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ABSTRACT
Fifty blogs were analysed and classified according to both their content and formal structure. The SOLAT
questionnaire, aimed at assessing the right (i.e., intuitive-holistic) vs. left (i.e., systematic-analytical) thinking
style, was put online, and blog owners were asked to complete it in order to match their cognitive style to the
“style” of their blog. Respondents were also asked some metacognitive questions in order to explore their
awareness of the psychological processes that are activated by the blog that they had devised, both in their
own and in other people’s mind. Results showed that blog owners are able to use effective communication
strategies by differentiating the formal structure of blogs according to the content, but they lack metacognitive
awareness about the mental processes activated by the blog. No relation between the blog owner’s cognitive
style and blog style was found. Implications for the educational use of blogs are discussed.
DOI: 10.4018/jthi.2013070101
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2 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
In reason of the high level of personalisa- a hypertext (Murray & Hourigan, 2008). Such
tion in dealing with such an artefact, the way a peculiar characteristics make the building and
blog is devised and managed may be linked to everyday managing of a blog cognitively de-
individual cognitive style, that is, the preferred manding. The characteristics mentioned above,
and habitual manner to process information indeed, “force” people to use specific cognitive
(Antonietti, 2003). Therefore, it is interesting to strategies while constructing and administering
assess whether blog owners actually personalise their blogs, and this should promote reflection
the blog they built by arranging the structure of (Blood, 2000; Colombo & Sala, 2011; Wagner,
the blog not only according to its content but 2003). For example, anyone who builds and
also in order to match the blog owner’s cogni- manages a blog is asked to make decisions
tive style. In addition, it is worth investigating concerning the sections to be included, the
individuals’ metacognitive awareness, that is, number and typologies of the pictures, their
to what extent the blog owners are conscious layout, the writing style, and so on (Huffaker,
of the mental processes which are activated in 2005). However, such choices should depend
other people by the blogs they devised, and, in not only on the blog’s content, but also on the
particular, of the possible match between the cognitive preferences of the blog owners, and
features of the blog and the bloggers’ individual hence the blog structure, as well as any kind of
characteristics. artefact, should mirror the author’s cognitive
This paper addresses the aforementioned style (Henri, 1992; Xie, Ke, & Sharma, 2010).
questions. In this introduction the theoretical
grounds of the empirical study reported here 1.2. Cognitive Styles
are highlighted. The basic features of a blog
are summarised so to make clear the kind of A cognitive style can be defined as the pre-
personalisation it implies. It is a kind of per- ferred way of thinking (Sternberg, 1997). Such
sonalisation that can be linked to the concept an inclination concerns the peculiar mode of
of “cognitive style”, which is hence presented. information processing that is applied across
The possible relationships between blogs and different tasks and occurs in a variety of be-
cognitive styles are then discussed. Finally, the haviours. Cognitive styles are transferable to
issue of metacognition is introduced by stressing different domains: people tend to use strategies
the assumed role of metacognitive awareness that belong to their own preferred cognitive
in blog management. styles when facing different kinds of tasks. In
short, cognitive styles concern the general ten-
1.1. Blogs and Personalised dency to follow thinking strategies of a certain
Cognitive Processing type more frequently than others. They are not
abilities, but rather a way of applying abilities.
A blog (a portmanteau of web log) is a website The role of cognitive style has been mainly
where entries are written in chronological order investigated in instructional contexts. Cook,
and displayed commonly in reverse chronologi- Gelula, Dupras, and Schwartz (2007) argued
cal order. Many blogs provide commentaries that adapting instructions to students’ individual
or news on a particular subject; other blogs style enhances learning, especially in web-
are personal online diaries. The opportunity based environments. As far as learning from
for readers to leave comments is an important hypermedia is concerned, it has been shown that
part of many blogs. cognitive styles can be associated to specific
A typical blog combines texts and im- browsing patterns (Calcaterra, Antonietti, & Un-
ages (sometimes also sounds and music) and derwood, 2005; Fiorina, Antonietti, Colombo,
includes links to other blogs, Web pages and & Bartolomeo, 2007). Cognitive styles are also
media related to its topic. Therefore, blog can be good predictors of self-efficacy in learning
conceived as a multimedia artefact and also as environments (West, Kahn, & Nauta, 2007).
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 3
Amongst the different cognitive styles, the choose pre-structured templates, whereas
right/left thinking style (Torrance, Reynolds, right-thinkers are more innovative and may
Ball, & Riegel, 1978) is worth mentioning. It change the basic structure of the blog. The
was inspired by the theory of brain hemispheric same may be true regarding the choice of
dominance and it is aimed at distinguishing the main topic of the blog: Informative top-
between the tendency (possibly associated to ics should be preferred by left-thinkers and
the right hemisphere) to use a visual-motor imaginative ones by right-thinkers. Also, the
code, linked to innovative procedures and intui- use of pictures may differ: Since the right
tive and holistic processing, and the tendency thinking style includes preferences for the
(allegedly associated to the left hemisphere) visual code, a highest amount of iconic ele-
to prefer a verbal-abstract code, together with ments should be included in blogs created
analytic and sequential procedures. Even though by right-thinkers.
some data support the biological basis of such Recent literature suggests possible links
a distinction (Fabbri, Antonietti, Giorgetti, between the use of blog and specific cognitive
Tonetti, & Natale, 2007) and specific cognitive strategies (Robertson, 2011; Xie & Sharma,
functions can be associated to the two brain 2011). For instance, Kerawalla, Minocha,
hemispheres (Martindale, 1999; Springer & Kirkup, and Conole (2009) found that the pre-
Deutsch, 1997), the right/left distinction has to sentational style of the blog contents influences
be meant in a metaphoric sense, that is, right- users’ behaviour, suggesting a relation between
thinkers cannot be considered as people actually the organisation of the blog and the preferred
“using” prevalently the right hemisphere, but approach to blogs. A comparison between the
as showing stylistic profiles which roughly cor- different blogging behaviour of students on
respond to the features traditionally attributed two different courses provided insights into
to that hemisphere (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & how people could adapt their behaviours across
Ecclestone, 2004). Right/left style also includes different contexts. They appeared to be able to
personality traits (Torrance, 1988): Right-think- adjust their blogging behaviour to meet their
ers are imaginative, inventive, enterprising, own needs.
change-seeking and non-conformist, whereas Are people aware of the cognitive pecu-
left-thinkers are realistic, repetitive, settled, liarities of blogging? In other words, do they,
planner and conformist. Moreover, cognitive while building their blogs, use specific cognitive
styles associated to hemispheric dominance are strategies depending on their styles, and are
related to neuroticism, extraversion, openness they aware of this? The issue of awareness is
and conscientiousness (Zhang, 2006). connected to the topic of metacognition.
Many characteristics of a blog can be related Metacognition is usually defined as the aware-
to the right/left thinking style. For example, ness, knowledge and control of cognitive pro-
bloggers are free to build links between the cesses. The first attempts to define the domain
posts or in the main structure of the blog. of metacognition were made by Flavell (1979),
Such links can be devised either in a serial who proposed a model of metacognition whose
or in a holistic-reticular way: the first and key concept was “metacognitive knowledge”,
second solutions mirror the features of the which refers to what people perceive and think
left and the right style respectively. Moreover, about how the mind works when engaged in
left-thinkers, who are free to personalise comprehending, memorising and re-elaborating
the structure of the blog, are expected to notions.
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4 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 5
communication codes that mirror partici- for formal, written permission to analyse their
pants’ cognitive style, more visual for right- blog. The blogs of those who answered this
thinkers and more verbal for left-thinkers); second email were included in the analysis and
3. We had no a priori predictions about the the authors of the blogs were asked to complete
degree of metacognitive awareness shown the online questionnaire and interview (see
by the blog owners concerning the actual details below).
strategy used both at a specific level (e.g.,
writing a post) and at a general level (e.g., 3.3. Materials
organising the blog structure), even if we
could expect a good level of metacognitive 3.3.1. Blog
awareness in blog users, due to the support
3.3.1.1. Selection
in externalising given by the blog intended
Fifty Italian blogs were analysed. They were
(as stated above) as a cognitive tool.
selected on the basis that they belonged to the
same anchor site, so to guarantee that all blog
users involved in the study had the same op-
3. METHOD AND MATERIALS tions and the same constraints when building
3.1. Participants and administrating their blogs.
By browsing the categories listed in the
Fifty bloggers – 28 women and 22 men, aged anchor site, the blogs which clearly belonged to
between 25 and 52 years (M = 32.5, SD = one of the selected categories illustrated below
2.08) – joined our research: 12 were employed were chosen. However, those that appeared to
in education, 9 worked in commerce, 8 were mix different contents were excluded.
office employees, 6 were self-employed, 5 were A further selection led us to exclude blogs
university students, 4 worked in the public health that had more than one author, because it would
system and 4 were unemployed (2 participants not be possible to relate the features of the blog
failed to state their occupation). On the basis to the owner’s individual cognitive style.
of the responses given to questions about the In the final selection, blogs that were not
level of ICT expertise, none of the participants regularly updated were excluded, in order to
was highly competent in any area of computer- ensure that the current features of the analysed
supported activities (website construction, mul- blog were actually managed by the person who
timedia production, software programming, use completed the questionnaires.
of word processors, data sheets, and so on). The
participants’ levels of expertise and frequency 3.3.1.2. Content Categories
of ICT usage were comparable to the average The selected blogs were divided according to
values of the general population (Antonietti, 5 content categories. Categories were derived
Calcaterra, Colombo, & Giorgetti, 2003). All from the analysis of the blogs in the Italian
participants had been writing in their blog for blogosphere and compared with blog categories
at least 7 months. presented in the available literature (Murray &
Hourigan, 2008):
3.2. Procedure
1. Personal diary: Blogs that describe the
In the first contact email sent to possible personal everyday life of the owner;
participants (see below for details concern- 2. Commentary: Blogs providing comments
ing blog selection), the design of the research on different current news;
was described briefly. Contacted people were 3. Amusement: Blogs trying to entertain
asked to join the study and to give consent to visitors, providing distractions and jokes;
analyse their blogs. Persons who responded
affirmatively were contacted again and asked
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6 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 7
answering procedure, in a pilot study we asked main emotion communicated by the posts (the
a separate sample of 30 authors of other blogs number of posts per each emotion considered)
(belonging to the same categories considered and the use of self-indicators (number of self-
in the study) to respond orally to the questions. indicators per each type).
Responses were recorded and categorised so to A first difference emerged in the use of
devise, for each question, the set of the possible Decorative images amongst the blog categories.
answers that we inserted as multiple choices, Post Hoc Turkey-HSD test showed a significant
which can be read in the Appendix. difference between Specific Topic and Amuse-
Questions explored the strategies that per- ment blogs: in the latter Decorative images were
sons were believed to use/have used in building used more frequently. The spatial contiguity
their blog. Comparing those answers, on the principle was also differently observed amongst
one side, with the actual features of the blogs blog categories and, according to Post Hoc
and, on the other side, with the SOLAT score, Turkey-HSD test, in the Amusement blogs the
should return indication about the bloggers’ spatial contiguity principle was followed less
metacognitive awareness. To be more precise, frequently than in the other kinds of blogs.
the aim of the questions was to use participants’ As expected, marked differences emerged
answers regarding their strategies as comparison when considering the content of the posts.
term for the actual strategies (derived from blog Topic posts were more frequent in the Specific
analysis) and for the strategies they should use Topic blogs; Autobiographical posts were more
according to their cognitive style. frequent in Personal and Topic blogs; Commen-
tary posts were more frequent in Political and
Commentary blogs than in other types of blogs.
4. RESULTS Reflective posts were more common in Political
blogs than in Personal, Topic and Amusement
Table 1 reports the mean values recorded by
blogs; Amusement posts were more common
analysing blogs and by distinguishing their dif-
in Amusement blogs than in the other blogs.
ferent kinds of contents. As far as the types of
Different blog categories appeared also to
pictures included in the blogs were concerned,
be associated to different emotions. Positive
only data concerning Decorative images were
emotions (joy/happiness) were more evident in
reported, since significant differences due to
Personal, Amusement and Commentary blogs.
the content of the blogs failed to emerge in the
Sadness/delusion were elicited more often in
other types of pictures.
Personal and Commentary blogs. Anger was
Data confirmed the first hypothesis,
experienced more in Political blogs.
highlighting a general effect depending on the
It was also found that the use of self-indi-
content of the blog, so supporting the notion
cators (coping, reflective and social) differed
that the authors of the blogs were actually able
amongst categories. Coping self-indicators
to differentiate the formal structure according
were more evident in Personal blogs and less
to the content.
present in Specific Topic blogs. Reflective
Thirteen ANOVAs (see Table 2) were
self-indicators occurred more in Personal and
computed comparing the scores of different
Commentary blogs. The same was true for
blog categories with reference to image typology
social self-indicators.
(number of images per typology), the relation
Cross-tabulation between blog categories
between text and images (number of images that
and answers to the metacognitive questions were
followed the coherence principle), posts’content
also computed. Answers to open questions were
(number of posts for each content typology), the
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8 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the variables concerning the features of the analysed blogs
according to the content categories
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 9
Table 1. Continued
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10 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
F df p η2
Use of Decorative images 3.00 4; 42 <.05 .22
Respect of multimedia principles Respect of spatial contiguity
3.02 4; 42 <.05 .22
principle
Topic 21.02 4; 42 <.001 .67
Autobiographical 24.72 4; 42 <.001 .70
Post content Commentary 10.05 4; 42 <.001 .49
Reflective 4.59 4; 42 <.001 .30
Amusement 3.82 4; 42 <.001 .27
Joy/happiness 18.71 4; 42 <.001 .74
Emotions expressed Sadness/delusion 13.08 4; 42 <.001 .55
Anger 6.07 4; 42 <.001 .37
Coping 26.65 4; 42 <.001 .35
Use of self indicators Reflective 7.30 4; 42 <.001 .41
Social 14.31 4; 42 <.001 .58
• “The main idea under my blog is to share As far as the administration of SOLAT to
my knowledge about photography with our sample was concerned, we found distribu-
other people who love artistic pictures, tions of scores that approximated normality
and explain technical tricks to improve and were within the range found in the Italian
their technique” (1) validation study (Antonietti et al., 2005). Our
• “I believe that my life is better than a novel. second hypothesis was not confirmed: No sig-
So, by writing a blog I want readers to be nificant relation between cognitive styles and
part of this novel!” (2) blog features was found. We computed a series
of ANOVAs comparing the scores of the blog-
Those answers were reduced to two cat- gers, classified as right/left/integrated-thinkers
egories: (1) giving people clear and complete on the basis of SOLAT scores (according to
information (52%) and (2) entertaining readers the Italian norms: Antonietti et al., 2005),
(48%). with reference to image typology (number of
Coherence amongst blog contents and us- images per typology), relations between text
ers’ aim was tested and it appeared that writers and images (number of images that followed
of Political and Topic blogs declared that their the coherence principle), post content (num-
main goal was to give people clear and complete ber of posts per each content typology), main
information, whereas the others tended more to emotion communicated by the posts (number
entertain their readers (χ2 (4, N = 46) = 15.99, p of post per each emotion considered) and use
< .005). No other significant relation between of self-indicators (number of self-indicators
users’ answers and blog categories was found, per each type) were computed. No significant
highlighting a possible lack of metacognitive differences emerged. The same ANOVAs were
awareness concerning strategies that were actu- computed with 2-level independent variables
ally effectively used by blog writers. instead of 3-level independent variables, leav-
ing out the subjects that had been classified as
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 11
integrated thinkers in order to test clearly two of their own cognitive peculiarities that could
distinct groups. Again, no significant differ- probably lead them to improve the effectiveness
ences emerged. of blog communication.
We also correlated the raw SOLAT scores Blogs – which are widely popular amongst
with blog indices, finding no significant cor- the new generation and possess cognitive
relations. potentialities able to enhance cognition, such
Cross-tabulations between users’ cognitive as their narrative structure and the multimedia
styles (categorised as right, left or integrated) characteristics previously mentioned, and may
and answers to metacognitive questions were constitute a training field to potentiate differ-
also computed. No significant associations ent cognitive strategies such as right vs. left
emerged. style – can be regarded as a motivating activ-
ity for students, a mental “gym” to test and
exercise cognitive and communication skills.
5. DISCUSSION AND Blogs may also become a pleasant everyday
CONCLUSION activity that helps students to reflect on their
cognitive processes, and which encourages
The present study presents a few limitations,
them to monitor and control their mental
basically due to the sample size, that was not
strategies in a more effective way, but not if
as large as would had been optimal for a be-
users are left alone in managing them. Actu-
tween subject design. This limitation was due
ally, the results of the present study showed
to the difficulties of involving real bloggers in
that persons were not aware of their cognitive
a complex research, and to the long amount of
peculiarities, and hence, did not rely on them
time requested to manually analyse the blogs.
when writing a blog. If individuals are not
Moreover, working with variables that had to be
aware of the mental processes which blogs
considered separately (and not within a general
activate, all the potentialities that this instru-
model like a MANOVA) could have increased
ment has remain “inert”. Our study aimed to
the chance of committing Type I Errors, even
underscore this point, preparing the ground
if statistics were run with this awareness and
for greater awareness and more effective use
by trying to avoid any misreading of the data.
of blogs. The findings supported the idea that
Another limitation derives from the focus on
blog use is mainly a spontaneous activity
Italian blogosphere - probably a cross-cultural
lacking correspondences with the user’s cogni-
analysis would have led to different results.
tive style and metacognitive awareness. This
This could be the theme of an interesting
leads us to believe that it is naïve to propose
follow-up study.
the introduction of blogs in instructional and
Even with these limitation, this research
training settings by simply involving learn-
project, aimed at exploring the cognitive di-
ers in reading/using blogs. Instead, attention
mension underlying blogs, highlighted that
should be paid to fostering an understanding
people act strategically while designing their
of the mental processes involved in blog use,
own blogs, by differentiating communication
so that learners can autonomously regulate
strategies and specific contents according to
their strategies to match their cognitive style.
blog general category and by adhering to these
A reciprocal link between the educational use
lines. Yet, they appear not to be aware of this
of ICT within a Constructivism theoretical
strategic use. Moreover, they do not create their
framework is documented in literature (e.g.
blogs according to their cognitive style. These
Adams, 2011; Wang, 2009). Nevertheless,
findings support the notion that people are aware
referring specifically to blogs, is this cogni-
neither of the strategies they actually use, nor
tively possible?
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12 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 13
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 15
Barbara Colombo (Ph.D., Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy) is Assistant Profes-
sor of General Psychology at the Faculty of Psychology of Catholic University. She teaches
General Psychology at BA level and Assessment of cognitive and communication skills at MsC
in Communication Psychology. Her main research areas are related to multimedia, use of
new technologies, creative thinking, naive conceptions, psychology of music. During the last
years, her research activities, divided into the main areas of study and intervention, led to the
production of scientific papers published both nationally and internationally. Her experimental
researches are carried on also using the recording of eye movements (eye tracker technologies),
psycho-physiological indices (biofeedback), and brain stimulation (TMS and tDCS). She devised
several trainings for the empowerment of specific thinking strategies (visual thinking, creativity,
motivation, attention...).
Alessandro Antonietti is Full Professor of Cognitive Psychology and Head of the Department of
Psychology at the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milano (Italy). He is also respon-
sible for the Service of Learning and Educational Psychology, the coordinator of the Cognitive
Psychology Lab and of the master in Cognitive Assessment and Training. He is member of the
board of various international and national journals. He carried out experimental studies about
creativity, problem-solving, decision-making, mental imagery, and analogy. He investigated the
role played by media in cognition. He is interested in the applications of cognitive issues in the
field of instruction and rehabilitation. He devised tests to assess thinking skills and programmes
to train cognitive abilities.
Roberta Sala il lecturer of Methods and Techniques of Psychological Assessment at the Faculty
of Psychology of Catholic University of the Sacred Heart of Brescia. Her main research areas
concern multimedia, Web 2.0, cooperative environments and Self Regulated Learning. She also
collaborates with the SPAEE (Centre for Research and Practice on Psychology of Learning),
Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, by working both at a research level and directly with
teachers and children.
Simona C. S. Caravita (Ph.D., Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Italy) is currently an
Assistant Professor of Developmental and Educational Psychology at the Catholic University
of the Sacred Heart, in the Department of Psychology. She also collaborates with the Center of
Research on Developmental and Educational Dynamics, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart,
by working on research projects on learning processes, moral reasoning and behavior, and social
adjustment of children, adolescents, and adults. Her research interests mainly encompass moral
reasoning and behavior, school bullying and aggressive behaviors, empathic and social-cognitive
skills, and social status within the peer-group in childhood and early adolescence.
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16 International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013
APPENDIX
Metacognitive Questionnaire
Which was your main aim while building your blog and why?
In your opinion, what do readers thinks about your blog, and why?
In your opinion, what do readers like most about your blog, and why?
On which elements did you focus when choosing the graphical elements?
◦◦ Colors, graphical aspects (columns, widgets, etc.)
◦◦ Main functions available
Why?
Why?
Why?
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International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction, 9(3), 1-17, July-September 2013 17
Why?
Should you be asked to link your blog to one of the following categories which one would you
choose?
◦◦ personal diary
◦◦ commentary
◦◦ amusement
◦◦ specific topic
◦◦ politic
If you had to rate on a five-point scale your satisfaction as a blogger, which score would you assign?
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