Using the triangle rule: , then we have: Since

1.3 Components
In mechanics a common technique to aid in the solution of problems is to replace a single vector by two components which are at right angles to each other, generally in the horizontal and the vertical directions. Then we can sum all the horizontal components, sum all the vertical components, and are then left with the simple problem of determining the resultant of two vectors at right angles to each other. For the vector and in Figure 1.9 we have as the horizontal and vertical

components. Thus for the magnitudes we must have:

1.9

| | | |

| | | |

Ex: Express a force of 10 N at 40 to the horizontal in terms of horizontal and vertical components. Horizontal component = Vertical component = Ex: Determine the resultant force acting on the bracket shown in Fig.

1.10 due to the three forces indicated. For the 3 kN force we have: horizontal component = vertical component = For the 2.0 kN force we have: horizontal component = vertical component = For the 5.0 kN force we have: horizontal component = vertical component =
1.10

The minus sign is because this force is acting downwards and in the opposite direction to the other vertical components which we have taken as being positive. All the horizontal components are in the same direction. Thus: sum of horizontal components = 1.5 + 1.7 + 1.7 = 4.9 kN sum of vertical components = 2.6 + 1.0 - 4.7 = -1.1 kN Figure 1.11 shows how we can use the parallelogram rule to find the resultant with these two components. Since the two components are at right angles to each other, the resultant can be calculated using the Pythagoras theorem. Thus, the magnitude of the resultant is: resultant = The resultant is at an angle downwards from the horizontal given by:

Thus

1.11

Components in terms of unit vectors A useful way of tackling problems involving summing vectors by considering their components is to write them in terms of unit vectors. Consider the x-y plane shown in Figure 1.12. Point P has the coordinates (x, y) and is joined to the origin O by the line OP. This line from O to P can be considered to be a vector anchored at O and specifying a position, being defined by its two components a and b along the x- and y- directions with: If we define i to be a unit vector along the xaxis then where a is the magnitude of , where b is the
1.12

the a vector. If we define j to be a unit vector along the y-axis then magnitude of the b vector. Thus:

But a is equal to the x-coordinate of P and b is equal to the y-coordinate of P. Thus we can write: For example, we might specify a position vector as 3i + 2j. This would mean a position vector from the origin to a point with the coordinates (3, 2). The magnitude of the vector r is given by the Pythagoras theorem as: | | This is called the magnitude of the vector r or the norm and it is a scalar quantity. Note: A word about notation Remember please that r can also be written as Or it can be written as where is the unit vector along the x-axis and is the unit

vector along the y-axis instead of using i and j. All these different notations mean the same thing. Position vectors can be thus expressed in terms of two components. For example . Even the unit vectors Again i and j are the unit vectors in the x- and y- directions. Any position vector can be expressed using the notation i and j can be written as and | which means a vector of magnitude 1 in the x-direction | which means a vector of magnitude 1 in the y-direction

Also as was indicated before

If and are the angles the vector r makes with the x- and y- axes, then: | | and | | These are known as the direction cosines of r. Ex: If determine |r| and the angle r makes with the x-axis. | |

The angle with the x-axis is given by:

Thus the angle is 60.4. Ex: In the above example find the unit vector in the direction of r | | Dividing the vector by its length is called vector normalization Ex: Figure 1.13 shows three forces F1, F2 and F3 all acting at a single point A on a wall bracket designed to hold a satellite dish. In order to calculate the pulling force on the bracket at the wall, so that it can be safely connected to the wall when under load, determine the size of the force

components of F1, F2 and F3 in the x- and y- directions.

1.13

The components of F1 in the x and y directions are:

So The components of F2 in the x and y directions are (the vector forms the hypotenuse of a 3-4-5 triangle): ( )

So

The components of F3 in the x and y directions are, with

Alternatively, the size of the components of F3 may be obtained by writing F3 as a magnitude multiplied by a unit vector rAB in the direction of A to B. The position vector is 0.2i - 0.4j and its magnitude is . Thus the unit vector is (0.2i - 0.4j)/0.4472 and so:

As an exercise find the resultant of the components

Ex: In a structural test, a 500 N force was applied to a vertical pole carrying a WiFi grid antenna, as shown in Figure 1.14, to simulate the effect of wind loading. (a) Write the 500 N force in terms of the unit vectors i and j and identify its x and y components, (b) Determine the components of the 500 N force along the x1- and y1- directions, (c) Determine the components of the 500 N force along the x- and y1directions.

1.14

(a) Thus the vector components are and . (b) Axis y1 is at 90 to x1 and so, since the 500 N is in the x1 direction we have the component in the x1 direction as 500 N and in the y1 direction as 0. So we can write (c) Here the required directions x and y1 are not at right angles to each other and so we determine them by using the parallelogram rule. Figure 1.15 shows the parallelogram.

1.15

If we use the sine rule: | | Hence the size of the x component is 1000 N. | Hence the | size of the -y1

component is 866 N. The two components in the x- and y1 directions are thus 1000 N and -866 N. So we can write In conclusion the same vector can have different representations depending on the reference axes.

1.4 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors Using Components

Consider the addition of the two position vectors and shown in Figure 1.16, P having the coordinates (x1, y1) and Q the coordinates (x2, y2). Thus:

1.16

and

We can obtain the sum by the use of the parallelogram rule as where

R has the coordinated (x1 + x2, y1 + y2). Thus It can be seen from the parallelogram Fig. 1.16 that or It can also be seen that Thus This can also be verified from the triangle rule in the triangle OPR and is generally true for any set of vectors. In conclusion if is a vector with initial points P1 having the coordinates (x1, y1) and terminal point P2 having the coordinates (x2, y2), then (4) ba (1) a + b = (2 + 3)i + (4 + 5) j = 5i + 9j (2) a - b = (2 - 3)i + (4 - 5) j = -1i + (-1j) = -i - j (3) a + 2b = (2 + 6)i + (4 + 10) j = 8i + 14j (4) Ex: ABCD is a square. If forces of magnitudes 1 N, 2 N and 3 N act parallel to AB, BC and CD respectively, in the directions indicated by the order of the letters, determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. Figure 1.17 shows the directions of the forces. Expressing the forces in terms of unit vector components then the force parallel to AB is 1i, parallel to BC is 2j and that parallel to CD is -3i. Thus the resultant is 1i + 2j 3i = -2i + 2j N. This will have a magnitude at an angle of
1.17

Ex: If a = 2i + 4j and b = 3i + 5j, determine (1) a + b, (2) a - b, (3) a + 2b,

( )

to AB. Note that if the denominator of the

function is negative then just add to the answer 180 (or in radians) to get the answer in the correct quarter. Ex: Forces of 5i - 5j N and -1i + 3j N act on an object of mass 2 kg. Determine the resulting acceleration. The resultant force is 5i - 5j 1i + 3j = 4i - 2j N. Thus: F = 4i - 2j = ma = 2a Hence a = 2i - 1j m/s2 and so the acceleration has a magnitude of direction. and is at an angle of ( ) to the i-

1.5 Vectors in 3D space

Here we extend the consideration of components to three dimensions (Figure 1.18). A vector r from O to P, with coordinates (x, y, z), is then defined by its vector components in the three mutually perpendicular directions x, y and z. If i, j and k are the unit vectors in the directions x, y and z, then: | | The magnitude of r is given by: The direction of a vector in three dimensions is determined by the angles it makes with the three axes, x, y and z, i.e. the angles , and . With (x, y, z) being the coordinates of the position vector:
1.18

| |

| |

| |

These are termed the direction cosines and their values are between 0 and 180. As with the two-dimensional case, the basic rule for position vectors is: adding or subtracting position vectors is achieved by adding or subtracting their respective coordinates. Note that from this definition the following relation hold for the direction cosines Ex: Determine the magnitude and the direction cosines of the vector r = 2i + 3j +6k | |

The direction cosines are:

Ex: Given the vector A of length 5 which makes the angles 51.36, 53.13 and 120 with the x-, y- and z- directions respectively. Write the components of this vector. First we find the direction cosines of this vector

Thus the unit vector in the direction of A (and lets call it ) is given by To get the vector A we multiply by |A| | | Ex: lf a = 2i + 3j + 4k and b = 3i - 2j + k, determine (1) a + b, (2) a - b, (3) a + 2b

(1) a + b = (2 + 3)i + (3 - 2)j +(4 + 1)k = 5i + 1j + 5k (2) a - b = (2 - 3)i + (3 + 2)j +(4 - 1)k = -1i + 5j + 3k (3) a + 2b = (2 + 6)i + (3 - 4 )j + (4 + 2)k = 8i - 1j + 6k

1.6 Definitions for 3D space

3D Space and Points in 3D In the rectangular coordinate system we set up three coordinate axes mutually at right angles to each other and call them the x, y, and z axes. These are called the Cartesian coordinates. It is customary to choose a right-handed coordinate system, in which a rotation (through the smaller angle) of the x axis into the y axis would cause a right-handed screw to progress in the direction of the z axis. If the right hand is used, then the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger may be identified, respectively, as the x, y, and z axes. Figure 1.19a shows a right-handed rectangular coordinate system.

Figure 1.19 Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates System

A point is located by giving its x, y, and z coordinates. These are, respectively, the distances from the origin to the intersection of perpendicular lines dropped from the point to the x, y, and z axes. An alternative method of interpreting coordinate values, which must be used

in all other coordinate systems, is to consider the point as being at the common intersection of three surfaces. These are the planes x =constant, y = constant, and z = constant, where the constants are the coordinate values of the point. Figure 1.19b shows points P and Q whose coordinates are (1, 2, 3) and (2,2, 1), respectively. Point P is therefore located at the common point of intersection of the planes x = 1, y = 2, and z = 3, whereas point Q is located at the intersection of the planes x = 2, y = 2, and z = 1. As we encounter other coordinate systems (like spherical or cylindrical), we expect points to be located at the common intersection of three surfaces, not necessarily planes, but still mutually perpendicular at the point of intersection. If we visualize three planes intersecting at the general point P, whose coordinates are x, y, and z, we may increase each coordinate value by a differential amount and obtain three slightly displaced planes intersecting at point P, whose coordinates are x+dx, y+dy, and z+dz. The six planes define a rectangular parallelepiped whose volume is dv = dxdydz; the surfaces have differential areas dS of dxdy, dydz, and dzdx. Vector Components and Unit Vectors To describe a vector in the rectangular coordinate system, the logical way is to identify this vector is by giving the three component vectors, lying along the three coordinate axes, whose vector sum must be the given vector. If the component vectors of the vector r are x, y, and z, then r = x+y+z. The component vectors are shown in Figure 1.20a. Instead of one vector, we now have three but the three vectors are of a very simple nature; each is always directed along one of the coordinate axes. The component vectors have magnitudes that depend on the given vector (such as r), but they each have a known and constant direction. This suggests the use of unit vectors having unit magnitude by definition; these are parallel to the coordinate axes and they point in the direction of increasing coordinate values. Unit vectors can be represented by . They can also be represented by i, j, k or

They are directed along the x, y, and z axes, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1.20b. If the component vector y happens to be two units in magnitude and directed toward increasing values of y, we should then write y = 2j. A vector r pointing from the origin to point P can be expressed as

z = zk

y = yj x = xi

Figure 1.20 Vectors in 3D Cartesian coordinates

Distance Between Points Suppose there are two different points P with coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and Q with coordinates (x2,y2,z2) in Cartesian three-space. The distance d between these two points can be found using this formula: Ex: What is the distance between the points P(1, 2, 3) and Q(2, -2, 1) shown in Fig. 19b? Like Vectors A vector in Cartesian 3D space is the same as a vector in the Cartesian 2D plane, except that there is more freedom in terms of direction. This makes the expression of direction in 3D more complicated than is the

case in 2D. In 3D all the vectors have their end points at the origin as shown in Fig. 1.21. This is the standard form of a vector in any coordinate system. In order for the vector formulas to hold, vectors must be expressed in standard form.

Figure 1.21 Vectors in standard form

If a given vector is not in standard form, it can be converted by subtracting the coordinates (x1,y1,z1) of the starting point from the coordinates of the end point (x2,y2,z2) just like position vectors. For example, if a vector a* starts at point P with coordinates (x1,y1,z1) and ends at (x2,y2,z2), it reduces to an equivalent vector a in standard form: Any vector a*, which is parallel to a and has the same length as a, is equal to vector a, because a* has the same magnitude and the same direction as a. Similarly, any vector b*, which is parallel to b and has the same length as b, is defined as being equal to b. As in the 2D case, a vector is defined mainly on the basis of its magnitude and its direction. Neither of these two properties depends on the location of the end point. Multiplication by a Scalar In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, let vector a be defined by

the coordinates (x,y,z) when reduced to standard form. Suppose a is multiplied by a positive real-number scalar k. Then the following equation holds: If a is multiplied by a negative real scalar k, then:

Suppose the direction angles of a are represented by the ordered triple (, , ). Then the direction angles of ka are the same; they are also (, , ). The direction angles of ka are all changed by 180 ( rad). The direction angles of -ka can be found by subtracting each of the direction angles for ka from 180 ( rad), so that the resulting angles all have measures of at least 0 (0 rad) but less than 180 ( rad). The Vector Function or Vector Field We have defined a vector field as a vector function of a position vector. In general, the magnitude and direction of the function will change as we move throughout the region, and the value of the vector function must be determined using the coordinate values of the point in question. Because we have considered only the rectangular coordinate system, we expect the vector to be a function of the variables x, y, and z. If we again represent the position vector as r, then a vector field G can be expressed in functional notation as G(r); a scalar field T is written as T (r). If we inspect the velocity of the water in the ocean in some region near the surface where tides and currents are important, we might decide to represent it by a velocity vector that is in any direction, even up or down. If the z axis is taken as upward, the x axis in a northerly direction, the y axis to the west, and the origin at the surface, we have a right-handed coordinate system and may write the velocity vector as v = vxi + vyj + vzk, or v(r) = vx(r)i + vy(r)j + vz(r)k ; each of the components vx , vy , and vz may be a function of the three variables x, y, and z. If we are in some portion of the Gulf Stream where the water is moving only to the north, then vy and vz are zero. Further simplifying assumptions might be made if the velocity falls off with depth and changes very slowly as we move north,

south, east, or west. A suitable expression might be v = 2ez/100i. We have a velocity of 2 m/s (meters per second) at the surface and a velocity of 0.3682, or 0.736 m/s, at a depth of 100 m (z = 100). The velocity continues to decrease with depth, while maintaining a constant direction. Ex: A vector field S is expressed in rectangular coordinates as [ (1) (2) (3) Evaluate S at P(2,4,3) Determine a unit vector that gives the direction of S at P Specify the surface f(x,y,z) on which |S| = 1 [ ] ]

The unit vector in the direction of Sp can be found as | |

Finally to find the surface f(x,y,z), we find |S| and let it equal to 1 | | Now | | Or The surface f(x,y,z) Note that each component of this vector field can be a function of x, y and z. For example

1.7 Multiplication of Vectors

The Dot Product or Inner Product We now consider the first of two types of vector multiplication. The second type will be discussed in the following section. Given two vectors a and b, the dot product, or scalar product, is defined as the product of the magnitude of a, the magnitude of b, and the cosine of the smaller angle between them as measured counterclockwise in the plane containing them both, | || | The dot, or scalar, product is a scalar, as one of the names implies, and it obeys the commutative law, for the sign of the angle does not affect the cosine term. The expression ab is read a dot b. Perhaps the most common application of the dot product is in mechanics, where a constant force F applied over a straight displacement L does an amount of work FLcos , which is more easily written FL. We can point out that if the force varies along the path, integration is necessary to find the total work, and the result becomes If the dot product of two vectors is zero then these vectors are perpendicular to each other since will be zero when . Finding the angle between two vectors in three-dimensional space is often a job we would prefer to avoid, and for that reason the definition of the dot product is usually not used in its basic form. Amore helpful result is obtained by considering two vectors whose rectangular components are given, such as a = axi + ayj + azk and b = bxi + byj + bzk. The dot product also obeys the distributive law, and, therefore, a.b yields the sum of nine scalar terms, each involving the dot product of two unit vectors. Because the angle between two different unit vectors of the rectangular coordinate system is 90, we then have The remaining three terms involve the dot product of a unit vector with

itself, which is unity, giving finally which is an expression involving no angles. A vector dotted with itself yields the magnitude squared, or | | and any unit vector dotted with itself is unity, Ex: The three vertices of a triangle are located at A(6,1, 2), B(2,

3,4), and C(3, 1, 5). Find the angles of this triangle First we write the vectors , and The angle at A is found from | || | | || |

So Similarly | || | So

Evidently the minus sign indicates that this is not the smallest angle between the two vectors so subtracting this from 180 to obtain Finally | || | So And we can check that

The Cross Product or Outer Product Given two vectors a and b, we now define the cross product, or vector product, of a and b, written with a cross between the two vectors as ab and read a cross b. The cross product ab is a vector; the magnitude of ab is equal to the product of the magnitudes of a, b, and the sine of the smaller angle between a and b as measured counterclockwise in the plane containing them both; the direction of ab is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b and is along one of the two possible perpendiculars which is in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as a is turned into b. This direction is illustrated in Figure 1.22.

Figure 1.22 Cross Product of Vectors

Remember that either vector may be moved about at will, maintaining its direction constant, until the two vectors have a common origin. This determines the plane containing both. However, in most of our applications we will be concerned with vectors defined at the same point. As an equation we can write | || | where n stands for the normal vector which is directed at a right angle to the plane containing both vectors a and b. If 0< ab<180 (0 rad < ab < rad), you can use the right-hand rule to ascertain the direction of ab. Curl your fingers in the direction that ab, the angle from a to b, is defined. Extend your thumb. Then ab points in the direction of your

thumb. When 180< ab<360 ( rad < ab <2 rad), the cross-product vector reverses direction. Theoretically, the cross-product vectors direction angles do not change; but its magnitude becomes negative. This is demonstrated by the fact that, in the above formula, sin ab is positive when 0< ab<180 (0 rad < ab < rad), but negative when 180< ab<360 ( rad < ab <2 rad). Reversing the order of the vectors a and b results in a unit vector n in the opposite direction, and we see that the cross product is not commutative, for ba = (ab). If the definition of the cross product is applied to the unit vectors i and j, we find ij = k , for each vector has unit magnitude, the two vectors are perpendicular, and the rotation of i into j indicates the positive z direction by the definition of a right-handed coordinate system. In a similar way, j k = i and k i = j. Note the alphabetic symmetry. As long as the three vectors i , j , and k are written in order (and assuming that i follows k , like cars in a circular race track, so that we could also write j , k , i or k , i , j), then the cross and equal sign may be placed in either of the two vacant spaces. As a matter of fact, it is now simpler to define a right-handed rectangular coordinate system by saying that i j = k. A simple example of the use of the cross product may be taken from geometry or trigonometry. To find the area of a parallelogram, the product of the lengths of two adjacent sides is multiplied by the sine of the angle between them. Using vector notation for the two sides, we then may express the (scalar) area as the magnitude of a b, or |a b| as shown in Fig. 1.23. Note that the area of the triangle formed between the end points or tails of a, b and the origin will be simply half the area of the parallelogram. That is |a b|. The cross product may be used to replace the right-hand rule familiar to all electrical engineers. Consider the force on a straight conductor of length L, where the direction assigned to L corresponds to the direction of the steady current I, and a uniform magnetic field of flux density B

Figure 1.23 Vector area of parallelogram

is present. Using vector notation, we may write the result neatly as F =

IL B .
The evaluation of a cross product by means of its definition turns out to be more work than the evaluation of the dot product from its definition, for not only must we find the angle between the vectors, but we must also find an expression for the unit vector n. This work may be avoided by using rectangular components for the two vectors a and b and expanding the cross product as a sum of nine simpler cross products, each involving two unit vectors, ( ) ( )

We have already found that ij = k , jk = i , and ki = j. The three remaining terms are zero, because the cross product of any vector with itself is zero, since the included angle is zero. These results may be combined to give ( ) ( ) or written as a determinant in a more easily remembered form, | |

Ex: Find the area of the triangle whose two sides are the vectors A = 2i 3j + k and B = 4i 2j + 5k We have

| The area of the triangle will be | |

1.8 Orthogonal Projections and Applications

If a and b are two vectors then the orthogonal projection of b on a is a vector c whose direction is in the direction of a and whose magnitude is the dot product between b and the unit vector in the direction of a. The orthogonal projection of b on a is shown in Fig. 1.24.

Figure 1.24 Orthogonal Projection of b onto a

To find an expression for the projection vector c we first find the magnitude of c. This magnitude is called the component of b along a | || | | | | | | | | | | | Next the direction of c is found to be the same as the direction of a. That is | | Thus the projection of b onto a will be | || | | | Note that the vector component d of b orthogonal to a can be found as d+c=b d = b - c = b - Projab Ex: Find the orthogonal projection of the vector 2i+3k on the vector i2j+k | | | |

We denote a=

i-2j+k

and b=2i+3k

so

| |

If Projab = 0 for non-zero vectors then this means that they are orthogonal (at 90 to each other). A simple example of the use of the projection may be taken from geometry. To find the volume of a parallelepiped, the area of the base is multiplied by the vertical height or the orthogonal projection of the third side. Using vector notation for the adjacent edges, we then may express the (scalar) triple product as the magnitude of a . (b c), or |a . (b c)| as shown in Fig. 1.25.

Figure 1.25 Volume of Parallelepiped

Note that a . (b c) = 0 if and only if a, b, and c lie in the same plane. Therefore for any two vectors a and b in 3D space we have (1) (2) a . (a b) = 0 since a b is orthogonal to a b . (a b) = 0 since a b is orthogonal to b

1.9 Flat Planes in Space

The equation of a flat geometric plane in Cartesian 3D coordinates is somewhat like the equation of a straight line in Cartesian 2D coordinates. Criteria for Uniqueness Flat geometric plane in 3D space can be uniquely defined according to any of the following criteria:

* Three points that do not all lie on the same straight line. * A point in the plane and a vector normal (perpendicular) to the plane. * Two intersecting straight lines. * Two parallel straight lines. General Equation of a Plane The simplest equation for a plane is derived on the basis of the second of the foregoing criteria: a point in the plane and a vector normal to the plane. Figure 1.26 shows a plane W in Cartesian three-space, a point P=(x0, y0, z0) in plane W, and a normal vector <a,b,c> = a i + b j + c k that is perpendicular to plane W. The normal vector (a,b,c) in this illustration is shown originating at point P (rather than at the origin), because this particular plane W doesnt pass through the origin (0,0,0). The values x = a, y = b, and z = c for the vector are nevertheless based on its standard form. When these things about a plane are known, we have enough information to uniquely define it and write its equation as follows: In this form of the equation for a plane, the constants a, b, and c are called the coefficients. The above equation can also be written in this

Figure 1.26 A plane W can be uniquely defined on the basis of a point P in the plane and a vector (a,b,c) normal to the plane. Dashed portions of the coordinate axes are behind the plane.

form: Here, the value of d is:

Plotting a Plane In order to draw a graph of a plane based on its equation, it is good enough to know the points where the plane crosses each of the three coordinate axes. The plane can then be visualized, based on these points. Not all planes cross all three of the axes in Cartesian xyz-space. If a plane is parallel to one of the axes, it does not cross that axis. If a plane is parallel to the plane formed by two of the three axes, then it crosses only the axis to which it is not parallel. But any plane in Cartesian 3D space must cross at least one of the coordinate axes at some point. Ex: Draw a graph of the plane W represented by the following equation:

The x-intercept, or the point where the plane W intersects the x axis, can be found by setting y=0 and z=0, and then solving for x. Call this point P:

Therefore P =(-6,0,0). The y-intercept, or the point where the plane W intersects the y axis, can be found by setting x=0 and z=0, and then solving for y. Call this point Q:

Therefore Q = (0,-3,0) The z-intercept, or the point where the plane W intersects the z axis, can be found by setting x=0 and y=0, and then solving for z. Call this point R:

Therefore R =(0, 0, 4) These three points are shown in the plot of Fig. 1.27.

Figure 1.27 Illustration for the example. Dashed portions of the coordinate axes are behind the plane.

The plane can be envisioned, based on this data. Note that some parts of the coordinate axes in Fig. 1.27 appear as dashed lines. This shows that these parts of the axes are behind the plane, according to the point of view from which we see the situation. Ex: Suppose a plane contains the point (2,7,0), and a normal vector to the plane at this point is 3i+3j+2k. What is the equation of this plane? The vector 3i+3j+2k is equivalent to <a,b,c>=(3,3,2). We have one point (x0,y0,z0)=(2,-7,0). Plugging these values into the general formula for the equation of a plane gives us the following:

1.10 Straight Lines in Space

Straight lines in Cartesian three-space present a more complicated picture than straight lines in the Cartesian coordinate plane. This is

because there is an added dimension, making the expression of the direction more complex. But all linear equations, no matter what the number of dimensions, have one thing in common: they can be reduced to a form where no variable is raised to any power other than 0 or 1. Symmetric-Form Equation A straight line in Cartesian three-space can be represented by a threeway equation in three variables. This equation is known as a symmetricform equation. It takes the following form, where x, y, and z are the variables, (x0, y0, z0) represents the coordinates of a specific point on the line, and a, b, and c are constants: Its important that none of the three constants a, b, or c be equal to zero. If a = 0 or b = 0 or c = 0, the result is a zero denominator in one of the expressions, and division by zero is not defined. Direction Numbers In the symmetric-form equation of a straight line, the constants a, b, and c are known as the direction numbers. If we consider a vector m with its end point at the origin and its arrowed end at the point (x,y,z)=(a,b,c), then the vector m is parallel to the line denoted by the symmetric-form equation. We have: where m is the three-dimensional equivalent of the slope of a line in the Cartesian plane. This is shown in Fig. 1.28 for a line L containing a point P=(x0,y0,z0). Parametric Equations There are infinitely many vectors that can satisfy the requirement for m. (Just imagine m being longer or shorter, but still pointing in the same direction as it does in Fig. 1.28, or else in the exact opposite direction. All such vectors are parallel to line L.) If t is any nonzero real number, then tm=<ta,tb,tc>=tai + tbj + tck will work just as well as m for the purpose of defining the direction of a line L. This gives us an alternative

Figure 1.28 A line L can be uniquely defined on the basis of a point P on the line and a vector m=<a,b,c> that is parallel to the line.

form for the equation of a line in Cartesian three-space:

The nonzero real number t is called a parameter, and the above set of equations is known as a set of parametric equations for a straight line in xyz-space. In order for a complete geometric line (straight, and infinitely long) to be defined on this basis of parametric equations, the parameter t must be allowed to range over the entire set of real numbers, including zero. Ex: Find the symmetric-form equation for the line L shown in Fig. 1.29. The line L passes through the point P=(-5,-4,3) and is parallel to the vector m=3i+5j-2k. The direction numbers of L are the coefficients of the vector m, that is:

Figure 1.29 Illustration for the example.

a=3 b=5 c = -2 We are given a point P on L such that: x0 = -5 y0 = -4 z0 = 3 Plugging these values into the general symmetric-form equation for a line in Cartesian three-space gives us this:

Ex: Find a set of parametric equations for the line L shown in Fig. 1.29.

This involves nothing more than rearranging the values of x0, y0, z0, a, b, and c in the symmetric-form equation, and rewriting the data in the form of parametric equations. The results are: x = -5 + 3t y = -4 + 5t z = 3 - 2t Problem Sheet 1. Find the vector of length 2 in the x-y plane that makes an angle of /4 with the positive x-axis. 2. Find the angle that the vector x-axis. 3. Find the components of v where v has a length of and extends along the line through A(0,0,4) and B(2,5,0) 4. Find the angle between the vector u = i 2j + 2k and (a) v = -3i + 6j + 2k, (b) w = 2i + 7j + 6k, (c) z = -3i + 6j 6k 5. Find the orthogonal projection of the vector u = i 2j + k on v = 4i 4j + 7k 6. Find the orthogonal projection of v = i + j + k on b = 2i + 2j, and then find the vector component of v orthogonal to b 7. Let u = <1,2,-2> and v = <3,0,1>. Find (a) uv, (b) vu 8. Find the area of the triangle that is determined by the points P1(2,2,0), P2(-1,0,2), and P3(0,4,3). 9. Calculate the scalar triple product u.(vw) for the vectors u = 3i 2j - 5k, v = i + 4j - 4k, w = 3j + 2k 10. In each part of the following use a scalar triple product to determine whether the vectors lie in the same plane a. u = <1,-2,1>, v = <3,0,-2>, w = <5,-4,0> b. u = 5i-2j+k, v = 4i-j+k >, w = i-j c. u = <4,-8,1>, v = <2,1,-2>, w = <3,-4,12> 11. Consider the parallelepiped with adjacent edges u = 3i+2j+k, v = i+j+2k, w= i+3j+3k. Find (a) the volume, (b) the area of the face determined u and w, (c) the angle between u and the plane containing the face determined by the v and w makes with the positive

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