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Review Material 1. Metallic Materials a. Stiff, wear resistant, conductive b. Ferrous vs. Non-Ferrous i.

Ferrous: steels, cast irons ii. Non-Ferrous: aluminum, copper, titanium 2. Polymeric and Ceramic Materials a. What is a polymeric material i. Long chained networks, organic ii. Non crystalline iii. Properties vary with temperature 1. Ex. Nylon, epoxy, polyester, PVC... b. Ceramics i. Metallic and nonmetallic elements chemically bonded ii. Crystalline or noncrystalline or mixture iii. Brittle, good heat resistance and insulation 1. Clay, glass, stone.. 3. Smart Materials a. Materials exhibiting large response b. Shape memory alloys, piezoelectric materials i. Used as sensors and actuators 4. Atomic Structure a. Atomic Number: number of protons in the nucleus b. Mass Number: total protons and neutrons c. Isotopes have more neutrons d. Electrons i. Jump to higher energy levels and when they drop energy levels they emit photons. ii. Ionization energy: Minimum energy required to separate an electron from its atomic nucleus. iii. First Ionization energy: important because it sets the reactivity of the element 1. IE2 > IE1 iv. Ion: Less electrons than protons v. Electron affinity: atoms that tend to accept electrons and release energy, corresponding to negative oxidation numbers. vi. Nucleus Charge Effect: more protons in He then H mean pulling an electron from He is much harder. vii. Shielding: electrons shield each other from the protons making them easier to remove. e. Quantum Numbers i. Principle quantum number, n: denoting energy levels (1,2,3...)

ii. Orbital quantum number, l: subshells or orbital (n-1, 0,1,2...) iii. Magnetic quantum number, ml: magnetic quantum (...-1,0,1...) iv. Spin, ms: spin (+1/2, -1/2) f. Atomic Size i. Metallic radius: distance between nuclei centers of adjacent atoms ii. Covalent radius: distance between nuclei of identical atoms within molecule 1. As principal quantum number increases, atomic size increase. 2. As nucleus charge increases, atomic size tends to decrease. iii. Electropositive elements give up electrons during chemical reactions 1. Form positively charged cations = positive oxidation number 5. Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids a. Reactive Metals i. Low ionization energies ii. Virtually no electron affinity (does not accept electrons) iii. Electropositive (gives up electrons) b. Reactive nonmetals i. High ionization energy ii. Very high electron affinity iii. Electronegative c. Metalloids i. Behave as metals or nonmetals 1. Accept or lose electrons 6. Bonds a. Factors: relative atomic size, charge effects b. Primary bonds: relatively large Coulomb interatomic forces i. Ionic 1. Occurs between atoms with large electronegativity differences 2. Cations become smaller, anion gets larger 3. Packing arrangements have no preferred orientation or directionality of the bonds BUT properties change. ii. Covalent 1. Outer electrons share to obtain lowest energy state configuration. 2. occurs between atoms with small electronegativity differences. 3. Inherently directional 4. Very strong bonds iii. Metal Bonds 1. Pure metals arrange electrons in 'cloud' around nucleus. a. Nondirectionl bonds are weaker than covalent bonds i. Weak bonds = ductile, moderate strength and melting point. 7. Arrangements

a. Fourteen space lattices could describe all possible geometric arrangements among the seven crystal systems. i. Atomic Packing Factor: volume of atoms in the cell / volume of cell itself ii. Main Three 1. Body Centered Cubic (BCC) a. Two atoms/unit cell i. 1/8 at each corner and one in the center b. APF=68% 2. Face Centered Cubic (FCC) a. Four atoms/unit cell b. APF=74% 3. Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) a. Two or six atoms/unit cell b. (0001) Basal Planes: top and bottom of hexagonal cylinder c. (1010) Prism Planes: six sides of hexagonal cylinder d. APF=74% 4. Comparison a. HCP and FCC are close packed b. HCP (0001) and FCC (111) pack identically i. 3D crystal structures differ c. BCC are not close packed but <111> directions are closely packed. iii. Miller Indices (hkl) 1. Specifying particular planes 2. Reciprocals of the intercepts that the plane makes with x,y,z axes a. Ex: 1/3, 2/3, 1 i. 3, 3/2, 1 = 6, 3, 2 iv. Polymorphism or Allotropy 1. When elements compounds exist in more than one crystalline form a. Caused by changes in temperature and/or pressure. i. Ex: Iron b. X-ray production and Targeting (XRD) i. Molybdenum 1. Spikes associated with emission from electrons that fall from higher energy levels from incident x-ray beams. ii. Analysis 1. Powders used since random orientation guarantees sufficient angles of incidence. 8. Solidification a. Crystals nucleate at the edges and surface. i. Atoms agglomerate into nuclei then into crystals then to grains as they solidify. ii. What drives the nucleation process as metal cools?

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1. Bulk or Volume free energy is reduced as liquid becomes solid. What opposes the nucleation process? 1. Surface Free Energy is required to form boundaries of emerging nuclei. Homogeneous Nucleation: formation of nuclei within the molten metal then form randomly oriented grain boundaries. Critical Radius 1. Above: energy is lowered by growing into crystals. 2. Below: energy is lowered by re-dissolving. Undercooling 1. Difference in temperature between Melt and Mold 2. Larger difference: smaller nuclei radius for stable formation

b. Grains i. Equiaxed 1. Grow equal dimensions in all directions and are small 2. Created at and near the colder mold surfaces ii. Columnar 1. Long, thin, coarse 2. Formed at sites of slower cooling iii. ASTME Size 1. Larger n, smaller the grain c. Solid Solutions i. Substitutional 1. Substitute solute atoms for 'host' solvent atoms in crystal lattice. 2. Favorable if atomic radii does not differ more than 15%, crystal structure and valence of elements are the same, and electronegativity of elements are similar. ii. Interstitial 1. Small solute atoms fit into voids between larger solvent atoms d. Defects i. 0D: point defects, vacancies ii. 1D: line defect 1. Edge dislocation, like adding a 1/2 plane into structure 2. Screw dislocations, like a half step iii. 2D: planar defects 1. Complicated reactive free surfaces 2. Grain boundaries, higher energy and slip dislocation movement 3. Twin, opposite grain iv. Defects strengthen the material! e. Solids i. Activation energy: energy to overcome barrier and have atomic movement. ii. Rate of the reaction increases logarithmically wrt temperature. 9. Diffusion

a. Occurs if there is sufficient thermal energy and if there are places where atoms can move. b. Substitutional Diffusion: atom moves into a vacancy. i. Activation energy is the sum for energies to form and move a vacancy. c. Interstitial Diffusion: small atoms can diffuse from interstitial site to another. i. Ex: Carbon diffuses interstitially into iron. d. Steady State Diffusion i. Over time there is no change in the concentration of solute atoms at distinct locations. ii. Diffusion rates depend on diffusion mechanism and temperature. e. Non-Steady State Diffusion i. More common in practice ii. Rate of compositional change is equal to diffusivity times the rate of change of concentration gradient. f. Case Hardening i. Carbon gas diffuses into low carbon steel. ii. Rate dependence on temperature. 10. Production and Products a. Casting i. Small, shaped products ii. Process by which most metals and metallic alloys are produced b. Hot and Cold Rolling i. Hot roll: more reduction per pass, ingots ii. Cold roll: strain hardening, c. Extrusion i. Material pushed through die 1. Typically hot 2. Rod, tube, structural shapes d. Forging i. Hot and hammered, pressed to form, die casting 1. Working material reduces pores and increases toughens and strain hardening. e. Drawing i. Wire Drawing: rod or wire pulled through tapered dies. ii. Deep Drawing: punch press, sheet metal products. 11. Tests a. Tensile i. Test sample is pulled until failure at constant rate ii. Ductile Materials: Neck iii. Brittle Materials: Snap b. Hardness i. Resistance to permanent deformation

1. Slowly apply given load 2. Simple comparative test but complicated results depending on test c. Plastic Deformation i. Slip 1. Single Crystals: slip bands caused by shear on crystallographic planes. a. HCP: slips on basal planes. b. Ductile FCC: slip occurs on multiple planes. c. Lots of dislocations create mechanisms for deformation at comparative low levels of stress. 2. Slip Mechanism: under applied stress, it's much easier to create slip by moving dislocations than sliding whole planes. a. Slips move locally 3. Slip Planes a. Most densely packed planes are also spaced further apart. 4. Slip Systems a. Directions and slip planes b. Limited number of slip systems in HCP = less ductile 5. Polycrystalline Materials a. Smaller grains, dislocations cannot pile up. i. Smaller Grains: stronger, harder, tougher, less ductile, less resistant to corrosion and creep. ii. Cold Work 1. Grains become elongated in worked directions. 2. Dislocation density in grains increase. 3. Properties: strain or work hardening iii. Annealing 1. By heating at temperature for time, dislocations are annihilated and lattice grains and sub-grains return to lower energy configurations in stages. a. First: recovers ductility while losing hardness and strength. b. Then: nucleates new grains, grow with time. 2. Factors: Time, temperature, degree of cold work, initial grain size, material composition. 12. Failure a. Break, deform, surface degradation b. Ductile Fracture i. Cavities coalesce into cracks ii. Cracks propagates and exits at 45 degrees. c. Brittle Fracture i. Very little plastic deformation occurs. ii. Cracks nucleate at dislocations and propagate along cleavage planes at 90 degrees.

d. Toughness i. How much energy sample can take before it breaks and fractures. ii. Charpy V-notch specimen. 1. Energy absorption tends to increase as specimen becomes more ductile at higher temperatures. 2. Toughness can be estimated from the area under the stress-strain curve. e. Fracture Toughness i. Critical value of the stress intensity factor that causes failure. 1. 3mm crack pulled apart f. Fatigue of Metals i. Repetitive cyclic loading 1. Alternating load, temperature variability. 2. Stress level not very high ii. Crack starts and grows in slip bands. iii. Results in sudden fracture. iv. Tests and results are reported in number of cycles. g. Crack Growth Test i. Crack growth is measured by the change of electrical potential with increasing test cycles. ii. Crack Growth Rate: da/dN 1. Crack length(a)/cycles(N) h. Long Term Plastic Deformation i. Creep: dependent on stress and temperature. ii. High Creep Modulus: low creep rate... 1. Primary Creep: strain hardening 2. Secondary: constant creep rate 3. Tertiary Creep: failure necking a. Creep Testing: Stress, temperature, strain rate varied. 13. Phase and Solidification a. Gibbs Phase Rule i. P = number of phases that can coexist ii. C = number of components iii. F = degrees of freedom b. Isothermal Solidification: i. 100% liquid to 100% solid at constant temperature. c. Solid-Solid transformation: i. Change of crystalline structure at constant temperature. d. Horizontal lines on T vs. t cooling curve is an isothermal phase transformation. e. Isomorphous Alloy: i. Only one crystal structure no matter what the relative composition. f. Cooling of Alloys

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i. Solidification occurs over a range of temperature, NOT isothermally. g. Non-Equilibrium Solidification i. As T drops, nuclei form. 1. Layers continue to form but are progressively more different from the equilibrium. ii. Rapid cooling creates compositional gradients 1. Reheating just below melting point can homogenize the structure. iii. Eutectic 1. Solidification of two materials at different percent compositions. a. Different temperatures have different ratios. iv. Alpha and Beta 1. Corresponds to the different structure and composition. a. Nucleate and grow into different shapes. Alloys Steels a. At least 50% Fe-C b. Increase strength, ductility and/or toughness. c. Corrosion and oxidation resistance. i. Alloying elements dissolve in ferrite and form carbides and compounds to alter structure. d. Manganese and Nickel lower the eutectoid temperature, other elements will raise this. e. Jominy Hardenability Test i. Sample is austenitized, quickly quenched. ii. Cylinder is ground lengthwise. Aluminum a. Low density, low weight b. Good conductivity, thermal applications c. Corrosion resistance. d. Precipitation Strengthening i. Solutionize: Heat and soak ii. Rapid Quench to produce supersaturated solid solution in aluminum lattice. iii. Age material to allow precipitation of various structures to form and transform to more energetically favorable levels. e. Age Hardening Process i. Precipitate forms and atoms clustering coherently in the aluminum lattice or incoherently. 1. Clusters impede dislocation movement and thereby strengthens alloy. Copper a. Hydrogen Embrittlement: formation of H2O at grain boundaries b. Brass: copper-zinc c. Bronze: copper-tin Stainless Steels a. Contains Cr

b. Corrosive resistance, chromium oxide surface film c. Types i. Ferritic: Solid solution of chromium, low cost, widely used in construction. ii. Austenitic: ternary alloy with good formability. iii. Martensitic: hardest and strongest, poor corrosion resistance. iv. Precipitate-Hardening: combined corrosion resistance and decent strength and hardness. 18. Other Alloys a. MG: Lighter than AL but more expensive. b. Ti: heavy, more expensive, high strength, corrosion resistance. c. Ni: much heavier than AL, very expensive, completely soluble in copper and can be a super alloy for high temperature apps. 19. Intermetalics a. Intermetalic Compounds: type of alloy or alloying ingredient that are especially important in specific apps. 20. Polymeric Materials a. Elastomers i. Natural Rubber: long chained polymer ii. Synthetic rubbers: low cost, tougher b. Plastics i. Thermoplastics: can reform by heating. 1. Injection Molding: pellets liquidized, extruding. 2. Blow Molding: heated thermoplastic tubes . 3. Thermoforming: pressure applied, forced into mold. ii. Thermosetting Plastics: cannot reform, 'set' by chemical reaction. 1. Transfer Molding: heated resin compressed centrally and flows into multiple mold cavities. 2. Compressive Molding: resin pressed into shape by upper and lower molds that are heated. 3. Injection Molding: speaks for itself... c. Polymerization i. Unsaturated ethylene molecules are activated to 'mers' that covalently bond in a long polymeric chain. ii. Chain Polymerization 1. Initiation 2. Propagation and Termination a. Extending the chain, energy is lowered by polymerization b. Add free radical or combine chains d. Polymers i. Vinyl and Vinylidene 1. In polyethylene, one H atom is replaced 2. ... ... two H atoms are replaced

ii. Homopolymers and Copolymers 1. Homopolymers: repeats AAAA... 2. Copolymer a. Random: ABBABBBAAB b. Alternating: ABABA... c. Graft: AAAAA trunk with branches of BBBBB e. Polyethylene i. Most common, most widely used plastic. 1. HDPE, LDPE, Linear LDPE ii. Good strength, toughness, flexibility iii. Application 1. Bottles, tubing, household containers, electrical insulation. f. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) i. Second in global sales ii. Plasticizers: promote flexibility/ductility, decrease strength iii. Heat Stabilizers: prevent thermal degradation iv. Applications 1. Pipes, furniture, luggage, garden hoses 21. Polymers a. Properties i. Low density, can increase tensile strength, moldability, transparency. b. Nylons: long crystalline chains with strong hydrogen bonding. i. Apps: unlubercated gears and bearings c. Polycarbonates i. Carbon-oxygen single bonds: flexibility ii. Transparent, good strength and used at high temperatures. d. Polymer Alloys i. Thermoplastic mixtures of different polymer chains. ii. Different from copolymers: structurally covalently bonded within chain. e. Unsaturated Polyesters: Thermoset used with glass fibers. i. High strength, good impact and chemical resistance. f. Epoxies: Set and typically poured, coated, or with fibers 22. Deformation of Thermoplastics a. Depends on glass transition temperature b. Elastic deformation is stretching of covalent bonds. c. Plastic deformation is the breaking of dipole bonds. d. Deformation involves uncoiling of chains. 23. Ceramics a. Inorganic, nonmetallic materials b. Hard, brittle, not very tough or ductile, high melting point, chemically stable c. Production i. Material ground into tiny particles

ii. Particles blended with binders and lubricants iii. Usually cold formed by pressing, extruding, or slip casting. 1. Ceramic parts are fired, heat treated, to obtain required structural properties. a. Usually dried then fired in a kiln i. Sintering: solid state diffusion that bonds adjacent particles together ii. Vitrification: glass phase can be fired, melts, flows into pores and solidifies. d. Failure i. Covalently bonded ceramics snap across directional bonds. ii. Ironically bonded ceramics crack at grain boundaries. e. Glass: inorganic product of fusion that cools without crystallizing. i. Fused Silica: high transmissivity and radiation resistant. ii. Soda-lime: most common, bottles, blow molding. iii. Leaded: melts at a lower T, optical and decorative applications. iv. Borosilicate: lowest thermal expansion, used in ovenware. v. Production: 1. Flat glass: float glass on liquid metal. 2. Blow molding and centrifugal casting. 3. Tempered Glass: rapidly cool glass, surface is compression and interior under tension. 24. Composite Materials a. Low Tech: wood, asphalt, concrete b. High Tech: plastics, fiber reinforcements, nanostructures, nanocomposites. i. Glass Fibers: more common and less expensive than Kevlar 1. E Glass: most common 2. S Glass: most expensive, stronger ii. Carbon Fibers: fibers stretched and aligned, heated to remove O,H,N iii. Aramid aka Kevlar: resistant to stress and rupture, impact and fatigue. iv. Plastic Matrix Materials 1. Polyester: cheep, commonly used w/ glass fibers a. Boat hulls, structural panels 2. Epoxy: stronger, less shrinkage a. Aerospace aps 3. Production: a. Open Mold: fiberglass matt or cloth laid in, thermosetting polyester resin poured on top, rollers squeeze air and bubbles out. b. Winding Tubes and Pultrustion v. Asphalt: composite mixed with aggregate for roads or roofing vi. Concrete: water, air, fine and course aggregate, Portland cement.

1. Portland cement: glue for raw materials a. Type I: sidewalks, reservoirs b. Type II: piers, retaining walls c. Type IV: massive structures d. Type V: resistant to groundwater and soil having high sulfate content 2. Curing Concrete a. Fast and Slow methods but both produce same chemical products 3. Prestressing: Tension wire makes concrete overcome compressive stresses before tensile force. vii. Wood 1. Living: inner bark, cambium layer, sapwood, pith 2. Non-Living: heartwood and bark a. Hardwood i. Seeds covered, leaves shed ii. Oak, Maple ect. b. Softwood i. Seed exposed, leaves year round ii. Fir, spruce, pine viii. Metal Matrix 1. Fibers and particulates strengthen 2. Factors: adhesion, thermal expansion ix. Ceramic Matrix 1. Fracture toughness improved by adding material 25. Corrosion a. Free electrons make it energetically favorable for metals to form compounds. i. Anode: part that corrodes away, loses material ii. Cathode: plated material iii. Standard 'Half Cell' Potential 1. Different solutions, salt bridge connects the two. iv. Cathodic Reactions 1. Two materials in same substance v. Rust 1. Fe, local surface anodes and cathodes make iron cations that react. vi. Ion-Concentration Cells 1. Porous membrane, two solutions, dilute solution makes iron specimen into anode which corrodes, in cathode iron reaction suppressed by concentrated solution. vii. Oxygen-Concentration Cells 1. Low oxygen areas are prone to corrosion, applications where surface cracks keep O levels low.

viii. Other Galvanic 'Cells' 1. Grain boundaries have higher energy than surrounding so they can be more anodic... aka corrode 2. BUT sometimes cathodic, corrode around creating a peak @ boundary. b. Corrosion Rate i. g/sec, mm/year ii. Faraday's Equation: weight/time, corroded or electroplated c. Polarization i. No salt bridge: electrodes will adjust to polarize to intermediate potential. 1. Governed by activation rate barriers, ion concentration and diffusion. a. Activation: H- moves to surface, e migrates to H+ ion, H formed, H2 bubbles away. i. Slowest step is rate governor. b. Concentration: concentration gradient near surface i. Diffusion is a slow process ii. Faster reaction = concentration control iii. Slower reaction = activation controls d. Passivation: surface films usually by oxidation to protect substrate i. Galvanic corrosion: surface material attacked, hole opens up, surface acts as cathode and interior acts as anode being corrode. e. Erosion Corrosion i. Water drips on stone ii. Cavitation 1. Air bubble forms, pressure splits bubble in two, jet of fluid between bubbles. f. Oxidation Reaction Types i. Linear: crack prone films ii. Parabolic: thick coherent films iii. Logarithmic: thin films 26. Electrical a. Superconductors, conductors, semiconductors, insulators b. Insulators i. Topological: conduct electricity on surface but interior is an insulator c. Metals i. Electron soup movement increases with temperature and potential. 1. Electron drift speed ii. Drift Velocity 1. Stop: collide with ion, start at drift velocity proportional to E iii. Thermal Effect: increased temperature, increase resistivity? 1. More thermally induced vibrations of ion cores, decreasing both free paths and time between collisions, decreasing velocity. a. Lower drift velocities, higher resistivity

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iv. Energy Band Model 1. Bands of energy levels for valence electrons from overlapping bands. a. Less energy to get valence electrons to move... Intrinsic Semiconductors [p=n] i. Pure semiconductors: valence electron moves it leave a hold, electrons and holes are mobile charge carriers... 1. Same number of negative electrons as positive holes. Extrinsic Semiconductors i. Impurities offer donor electron, creates negative n-type extrinsic semiconductor. ii. Some dopants are substituted and are missing an electron, leaving a hole. 1. This hole makes it a p-type semiconductor Mobility i. Holes are less mobile than electrons ii. N-type get exhausted iii. P-type get saturated Semiconductor Production i. Fabrication 1. Photolithography: transfer circuit design onto silicon wafers 2. Diffusion and Ion Implantation: put dopants into silicon 3. CVD and Evaporation: add insulation and conducting layer 4. Etch: chemical or plasma to remove selected areas 5. Clean and Test ii. PN Junction 1. Majority carriers diffuse across boundary 2. Donor ions repel holes, acceptor ions repel elections a. Junction acts as a barrier to current flow. 3. Reversed Biased: n-type connected to positive terminal, p-type negative... a. Electrons want to go CCW, holes want to go opposite... b. Leakage current: thermally generated minority careers driven toward junction. 4. Forward Biased: electrons replenish flowing from n-type material creating considerable current. iii. Bipolar Junction [n-p-n]: reversed and forward biased Metal Oxide Semiconductor [MOS] i. NMOS, PMOS, complementary MOS aka CMOS MX Compound: intrinsic semiconducting compound... i. Most important III-VA, II-VI Capacitors: device charged parallel plates. i. Dielectric material injected between...

ii. Dielectric Strength: how strong an electrical field can be applied before current flows. iii. Material Loss Factor: fraction of energy lost by heat. k. Ferroelectric Ceramics i. Temperature dependent electrical dipole in the unit cell. ii. Dipoles align with the field and the material is polarized when subject to electrical field. l. Piezoelectric i. Charge lengthens dipoles, force shortens them ii. Mechanical change, electrical output iii. Electrical change, Mechanical output. 27. Optical Properties a. Light as wave or partial b. Snell's Law: law of refraction, nsinx=nsinx c. RAT: Reflect, Absorb, Transmission i. Metals: 1. Reflect: electrons excite, drop energy levels, photon emitted. 2. Absorb: energy transfer into heat ii. Glass: 90% light is transmitted, 10% absorbed... iii. Plastics 1. LDPE has less crystalinity, more transparent than HDPE... iv. Semiconductors 1. Electron may jump and make hole, or transmitted into heat... d. Luminescence i. Photoluminescence: light produced by materials that absorb photons or electrons of high energy and spontaneously emit photons or lower energy but in visible spectrum. 1. Elections collide with Hg to produce UV photons, absorbed by phosphor coating. a. Sb: blue light b. Mn: orange-red light ii. Cathodoluminescence: electrons directed to phosphors to emit photons of visible wavelength. iii. Other types: electro-, chemi-, sono-, mechano-,... e. Lasers: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation i. Nd-YAG: Nd atoms in YAG crystal ii. CWCO2: N2 molecules excited, CO2 excited... CO2 laser beam formed. f. Optical Fibers i. Semiconductor laser diode encodes electrical signal into light. ii. Optical fiber carries light signals. iii. Semiconductor photodiode converts light back into electrical signals. 1. Single mode: long distances

2. Multimode: short distanced, high power. 28. Superconductivity: material who's resistivity drops to essentially zero at critical temperatures. a. Dependent on: i. Temperature, magnetic field, current density. b. Type I i. Normal state: magnetic field fully penetrates. ii. Superconducting state: field is repelled 1. Meissner effect: electrical field penetrates surface, barely... c. Type II i. With applied magnetic field, material becomes mixed state of super and regular. 29. Magnetic Materials a. Soft: easily magnetized and demagnetize i. Big B ii. Little H b. Hard: difficult to demagnetize aka permanent i. Big H ii. Little B c. Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism i. ONLY persist when there is an applied field... ii. When a field is applied, orbital and spin create small magnetic dipoles. iii. Diamagnetism: when dipoles oppose applied field. iv. Paramagnetism: positive alignment of individual dipole moments with applied filed. d. Ferromagnetism: spontaneous magnetization by dipole alignment. i. Relies on a/d ratio to determine if energetically favorable e. Ferro-, Antiferro-, Ferrii. Ferro: alignment of magnetic dipoles ii. Anti: net field zero, up and down directions iii. Ferri: magnitude are different from up to down f. Exchange and Magnetostatic Energies i. Five Components 1. Exchange Interactions: within given domain is minimized when all atomic dipoles become aligned. 2. Magnetostatic Energy: additional domain are formed, potential energy associated with materials own magnetic field is minimized. a. Magneostrictive closure domains reduce internal magnetostatic energy. 3. Magnetocrystalline: work done to rotate all domains into alignment with external field. 4. Magnetocrystalline Anisotropy: domain wall energy is the sum of exchange and magneto- energies. 5. Magnetostrictive Energies: energy associated with elastic strain.

ii. Bottom Line: overall equilibrium domain configuration is based on minimizing the total magnetic energy. g. Hysteresis Loop: area indicated energy need to magnetize. 30. Biomedical a. Tendon: bone to muscle b. Ligament: bone to bone c. Corrosion i. Pitting, crevice ii. Galvanic: metals with different electronegativity are in contact. iii. Fretting: wear particles generated in implant joints d. Tribology: study of lubrication, friction and wear. e. Biotribology i. Adhesion: local welding ii. Abrasion: harder asperities plow softer iii. Erosion...

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