Girard, P., Ramonda, M., Saluel, D. (2002).

Electrical contrast observations and voltage measurements by Kelvin probe force gradient microscopy J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 20(4), 1348 -1355. Detection of resonant frequency shift caused by force gradient to measure field distribution above metallic structures. Conditions to detect force gradients: constant height from sample surface and A<dtip-sample

Gramse, G., Gomila, G., Fumagalli, L. (2012). Quantifying the dielectric constant of thick insulators by electrostatic force microscopy: effects of the microscopic parts of the probe Nanotechnology 23, 205703-1-7. Cone contribution from calculated approach curves was independent of disk radius and cone height. For metallic substrate, total capacitance gradient is independent of cone height (H) and cantilever disk radius (L) when H>L

Yan, M., Bernstein, G.H. (2006). Apparent height in tapping mode of electrostatic force microscopy Ultramicroscopy 106, 582-586. Residual electrostatic forces, attractive electrostatic forces can contribute to apparent height making it a source of error in EFM topography images. Ti/Au metal wires 1 um wide and 20 um long with 2 um pitch. Non grounded wires appeared higher than grounded wires. Surface of grounded wire appears rough and voltage biased wire appears smooth (due to 1. long range es forces derive from a larger area thus averaging out surface features and 2.probe above non-grounded wires is working in non contact mode so local forces have less influence on the probe and fine features disappear).

Dianoux, R., Martins, F., Marchi, F., Alandi, C., Comin, F., Chevrier, J. (2003). Detection of electrostatic forces with an atomic force microscope: Analytical and experimental dynamic force curves in the nonlinear regime, Phys Rev. B 68, 045403-1-6. Force gradient of the surface of sample effects the tip motion. Description of electrostatic interaction between tip and sample is given by a plane-plane capacitor model. At lift height of 100nm tip geometry of truncated cone and spherical tip apex both interact with the surface but influence of capacitance of cantilever bulk is negligible. Using variational method based on principle of least action, analytical formulae for amplitude and phase variation with tip-sample distance were given and plotted. Presence of charges on the sample are the cause for the apparent height observed in topography image according to the authors.

Portes, L., Ramonda, M., Arinero, R., Girard, P. (2007). New method for electrostatic force gradient microscopy observations and Kelvin measurements under vacuum, Ultramicroscopy 107, 10271032

Height difference of less than 1.5nm is observed for regions on the sample that had a voltage difference of 0.5V between them. This height change was considered negligible for a lift height of 10-50nm.

Ziegler, D., Naujoks, N., Stemmer, A. (2008). Feed-forward compensation of surface potential in atomic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 79, 063704-1-4. Difference between potential on the tip and the local sample surface causes cantilever oscillation amplitude to vary. This results in a topography measurement error. The (non-contact) lift mode type operation is most susceptible to such topography errors. Even a few millivolts difference between tip and sample potentials caused a great change in measured topography. This results in not being able to resolve fine sample features. Parameters such as excitation amplitude, excitation frequency of oscillation, and setpoint amplitude decide the magnitude of error.

Pust, S.E., Szunerits, S., Boukherroub, R., Wittstock, G. (2009). Electro-oxidative nanopatterning of silane monolayers on boron-doped diamond electrodes, Nanotechnology 20, 075302-1-12. Charges injected by the tip into a thin film sample caused a height change to be observed. The electrostatic force originiating from the charge retracts or comes closer to the surface to maintain the setpoint thus giving a false impression of a apparent height. The height change was found to disappear with time due to dissipation of the injected charge.

Sadewasser, S., Carl, P., Glatzel, T., Lux-Steiner, M.C. (2004). Influence of uncompensated electrostatic force on height measurements in non-contact atomic force microscopy, Nanotechnology 15, S14S18. Sample was C60 on HOPG with work function difference ~0.5meV. A one monolayer of C60 equals 1 nm and this was deposited on HOPG substrate. Height difference observed between a HOPG step to C60 was 1.3nm and it varied with bias. Steps from C60 to C60 and HOPG to HOPG were found to be independent of bias voltage. KPFM should be used for reliable height measurements when sample is heterogeneous (different materials).