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ABSTRACT
This report presents a scaled down energy storage system for peak load shaving applications. The design includes a bidirectional inverter along with a dc-dc converter capable of interfacing a battery bank with the ac power grid. The main goals of the project included the implementation of two modes of operation: a battery discharge mode where current is being fed into the grid and a battery charging mode in which current is pulled from the grid and put into the batteries. A secondary goal of the design was to ensure that the current being injected into grid was at or near unity power factor. The results of the project were successful as current was injected into the grid with near unity power factor by utilizing a hysteresis current control method. The current waveform was seen to be discontinuous, which was most likely caused by the inductance value used to filter the output current. Difficulty in designing the output filter was to be expected since hysteresis control has an inherent variable switching frequency. Regardless of this fact, the system maintained the desired RMS output current and thus proved the functionality of the system in discharge mode. The bidirectional capability of the system was also proven by recharging the battery bank with no hardware changes. Testing results showed that all the requirements were met as the system proved to function as a scaled down energy storage system.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Motivation for an Energy Storage System ........................................................................................... 1 1.2 Scope of the Design ............................................................................................................................ 3 2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .............................................................................................................. 4 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Discharge Mode .................................................................................................................................. 5 2.3 Charge Mode ....................................................................................................................................... 5 2.4 Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................................... 5 3. HARDWARE DESIGN OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................... 6 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 6 3.2 DSP ..................................................................................................................................................... 6 3.3 Analog Signal Conditioning ................................................................................................................. 7 3.3.1 Current Sensors ............................................................................................................................ 7 3.3.2 Voltage Sensors............................................................................................................................ 8 3.4 Digital Signal Interface......................................................................................................................... 9 3.5 Power Electronics .............................................................................................................................. 10 3.5.1 Design of the dc-dc Converter .................................................................................................... 10 4. SOFTWARE DESIGN OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................ 13 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 13 4.2 Discharge Mode Control .................................................................................................................... 13 4.2.1 Signal Conditioning ..................................................................................................................... 14 4.2.2 PI Control .................................................................................................................................... 15 4.2.3 Hysteresis Control....................................................................................................................... 16 4.3 Charge Mode Control ........................................................................................................................ 18 4.3.1 Trickle Charge Control ................................................................................................................ 18 5. IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................................................ 19 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 19 5.2 Main Power PCB ............................................................................................................................... 19 University of Arkansas Department of Electrical Engineering iii
5.3 Gate Driver PCBs .............................................................................................................................. 20 5.4 Signal Conditioning PCB ................................................................................................................... 20 5.5 Complete Build-Up ............................................................................................................................ 22 6. RESULTS ................................................................................................................................................ 23 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 23 6.2 Charge Mode Results ........................................................................................................................ 23 6.3 Discharge Mode Results ................................................................................................................... 24 6.4 Conclusion from Results ................................................................................................................... 26 6.5 Future Work ....................................................................................................................................... 26 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................ 28 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... 29
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Estimated Grid Load Profile. .......................................................................................................... 2 Figure 2: Estimated Grid Load Profile with BES Installed. ............................................................................ 2 Figure 3: System Block Diagram. ................................................................................................................. 4 Figure 4: Main Circuit Components. ............................................................................................................. 4 Figure 5: System Interface Block Diagram. .................................................................................................. 6 Figure 6: DSP Evaluation Board. .................................................................................................................. 7 Figure 7: Current Sensing Network. .............................................................................................................. 8 Figure 8: Dc Voltage Sensor (left) and Ac Voltage Sensor (right). ............................................................... 9 Figure 9: Digital Interface. ............................................................................................................................. 9 Figure 10: Simulation Schematic. ............................................................................................................... 11 Figure 11: Boost Converter Voltage with 35% Duty Cycle Simulation. ...................................................... 11 Figure 12: Battery Current during Charge Mode Simulation. ...................................................................... 12 Figure 13: Discharge Mode Control Block Diagram. .................................................................................. 13 Figure 14: Signal Conditioning Block Diagram. .......................................................................................... 14 Figure 15: PI Control Block Diagram. ......................................................................................................... 15 Figure 16: Simulated Output of Boost Converter ........................................................................................ 16 Figure 17: Hysteresis Control Block Diagram. ............................................................................................ 17 Figure 18: Simulated Hysteresis Output Current with Reference and Band .............................................. 17 Figure 19: Trickle Charge Control. .............................................................................................................. 18 Figure 20: Populated Main Power Board. ................................................................................................... 20 Figure 21: Signal Conditioning Board. ........................................................................................................ 21 Figure 22: Completed Project. .................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 23: Completed Project. .................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 24: Trickle Charge............................................................................................................................ 23 Figure 25: Voltage and Current Waveform with Gate Signals. ................................................................... 24 Figure 26: Voltage and Current Waveforms with Boost Converter Output. ................................................ 25 Figure 27: Grid Voltage and Current Waveform. ........................................................................................ 26
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Another drawback that renewable energy suffers from is its intermittent nature. Wind energy has been known to cause major brown-outs because of unexpected drops in wind speed. When this happens, coal-fired power plants are expected to pick up the tab for the extra needed energy. However, coal-fired power plants cannot ramp up their generation fast enough to counteract the effects of a lack of sufficient wind. Therefore, an energy storage system is needed to work with renewable energy sources in order to counteract intermittent generation. Another issue that the electric power grid faces is peak demand loading periods. These periods of time are when energy demand is at its highest and generally happen during the hours of 5 PM to 7 PM as shown in Figure 1. During these hours, power plants must ramp up generation in order to keep up with demand. Energy is expensive for the power utility to produce during these hours because the increased generation may come from high cost processes. These increased prices are usually passed down to commercial and industrial customers. Most residential customers currently pay a flat rate;
however, improved metering technologies will allow utility companies to start charging different rates at different time periods. In contrast, energy demand drops well below the baseline power generation during the late night and early morning hours. Energy during these hours is cheap to generate for the power utility and also cheap for consumers to purchase. It can be seen that a way to eliminate the peaks and troughs of the power consumption trend is needed in order to help make energy more economical.
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1 0.8
Load, pu peak
0.6
0.4
0.2 0 12:00 AM 4:00 AM 8:00 AM 12:00 PM 4:00 PM 8:00 PM 12:00 AM
Grid Demand
Time, h
Figure 1: Estimated Grid Load Profile.
It is clear that an energy storage system is needed in order to solve the problems associated with both peak demand loading and the intermittent nature of renewable energy. An approximate view of the effects of a battery energy storage system (BES) can be seen in Figure 2. An effective BES system can provide the extra energy needed during the peak energy consumption periods as well as when renewable energy sources go offline. When used in conjunction with renewable and coal-fired power generation, distributed energy storage systems can help make the power grid more efficient and cost effective.
1 0.8
Grid Demand
Load, pu peak
0
12:00 AM 4:00 AM 8:00 AM 12:00 PM 4:00 PM 8:00 PM 12:00 AM
Time, h
Figure 2: Estimated Grid Load Profile with BES Installed.
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H-Bridge Inverter
G1 GBuck
G3 Filter 1 2 1 5 Vgrid 4 8
1 VBAT
GBoost G2 G4
transformer which provides isolation while stepping the voltage up to 120 V RMS for direct interface with the grid. Since the voltage waveform is determined by the grid, the inverter will be of the current controlled type. A hysteresis control method was selected for this system because of its ease of implementation. This method works by setting a band around a reference signal and turning on and off switches according to when the current crosses the band boundary. Additionally, the boost converter was controlled by using a proportional-integral (PI) control strategy.
considered a secondary goal to some extent for this reason. The battery charging was accomplished through a simple trickle charge method.
presented an opportunity to explore the many aspects within the electrical engineering field and led to an increased array of knowledge and experience.
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The major challenges presented in the hardware design of the project were brought out in interfacing the DSP with the power electronics. For example, when measuring the ac voltage, it was not sufficient to utilize a simple resistive voltage divider since most ADCs are not tolerant of negative voltages. Hence, a voltage level shifting circuit was required in order to remedy this problem. A similar problem occurs when measuring current levels as simple current sensing resistors are not an optimal choice for this application. Another issue that occurred with both current and voltage measurements was the need for electrical isolation between the power electronics and the digital system. The signal flow diagram for the overall system can be seen in Figure 5. The following sections are broken down as follows: Section 3.2 covers the DSP hardware interface, Section 3.3 overviews all analog measurements while Section 3.4 looks at the digital interface aspect of the design. Note that this section views the hardware from an on-paper approach while Section 5 views the actual printed circuit board (PCB) implementation of the system.
3.2 DSP
The DSP chosen for the design was the TMS320F2808 manufactured by Texas Instruments, Inc. This particular DSP features a 100 MHz clock speed, built-in PLL, 16 enhanced PWM outputs, and two 8channel 12-bit ADCs [2]. The combination of the PLL and enhanced PWM module sets this DSP apart from most DSPs. In addition, the DSP is sold as an evaluation board (Figure 6) which includes all the
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external circuitry required for optimal functionality. The numerous functions of this DSP make it an ideal choice for grid-connected power systems.
converting it into a 0-5 V isolated analog signal [3]. A simple voltage divider circuit was then used to convert the resulting signal into a 0-3 V signal to be used by the ADC. The current sensing network is given in Figure 7.
I_IN VCC_+5V
1 2 3 4
I_OUT
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U1
V_+15V V_-15V 1 2 +Vs1 -Vs1 Gnd1 Vin 16 15 V_GND V1 V3_+15V 1 V3_-15V 2
U3
+Vs1 -Vs1 Gnd1 Vin 16 V3_GND 15 V3
A_GND
7 8
Vout Gnd2
-Vs2 +Vs2
10 9
A_-15V A_+15V
A_GND
7 8
Vout Gnd2
-Vs2 +Vs2
10 A_-15V 9 A_+15V
ISO122
ISO122
R8
R1 12k
2.49k R5 4.99k SIG_V1 R6 6.04k 3 U7 Out Gnd In 2 1 3 R7 2 10k OPA2131UA OUT + 8 U5-1 V+ A_+15V A_+5V A_-15V 4 V1
R2 3k
A_GND
A_GND
REF3312
U14A 2
U17A 12 OUT_1
7411
7404
Assuming that the switching frequency was given as 50 kHz, the value of the inductance needed was approximately 36 H. From this, the capacitance values can be calculated from:
In this equation, fc signifies the cut-off frequency which was chosen to be about 2 orders of magnitude lower than the switching frequency. This yields the need for a 2700 F capacitance for the low voltage side. The high voltage side of the dc-dc converter only depends on the amount of ripple allowed in the voltage output. For design simplicity, this value was oversized at 2700 F so that identical parts could be used. Figures 10 through 12 show the dc-dc converter schematic used in simulations and their results.
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Z1 RG1 10 V2
Figure 11: Boost Converter Voltage with 35% Duty Cycle Simulation.
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increased voltage to a desired level. The H-bridge inverter used a hysteresis control to chop up the boosted voltage and regulate the current flowing into the grid. The PI control was initialized whenever the battery bank is connected and a voltage greater than 32 V was sensed by the DSP. The hysteresis control begins whenever the boost voltage becomes greater than 54 V. The system was designed to continue running until stopped manually by disconnecting the battery bank and grid.
batt_V
enable
Rate Transition 1
Signal Conditioning
0
boost_V enable
buck gate enable gate 3 gate 6 GPIOx GPIO DO Digital Output 1 C280 x
Constant
V1 V2 V4 I2
Enable Hysteresis
trigger pos_gates ref _sig neg_gates current
Hysteresis
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1 V1_in
RE-SHIFTED
In 1
Out1
In1
Out1
In1
Out1
1 batt _V_out
2 V2_in
RE-SHIFTED
In 1
Out1
In1
Out1
In1
Out1
2 boost _V_out
3 V4_in
RE-SHIFTED
In 1
Out1
In1
Out1
In1
Out1
In1
Out1
3 ref _out
4 I2_in
RE-SHIFTED
In 1
Out1
In1
Out1
4 current _out
To Fixed Point 3
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4.2.2 PI Control
The PI Control of the boost converter utilizes the standard configuration for this type of control which can be seen in Figure 15. The voltage at the output of the boost converter is compared to a reference of 58V. The actual voltage is subtracted from the reference to create an error signal which is then propagated through the control system. The block labeled Gain 3 is the proportional term (P) and was selected to have a gain value of 0.01. The blocks labeled Discrete-Time Integrator 1 and Gain 4 represent the integrated term (I) which has a gain value of 2. The P and I terms are then added together and conditioned before being sent to the ePWM block. The conditioning transforms the data back into the uint16 data type and the saturation block limits the range of pulse widths. The ePWM block accepts a value from 0 to 100 as an input which represents the duty cycle percentage and outputs the corresponding PWM signal. This control allows for a constant boost voltage to be maintained as the loading of the converter changes with the changing ac current output. The simulated output of the boost converter during full system operation can be seen in Figure 16.
Enable
In1 Out1
Gain 3
DC
K Ts
Error In1 Out1
1 pwm
Gain 4
58 Vref
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-.3 Constant 1
AND Logical Operator 1 NOT < 1 hysteresis width A IQmath Y IQN Float to IQN 1 Relational Operator 1 Logical Operator 4
2 neg _gates
2 ref _sig
upper bound
3 current
OR Logical Operator 3
<
lower bound
In1
Out1
Relational Operator 3
Enabled Subsystem
1 pos_gates
.3 Constant 2
Figure 18: Simulated Hysteresis Output Current with Reference and Band
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advanced nor an overly desired method of charging however it is easily implemented and acts as a proof of concept for the design. The main focus of the project has been on the discharging mode because of the fact that battery chargers are readily available commercially whereas a system that implements an equivalent discharging mode is less commonplace.
F2808 eZdsp
C280 x
V2
V2_in
rect _V_out
rect_V
enable
Rate Transition 1 Enable Buck 1 ADC ADC Signal Conditioning 3 Enabled PWM Control Signal Conditioning 1
pwm In1 Out1
boost gate = GPIO 2 gate 3 = GPIO 4 = header pin 13 gate 6 = GPIO 7 = header pin 21
C280 x 0 Constant 1 GPIOx GPIO DO Digital Output 2 gate 4 = GPIO 27 = header pin 15
C280 x 0 Constant 3 GPIOx GPIO DO Digital Output 4 gate 5 = GPIO 13 = header pin 17
Figure 19: Trickle Charge Control. University of Arkansas Department of Electrical Engineering 18
conditioning board was required for EMI and safety concerns. Had all the parts been placed on a single PCB, then the construction would have basically restarted from scratch at that point. The components external to the PCBs were mounted as close as possible to PCB to decrease wire length. All in all, the system was built with testing and troubleshooting considerations in mind. The following sections briefly overview the actual hardware constructed for the design. The sections are broken down by the PCB that contains the part of the system in question. Section 5.2 covers the main power PCB which contains the power electronics devices and provides the foundation on which the rest of the design is built. Section 5.3 overviews the 6 identical gate driver boards used to interface with the IGBTs. The scope of Section 5.4 pertains to the signal conditioning board which serves the role of being a buffer stage for the DSP board. The DSP board was a purchased product therefore its design is not covered here.
designed to be a foundation for the power devices and as a mounting for the other PCBs. The populated main board can be seen in Figure 20.
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A non-ideal characteristic of the system can be seen in the output current waveform (O-Scope Ch4). The problem is that the filter inductor was operating in the discontinuous mode, evident by the choppy current waveform. The probable solution would be to increase the inductance value to help smooth the current waveform; however, the switching frequency for hysteresis control is variable and makes filter design difficult. Another possible cause for the large di/dt in the current waveform is the
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difference in voltage between the transformer secondary and the output of the boost converter. The rectified voltage of the transformer secondary is 362 V or about 51 V dc. A higher differential voltage between this value and the output of the dc-dc converter yields a higher di/dt in the current waveform when a switch pair is turned on. Figure 26 shows the output voltage of the boost converter (O-Scope Ch2) and the inverter output current simultaneously while Figure 27 shows only the grid side voltage and current. Regardless of the discontinuous current, the desired RMS value for the output current was maintained throughout the operation of the discharge mode. In summary, the inverter successfully
injected current in to the grid at near unity power factor thus proving the functionality of the system during this mode of operation.
Figure 26: Voltage and Current Waveforms with Boost Converter Output.
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out to be very rewarding and successful in the end. The project also led to many more questions and ideas as to how to improve the system functionality. The most obvious future work pertaining to this project would be to redesign the output filter inductor. This will be a challenging task as a filter is more difficult to design for the variable switching frequencies inherent in a hysteresis control scheme. While hysteresis control is a proven method for grid connected inverters, the problems that arise from having a variable switching frequency make it less desirable. As a result, exploring other control methods would prove useful. In addition to new control methods, there are several other interesting topics to explore such as: Implementing a control that can dynamically switch between charge and discharge mode depending on the peak load demand. Eliminate the need for a step-up transformer by increasing the battery bank voltage. Perform system efficiency and reliability tests.
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REFERENCES
[1] American Wind Energy Association, Top 20 States with Wind Energy Resource Potential, http://www.awea.org/pubs/factsheets/Top_20_States.pdf. [2] Texas Instruments, Inc., TMS320F280x Data Manual, SPRS230J , Sept. 2007. [3] Allegro MicroSystems, Inc., AC712 Datasheet, ACS712-DS, Rev. 7, 2007. [4] Texas Instruments, Inc., ISO122 Datasheet, PDS-857F, Nov. 1993. [5] Ned Mohan, Tore M. Undeland, and William P. Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 3rd ed. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Diogenes Molina of the University of Arkansas for assistance in programming. We would also like to thank Mr. Ray Hayes and American Electric Power for their financial support of this project.
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