Search and Rescue

Learning Manual

SAFETY FIRST

SAFETY FIRST
 Search and Rescue
Learning Manual

This learning manual has been published for use within CFA and replaces the AFAC learning
manual, 1.14 – Search and Rescue. It has been developed having regard to current CFA
occupational health and safety manual handling guidelines and “Safety First” principles.

Edition 1
June 2003

SAFETY FIRST
First published June 2003 in Australia by Learning Systems, Learning and Development, CFA Headquarters, 8 Lakeside Drive,
Burwood East, Victoria 3151. Text (amended for CFA requirements) published under licence from the Australasian Fire
Authorities Council.

© CFA 2003.

Other than that permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication may be reproduced by any means without
written permission from the Country Fire Authority – Victoria. Enquiries should be addressed to the publisher.

For any matters relating to this publication, contact: Manager Learning Systems, Learning and Development, CFA Headquarters,
8 Lakeside Drive, Burwood East, Victoria 3151.

SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Contents
Overview
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
Relationship to Competency Standards .................................................................................................... 1
Learning Outcomes .................................................................................................................................. 1
Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................ 1

Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Responding to an Incident ........................................................................................................................ 3
Searching Buildings ................................................................................................................................. 5
Ground Searches .................................................................................................................................... 11
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Self Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 19

Chapter 2 – Hazards
Working in a Smoke-filled, Dark and Hot Environment ............................................................................. 23
Industrial Hazards ................................................................................................................................... 25
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 27
Self Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 29

Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards

Some Facts About Electricity ................................................................................................................... 31
Where Can You Find Electrical Hazards? ................................................................................................ 32
Electricity in a Burning or Damaged Building ......................................................................................... 32
Where Else May Damaged Wiring be Found? ........................................................................................ 33
Action to Take ......................................................................................................................................... 33
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 35
Self Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 37

Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Selecting a Technique ............................................................................................................................ 39
Rescues Without Equipment ................................................................................................................... 39
Rescues Using Equipment ...................................................................................................................... 42
Self-rescue .............................................................................................................................................. 44
Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Self Assessment ...................................................................................................................................... 47

Self Assessment Answers .................................................................................................... 49

Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................. 71

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST i

Search and Rescue
Notes

ii SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Overview
Introduction Remember: do not become a casualty
This manual is designed to provide you yourself!
with the knowledge and skills to conduct
search and rescue procedures with or
without the aid of BA and other equipment. Relationship to
This manual should be read in conjunction
Competency Standards
with CFA Standing Orders, Standard
The training module, Search and Rescue, is
Operating Procedures and any relevant
linked to the Australian Fire Competency
occupational health and safety legislation.
Standards 1994, specifically: Level 1, Unit 6
This manual contains information about: – Respond to Rescue Incidents.
F risk factors involved in a search and rescue;
F procedures and precautions to be taken;
F search and rescue techniques;
F search and rescue equipment;
Learning Outcomes
F lifts and carries required in rescue; and This manual is based on the Certificate II in
F occupational health and safety. Firefighting Operations (Public Admin-
istration) 1995, Module 1.14 – Search and
This manual also contains:
Rescue.
F self assessment exercises; and
F a glossary (a list of terms used in this The learning outcomes of Module 1.14 are:
manual and their meanings). 1 describe and demonstrate the procedures
and precautions that should be adopted
Warning
when engaged in search and rescue; and
Breathing apparatus must be used in
2 perform a search and rescue, select and
irrespirable atmospheres. Respiratory
utilise the appropriate equipment, and
hazards include:
demonstrate lifts and carries which are
High temperatures
required in conducting the rescue.
Oxygen deficiency
Toxic gases and fumes
Smoke
Abbreviations
If breathing apparatus is not available, the
BA Breathing Apparatus
decision to implement search and rescue
rests with the Officer-in-Charge (OIC) of the DSU Distress Signal Unit
incident. Procedures implemented will then OIC Officer-in-Charge
be in accordance with CFA Standard
Operating Procedures.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 1

Search and Rescue
 Introduction

Notes

2 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Chapter 1
Search and Rescue Procedures
Saving lives and preventing injury is the primary consideration of emergency personnel
when responding to an incident. When conducting a search and rescue in either a
structure or on open ground, the main aim is to locate and remove any casualty. This
takes priority over other activities. A sound knowledge of search and rescue
procedures and precautions is essential if the rescuer is to be effective during an
incident. Search and rescue is a demanding task, both physically and mentally. You
should practice search and rescue techniques frequently.

When searching for casualties at an emergency incident, you must always observe safe
working practices to ensure personal and public safety. Response personnel should be
properly trained and equipped with the necessary tools. Unsafe, hurried rescue
attempts can be fatal to rescuers and casualties.

The first part of this chapter mainly refers to search and rescues in structures. Later in
this chapter, you will read about ground searches.

Responding to an Incident F identifying problems that may arise when

Pre-incident planning
Preparation for a rescue occurs before any
request for assistance is actually made.
This preparation involves ongoing pre-
incident planning by rescuers in their local
area. The purpose of pre-incident planning
is to provide emergency personnel with the
information they require to conduct a
rescue. This type of planning involves:
F conducting building inspections to
identify problems that may arise when
conducting a rescue;
F identifying hazards near structures and in
the local area;
F establishing patterns and levels of
occupancy; and
using vehicles such as pumpers and
aerial appliances.
When a call-out is received
A call-out can be received via:
F telephone;
F pager;
F radio;
F printout, or
F a member of the public in person.
From the information received, you will
need to decide if a search and rescue may
be likely. To do this, you will need to check
any existing pre-incident plan and identify
whether there is any information in the
call-out that indicates if people are, or may
be, in the vicinity of the structure.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 3

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 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
Note: never assume that there isn’t a need for
a search and rescue.
Points to consider at this stage are:
F type of structure (e.g. is it a house, shed,
office or hospital);
F time of day (e.g. is the building likely to
be occupied at that time of day);
F type of call (e.g. is it an assistance
message or an initial call); and
F are “persons reported” in the initial call
(i.e. have people been reported within the
building or in the vicinity of the incident).
In transit
When responding to a call, you may be
provided with additional information that:
F further describes the incident scene;
F confirms that people are located in the
building or its vicinity; and
F indicates that search and rescue is
required.
Size-up on arrival
Even before the appliance has stopped, the
Officer in Charge (OIC) will have begun an
initial size-up. On arrival at an incident, the OIC
will confirm, as part of the size-up, whether
there are any people missing or unaccounted
for. You may be required to assist the OIC by
checking external indicators. This may be
information provided by other emergency
services, members of the public, or occupants
of the building, and by direct observation.
Signs of current occupation are vehicles parked
in driveways, open doors and windows, and
lights left on.
4 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
By checking external indicators and through
observation, you can help to:
F identify the number of occupants still in
the structure and their possible location;
F identify the immediate threat to life (i.e.
how close is the danger?); and
F check the availability of personnel and
equipment to effect a rescue.
Note: a structure that appears unoccupied
or derelict, may contain occupants such as
squatters. The only way to be confident that
a building has been fully evacuated is to
search it.
The OIC will use this information to deter-
mine what procedures are needed to assist
rescue operations. In extreme cases, where
a fire is well advanced or where the building
is structurally unsafe, the OIC may decide
that an immediate rescue is not possible as
it may unnecessarily endanger more lives.
Prioritising the search and rescue
Based on the information obtained from the
time the call is received to the size-up on
arrival, the OIC will then determine whether
a search or rescue is to be undertaken first.
If it is obvious that immediate rescue is
essential, for example people seen to be
in imminent danger, the OIC will implement
rescue procedures first.
Rescue should be considered in the following
order of priority (Figure 1 opposite):
1 occupants most severely threatened;
2 largest group of occupants;
3 remaining occupants within the building
involved; and
4 occupants in exposed areas.
Edn 1 – June 2003

If it is not obvious that immediate rescue is
required, the OIC will initiate search
procedures. When conducting a search, the
priorities are as follows:
1 known and suspected occupied areas;
2 entry and exit points and routes;
3 ventilation points such as windows and
balconies; and
4 other areas.
Note: in heavily smoke-logged buildings,
occupants tend to move towards exit and
ventilation points.
Searching Buildings
The two types of search procedures under-
taken at an incident are the primary and
secondary searches.
Primary search
All rescue activities involve a primary search.
This is to make sure that the incident area is
clear of people. The primary search is con-
ducted by rescuers, who must be wearing
breathing apparatus if there are:
High temperatures
Oxygen deficiency
Toxic gases and fumes
Smoke.
Rescuers, working in teams of two or more,
should confine their activities to areas which
they can search thoroughly, given the
conditions in the building. Resources are
usually stretched during this stage of
operations and for this reason a secondary
search is conducted later.
The primary search is a rapid but thorough
search of all areas which can be entered
Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
4
1 2
3 3
Figure 1 – rescue priorities
safely. The purpose of this search is to find
and remove all occupants to safety. In all
actions the safety of response personnel
must always be considered. Futile, unsafe
rescue attempts should be avoided. A
primary search will involve checking for a
range of internal indicators such as:
F doors locked internally;
F meals left on the table; and
F appliances left on.
When conducting a primary search in a fire
situation, take a hose line with you. This will
enable you to:
F provide protection for yourself and any
casualties located;
F provide you with a means of identifying
and protecting your escape route; and
F allow you to conduct some initial fire
attack if required.
There are times, however, when a primary
search is impossible, for example in a fire
when the structure is completely alight or
5
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
when breathing apparatus is unavailable. On
these occasions, a search must be actioned
as soon as it is safe to do so. In these
instances, the OIC may direct personnel to
conduct a rescue only when the structure is
safe to enter.
Secondary search
The secondary search occurs once the
situation is under control and the fire has
been contained. It is a way to account for all
occupants and confirm the presence of
casualties. It may involve sifting manually
through a lot of debris slowly, deliberately
and systematically. The secondary search
may be coordinated in conjunction with
ventilation activities. Another purpose of
this search is to secure the scene for invest-
igation – for this reason, it is vitally important
to exercise care. This will assist investigation
officers in their subsequent inquiries.
Establishing a search pattern
Search patterns can be used to search any
building from a one-storey, single family home
to a multistorey building. In conducting search
and rescue in structures, you should always
work in teams of two or more. When under-
taking the primary search, you should start by
checking:
F the floor where the incident is located;
then
F the floor directly above.
If sufficient personnel are available, these
activities may occur simultaneously.
As you progress through the structure, you
should also identify if there are any attics or
rooms in the roof.
6 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
When there are a number of rooms leading off
a hallway, you will need to conduct a room
and compartment search. The recommended
general search pattern for a primary search in
a fire situation is:
F commence at the point closest to the fire,
where the occupants’ chances of survival
are lowest;
F work towards fresh air and safety, paying
particular attention to exit routes, for
example doorways, windows, hallways
and stairs; and
F check any areas where people may seek
shelter, such as wardrobes, under tables
and beds.
The emphasis in a primary search is on speed
but not at the expense of thoroughness.
Remember, if you rush your activities, you risk
missing occupants. Their lives depend on
your thoroughness.
When beginning a secondary search, the
recommended search pattern is:
F commence at the rear of the highest
accessible point in the building, for
example the roof or roof space;
F work towards the front of the premises; and
F once each level is complete, you should
move to the next level below and search
in the same pattern.
The emphasis in a secondary search is on
thoroughness.
If for any reason a primary or secondary
search cannot be completed, you must
inform the OIC immediately. You should
also tell your OIC the areas that have been
searched so far and what you have found.
Edn 1 – June 2003
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Entering a room
Before you enter a room, you must:
F check the door with the back of your hand
to determine if there is heat present in the
room;
F check your footing in case there is struct-
ural damage to the floor and to determine
if there are any gaps or holes; and
F if visibility is poor, crawl to minimise
contact with hazards.
Figure 2 – search pattern for a room
Room search
In conducting a room search, there are several
techniques that you should follow. These will
ensure that the search is systematic and No possible hiding place should be overlooked,
thorough (Figure 2). however unlikely. If, during your search, you
encounter a window and drapes, check the
Rescuers should work in pairs. When entering area immediately behind the drapes and
a room together, both rescuers should turn in outside the window.
the same direction. When leaving a room, they
should turn in the same direction and continue If visibility is poor, you should crawl or remain
their search of the next room, or compartment. as low as possible to search for casualties. Be
aware that there may be sharp objects such
When you enter a room, you should follow the as broken glass, metal fittings and hypodermic
wall around the room as this will allow a syringes.
complete circuit. Following the walls helps to
avoid disorientation. Be aware that in a fire Visibility should be improved close to the floor
situation there may be hot spots or fire spread. because heat and smoke tend to rise.
Keep in constant contact with the wall and then Crawling will also make it easier to locate
search the centre of the room by crossing it holes, obstructions and other hazards.
diagonally.
If you have to stop the search or remove a
Feel under, on and around beds, in cupboards casualty, you should leave a room by the same
and wardrobes and under staircases. When way you entered and mark it to avoid dupli-
searching beds, be particularly careful as it cation. If the room is involved in fire, close the
can be easy to miss a child amongst bed- door when leaving, to limit the fire spread.
covers. If you cannot reach far enough when Doors should be marked as described below.
searching under beds and large items of
furniture, you may find it useful to sweep the Marking searched rooms
area with a tool or your leg, but take care not It is important to keep in mind that time is
to further injure a casualty. crucial in evacuating a house or building.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 7

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
To avoid double-checking rooms, there are
various signs and marks which can be used to
signal that an area or room has already had a
primary or secondary search.
Any technique can be used to mark a room as
long as personnel are familiar with the tech-
niques used. Some possible techniques are
outlined below:
F chalking a circle low on the door – this
marks the point of entry. Place a cross in
the circle on leaving.
Note: this method has its drawback as
chalk may not be easily seen in a dark or
smoky environment and it may be removed
accidentally.
F mattress can be folded into a U shape on
the bed. If this is not possible, pull a mattress
over one end of the bed.
F strip of cloth may be jammed in the door
near the handle or tied to the handle. Any item
within easy reach can be used – curtains,
towels, tea towels or sheets.
F special tags or stickers can be attached
to the door.
Searching larger buildings
When emergency personnel respond to an
incident, they may be provided with a pre-
incident plan. This information helps the OIC
decide what actions to take.
In some circumstances, however, there will be
no pre-incident plan. In either case you may
be required to collect specific information for
your OIC. This will include:
F possible location of occupants; and
F possible location, nature and extent of the
fire or other incident.
8 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Using pre-incident plans
Pre-incident planning is critical for search and
rescue operations in large, open buildings
such as supermarkets, factories or warehouses.
Pre-incident plans provide you with information
about:
F occupied areas;
F windows and ventilation points;
F entry and exit points;
F security doors;
F escape routes;
F hazards; and
F hydrants and fire suppression systems.
This knowledge is invaluable when conducting
a search and rescue in these types of buildings
as it is easy to become disorientated. Large
buildings present several common problems to
rescuers as outlined in the following chapters.
Many of these structures have nonstandard
floor plans and throughout buildings of this
type, there may be a range of obstacles
such as:
F shop fittings and fixtures;
F shelving;
F machinery (which may still be operating);
and
F floor openings such as pits and chutes.
These obstacles can be quite hazardous
when you are conducting search and
rescue. These buildings also tend to have
large rooms and open spaces for rescuers
to search. They often have limited exits and
entrances, security doors which may impede
access, and few windows for ventilation. In
searching larger room spaces, be aware that
there are several techniques that can be used
(discussed in detail in chapters 2 and 3).
Edn 1 – June 2003
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Many of these structures are also designed F staff, public and other emergency services
with wide expanses of roof which may fail and who may have information.
collapse under fire conditions. Buildings of
A walk or drive around the perimeter of the
this type typically have high ceilings which
structure may help you gather this information
may delay smoke logging and allow for a
quickly.
quick walk-through search.

Note: breathing apparatus must still be worn
as fire conditions may change rapidly.
Identifying whether all occupants of these
buildings have been located can also present
problems to the rescuers as the occupancy
levels in these buildings tend to vary substant-
ially according to the time of the year, time of
day and depending on the use of the building.
Multistorey search and rescue
Rescue in a multistorey building, beyond the
reach of aerial appliances, is a challenge. As
in other building incidents, there are two ways
to reach casualties:
F exterior rescue – involving the use of
aerial appliances and/or portable ladders;
and
F interior rescue – required when occupants

You should make use of pre-incident plans, if
available, for conducting search and rescue in
these structures. Building managers, super-
visors, maintenance people and emergency
service personnel may be in a position to tell
where trapped people are likely to be. They
can also provide important information about
any particular hazards.
are beyond the reach of these appliances.
The search and rescue techniques used when
searching rooms and compartments are the
same as previously described.
Rescue teams should assemble at the
staging area, which is usually located two
floors below the incident floor (Figure 3).

When no plan is available

In these circumstances, you will be required
Fire safe refuge area
to assist your OIC by familiarising yourself
with the building by conducting an external
check. Information you will be required to
obtain includes:
F number and use of floors; Staging area

F entry and exit points;

Fire safe refuge area
F position of hydrants;
F possible fire location and spread;
F windows and ventilation points;
F the possible location and number of
occupants;
F external hazards; and

Figure 3 – multistorey search

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 9

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
Floors generally have the same layout within a
multistorey building. Using correct size up
principles, you should check the layout of the
staging area floor e.g. its room numbering
system, exits to stairway and distances between
rooms and halls. This may save time and
energy. For example, if information obtained
on arrival indicated casualties trapped in
specific rooms on the twelfth floor, the eleventh
floor should indicate:
F which end of the building the rescue
problem is located;
F the distance is from the stairway; and
F how many rooms will have to be checked.
Another method of obtaining a more accurate
idea of the layout is by using pre-incident
plans. Even with this information, the task will
be difficult. In a fire situation, with a large
amount of heat and smoke, rescue can some-
times only be accomplished with the aid of a
charged hoseline from the nearest hydrant to
limit fire spread and protect the escape route.
There may be reasons why it is impossible to
evacuate all the occupants of a multi-storey
building to street level:
F exits may be cut off;
F sufficient firefighters may not be available
for this purpose;
F occupants may be incapable of walking
down many flights of stairs;
F the time element will not permit evacuation
of large numbers of people; or
F access by firefighters and their equipment
may be impeded.
In the case of fire in a multistorey building,
safe refuge areas can usually be established
at least three floors below the fire floor. If this
is not possible, you should lead occupants to
10 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
a refuge area several floors above, or to the
roof, as required by CFA procedures.
Roof-top evacuation of occupants by means
of helicopters is not recommended unless the
occupants are in imminent danger. Evacuat-
ions by helicopters can be hazardous. Occu-
pants can usually remain safely on a roof for a
long period of time, provided they are not
immediately threatened by fire, are under the
supervision of emergency personnel and not
exposed to smoke or severe weather
conditions.
Time is the most important factor in any rescue
operation. A shuttle service over shorter
distances to safe refuge areas such as floors
below the fire, and in some instances, floors
above the fire or on the roof may need to be
established to save time.
Leading occupants to safety
There are two procedures commonly used
when leading occupants of multistorey
buildings to safety:
1 When leading occupants in stairways to
safety, it is recommended that two rescuers
accompany the group. One can lead the
occupants while the other can follow at the
end of the human chain. Keep in mind that
if there is light smoke logging, occupants
may require assistance.
2 In circumstances where the stairways are
clear and no problems are anticipated, it
may be more expedient to have emergency
personnel located at the beginning and
end of the route and at strategic intervals
where required. As the occupants exit the
building, rescuers can ensure that no one is
missing. The procedure requires effective
communication between rescuers involved
in supervising this operation.
Edn 1 – June 2003

Use of lighting
Searching buildings often requires auxiliary
light. Always carry a torch. It can be used to
identify exits, searchers, obstacles and
hazards. Do not use a naked flame such as a
lighter, matches or hurricane lanterns as these
can ignite flammable gases or vapours.
Where possible, a light should be placed at a
door or exit point, to clearly identify your escape
route. Rescuers can then move to the centre
of the room as far as the light can be seen.
A series of lights can enable you to probe the
centre of a room. A portable light with cord
can be used to take the light to the centre of
the room. The cord can then be used to
retrace your route to the exit point.
Auxiliary lighting (such as portable, high-
powered lighting systems usually operated
by a generator or specialist vehicles) is useful
for illuminating larger areas to assist with a
search. This type of lighting should be used
early in search and rescue operations in large
buildings.
Personal lines
A systematic search may not be possible
without the use of additional personnel. With
rescuers linked to each other by personal
lines (life lines or guidelines), a larger search
area can be covered systematically.
Personal lines can be used to ensure that
contact with another team member is not lost
when working in extreme conditions.
Warning: personal lines may be severed,
burnt or become detached, exercise caution
and always be aware of your escape route.
Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST
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Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
When conducting a search of a large room
such as a sporting centre or school hall that
appears to be free of obstacles, rescuers can
be linked by a length of rope. You can then
move along opposite walls, dragging the rope
along the floor. Any snag encountered is
investigated.
Communications in a search
and rescue
Once a search and rescue is underway, it is
very important, especially in the case of very
large buildings, that crews be kept informed
of events taking place. This can be done in
one of two ways:
F search teams may be instructed to send
reports at specified times; or
F search teams report only when they have
information to pass on.
It is clear that all searchers must be briefed
on the particular method being used. If you
need to suspend the search for any reason,
you must report to your OIC or the search
coordinator when leaving the building.
Ground Searches
A ground search is conducted to locate mis-
sing people or objects. Regardless of the type
of search to be conducted, there are Standard
Operating Procedures which will be applied in
order to achieve maximum results. Planning is
the key to successful search and rescue.
Effective communications are essential to
ensure a safe and efficient operation.
Ground searches fall into two categories:
F local; and
F extensive.
11
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
A local search involves searching the immed-
iate vicinity of an incident. It is conducted on a
small scale with limited resources, for example
searching for casualties of a car accident who
may have been thrown clear of the car or
wandered off after the accident.
An extensive ground search involves searching
on a large scale using a number of searchers
covering a large area, for example searching
for missing bush walkers or missing aircraft.
Information required
Information is an essential requirement in
both types of searches.
Pre-search information
Your OIC will need to obtain as much inform-
ation as possible concerning the incident. You
may be asked to assist by finding out:
F the type of incident and any background
information;
F the location of the incident;
F the time the incident occurred;
F the number of people reported missing;
F the number of animals or objects, such as
log books or aircraft parts, to be located;
F likely weather conditions; and
F potential hazards including terrain and old
mine shafts.
Search operation information
Based on pre-search information, the OIC
will prepare an operations plan for the
incident.
Once the search has started, the OIC will
require reliable information from each team. You
will be required to supply accurate, up-to-date
information.
12 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Communications
An efficient communications system is essent-
ial for control of search and rescue operations.
Wherever possible, radio communications
should be used. However, depending on the
type of radio sets available, their capability
may be seriously affected by terrain and poor
weather conditions (for further information on
communications, refer to the AFAC learning
manual, 1.19 – Communication Systems).
It is also essential that you maintain ongoing
contact with other members of your team
either visually, by voice or radio.
Your search team will be allocated an area by
your OIC. You will be expected to provide
regular communications at predetermined
times. Search teams may be instructed to
send reports at specified times, or only when
they have information to pass on. It is vital
that all searchers are briefed in detail on the
particular method and their responsibility to
provide search operation information.
Participating in a ground search
Follow the search pattern as detailed by your
OIC. Systematically search your allocated
area, working cautiously and thoroughly, while
pacing yourself according to the terrain.
Be aware of the symptoms of stress and
exhaustion. Always work within your own
physical limits.
Remember, report in to your OIC:
F at the predetermined times;
F when you have located the missing
person/object;
F when you have completed the search of
your allocated area;
Edn 1 – June 2003
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

F if you find a hazard; and Ground search hazards

F if you need assistance. Be aware that there are a wide range of
hazards that you may encounter when you
When participating in ground search operations,
are involved in ground searches.
you must be well-prepared with:
F suitable clothing for the anticipated wea- Rugged terrain, including:
ther conditions, including sturdy footwear F cliffs, narrow gorges;
and a hat; F loose or slippery ground; and
F food; F rivers and creeks.
F water;
Changeable weather, including:
F a personal first aid kit (to deal with minor
F sudden temperature changes (fog, snow
scratches, cuts, bites and stings); and
or heat);
F a small torch.
F heavy or local rainfall (causing flash
It is also a good idea to take a small unbreak- flooding); and
able mirror and a whistle for attracting attention. F high winds (causing falling trees and
branches).
A well-prepared search team should have:
F a map with the allocated search area Thick forest, including:
marked; F large fallen trees;
F a compass; F heavy undergrowth; and
F a radio; F limited visibility.
F access to a more comprehensive first aid
Other hazards, including:
kit; and
F unexpected traffic on roads and tracks;
F a note pad and pen.
F dangerous wildlife;
If you get lost or disorientated: F open mine shafts; and
F don’t panic; F wildfires.
F don’t wander off;
F stay in the immediate area; and
F try to establish contact with your search
team by –
X calling out and clapping;

X using a whistle;

X using a mirror or torch; and

X using your radio.

Your team should monitor the presence

of all members. However, if lost or disoriented
and you follow the above procedures, they
will be able to locate you quickly.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 13

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Notes

14 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Chapter 1
Summary
F Saving lives and preventing injury is the F When conducting a primary search, you
primary consideration when responding must wear breathing apparatus if there
to an incident. are:
Hot temperatures,
F A pre-incident plan provides you with the
Oxygen deficiency,
information to assist in conducting a
Toxic gases and fumes; and/or
rescue.
Smoke.
F When a call is received and you are en
F Search patterns can be used to search
route to an incident, you will need to
any building, from a single-storey to a
identify from the information received
multistorey building.
whether people are, or may be, within the
vicinity of the building and if there may be F Rooms that have been searched should
a need for search and rescue. be marked to avoid duplication.

F During the size-up of an incident, the
OIC will determine whether there are any
people missing or unaccounted for.
F The two types of search and rescue
operations undertaken at an incident are
the primary and secondary searches.
F A primary search is a rapid but thorough
search of all affected areas which can be
entered safely.
F A secondary search occurs once the
situation is under control or the fire has
been contained. It enables you to acc-
ount for all occupants and confirm the
presence of casualties.
F Lighting is vital in a search and rescue.
Appropriate types of lighting include
torches and auxiliary lighting. Do not use
a naked flame as this can ignite
flammable gases or vapours.
F A personal line can be used to link
rescuers to each other. This ensures that
contact with other team members is not
lost when working in extreme conditions.
F Giving adequate information about
communication procedures is important
when a search begins. Search teams may
be instructed to:
X send reports at specified times, or
X report only when they have

F Emergency personnel should work in information to pass on.

teams of two or more when conducting a
F A multistorey search and rescue can
search and rescue.
involve an exterior and/or interior rescue.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 15

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

F An exterior rescue requires the use of F Hazards which may be encountered in

aerial appliances and/or portable ladders. ground rescues include:
X rugged terrain;
F An interior rescue involves the application
X changeable weather;
of the same search and rescue techniques
X thick forest;
used when searching rooms and
X unexpected traffic on roads and tracks;
compartments.
X dangerous wildlife;

F During a multistorey rescue, rescue teams X open shafts;

should assemble at the staging area. This X and wildfires.

is usually located two or three floors below

the incident floor. If this is not possible,
occupants should be taken to a refuge area
several floors above, or to the roof.

F A ground search is conducted to locate

missing people and/or objects.

F A ground search falls into two categories:

local and extensive.

F A local search involves searching the

immediate vicinity of an incident.

F An extensive ground search involves

searching on a large scale using a number
of searchers.

F Throughout the search and rescue, you

will be required to provide information to
the OIC.

F If lost or disorientated, personnel

should:
X remain calm;

X not wander off;

X stay in the immediate area;

X try to establish contact with their

search team; and

X wait for assistance.

16 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Notes

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 17

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Notes

18 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Chapter 1
Self Assessment
✔ box)
True or False (✔

1 When conducting a search and rescue, 8 If it is obvious that immediate rescue is

the main aim is to locate and remove essential, the OIC will implement rescue
any casualty. procedures first.
True False True False

2 A pre-incident plan provides rescuers 9 In situations where the term HOTS can be
with information to assist them to conduct applied, rescuers must wear breathing
a search and rescue. apparatus.
True False True False

3 The information provided to rescuers when 10 Rescuers should work in teams of two or
a call is received and while in transit, will more.
always provide all the necessary facts for True False
a search and rescue.
True False
11 A primary search includes checking whether
doors have been locked internally, meals
4 The type of building and the time of day left on the table and appliances left on.
are two factors that rescuers must con- True False
sider when determining whether a search
and rescue may be required in a building. 12 A secondary search occurs when the situ-
True False ation is under control or the incident has
been contained.
5 A size-up is undertaken by the OIC alone. True False
True False
13 When conducting primary and secondary
6 The decision to undertake a search and searches, the same search pattern is
rescue depends partly on the availability used.
of personnel and equipment to conduct True False
the rescue.
True False 14 When entering a room together, rescuers
should separate and go in the opposite
7 Ventilation procedures are sometimes direction.
used to assist rescue operations. True False
True False

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 19

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

15 When searching a room, rescuers should 25 The staging area for rescue teams is
complete a circuit then search the centre usually located two or three floors below
of the room by crossing it diagonally. the incident floor.
True False True False

16 If visibility is poor, rescuers should not crawl 26 A charged hose line can be used to limit
or remain as low as possible to search for fire spread and protect the escape route.
casualties.
True False
True False

17 Searched rooms should be marked.

True False

18 Time is a critical factor in evacuating a

house or building.
True False

19 Large buildings can pose a number of

hazards to rescuers.
True False

20 Pre-incident plans can provide information

to rescuers about potential hazards.
True False

21 Lighting a match or cigarette lighter during

a search in a building is allowed.
True False

22 Personal lines can be used to maintain

contact between rescuers.
True False

23 An exterior rescue involves using aerial

appliances and/or portable ladders.
True False

24 An interior rescue involves both aerial

appliances and using standard search
and rescue techniques while in a
building.
True False

20 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Activities
1 Using the diagram below, draw an outline of a search pattern.
2 Under supervision, conduct a mock search and rescue in a domestic dwelling.
3 Identify the accessories and equipment available at your location for conducting a ground
search.
4 List the type of information you may be required to provide to your OIC before conducting a
ground search.
5 Explain the role of communications in a ground search.
6 Describe the procedures to be followed during a ground search and any CFA specific
requirements.
7 Describe the procedures to take if lost during a ground search.

Note: if you have any problems understanding the material or supplying satisfactory answers,
see your supervisor for clarification and help.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 21

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures

Notes

22 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Chapter 2
Hazards
Once you have gathered pre-search information, you can proceed with search and
rescue operations, keeping in mind the hazards which may be encountered. For
further information on hazards in structures, refer to the AFAC learning manual, 1.06 –
Occupational Hazards.

The main hazards at an incident include:

F smoke, darkness and heat;
F electricity (this will be examined in detail in Chapter 3 of this manual);
F structural collapse;
F industrial hazards (machinery, equipment etc.); and
F hazardous materials.

Working in a Smoke-filled, F Progress on hands and knees. At a fire

Dark and Hot Environment
Smoke, darkness and heat all make working
conditions hazardous. Besides making it
difficult to see, they can often give you a
false impression of the conditions inside a
structure. For example, your perception of
space, distance and time may alter. These
conditions make it difficult for rescuers to
assess the location and number of possible
casualties, and the intensity of the fire.
Precautions
When working in such conditions you
should observe the following precautions.
F Work in pairs. This promotes confidence
F When moving upright, shuffle, don’t
and makes it possible for one person to
assist another and to cover a greater area.
F Mark any unsafe areas, such as collapsed
or weakened floors, holes and pits, and
communicate this information to your OIC.
the air space at floor level is clearest and
the temperature is lower. As you move
forward, place arms, slightly bent at the
elbow, in front of your body and with the
back of your gloved hand gently feel for
obstructions. If the palm of the hand
touches an electric wire, the shock can
cause the muscles in the hand to
involuntarily grasp the electrical cable.
This may prove fatal. By using the back of
your hand to feel for obstacles, you
minimise the likelihood of serious injury
by allowing the hand to be withdrawn or
thrown from a cable.
walk. The feet should not be lifted from
the floor. You should slide your feet
forward as this will help to detect
obstructions and dangers such as
projecting nails. Keep your weight on

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 23

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 2 – Hazards
your rear foot until you are certain that it is
safe to continue.
F When feeling for hot surfaces, use the
back of your hand cautiously. Do not use
the palm of the hand as this is more
sensitive at lower temperatures and can
be rendered useless if burnt.
F Where there are stairs you should remain
as close to the wall as possible. This makes
breathing easier and protects the face from
heat. You can also move downstairs back-
wards on all fours. In this way, the feet can
be used to feel for the stair ahead before
the weight is transferred to it.
F Do not move up or down stairs too
quickly as you may encounter weakened
or damaged stairs and faulty treads.
F Use slow and deliberate movements. This
reduces your rate of breathing. It is easy
to become short of breath and to put
yourself at risk.
F If you become disoriented or light-
headed, advise your partner. It is
important to remember to monitor your
partner’s condition as well. If unusual
actions are observed, both rescuers must
exit the building and inform the OIC or
search leader. A rescuer with these
symptoms is incapable of performing any
further useful work and may only become
a casualty in need of assistance from
other crew members.
Action to take if lost or trapped in a
hostile, smoke-filled environment
When conducting a search in unfamiliar
surroundings, there is always the possibility
of becoming disorientated and lost. Be
aware of this – when you enter a building or
room, you make a mental note of the entry
24 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
and exit route. If you become disorientated or
lost in a fire:
F sound the BA distress signal unit;
F move away from the seat or source of the
fire;
F move to an exit point;
F if possible, move down the building and
not to upper floors; and
F close doors behind you to minimise the
spread of fire, heat and smoke.
There are several techniques you can
employ to reorientate or extract yourself
from the situation.
In a fire, you can always find a way to safety
by following a hose line, keeping it between
your feet. Following the hose line will lead
you to either branch operators or an exit. In
either case, you will be able to receive
assistance.
Note: a hose line may run over the edge of a
flat roof, or out a window above ground level
– be careful when using this technique.
Alternatively, if you are lost in a room, move
to a wall and then continue around it in the
one direction until a door or window is
reached. If a circuit of the walls has been
made without an exit being found, explore
the centre of the room. There may be a
central staircase.
Sounds from outside can often guide you
to an exit. If it is suspected that a person is
lost in smoke, it is possible to indicate a way
out by standing close to the exit and giving
intermittent, loud claps. In large structures
such as public halls, it may be possible to
feel the run of the floor boards and follow
them by touch.
Edn 1 – June 2003

If trapped or immobilised in a fire due to
structural collapse or other circumstances,
remain calm and operate your distress
signal unit (DSU).
Note: it is important to remain calm in these
circumstances. You may need to implement
CFA’s entrapped procedures. For further
information, refer to the AFAC learning
manual, 1.15 – Breathing Apparatus (Open
Circuit).
Signs and signals that you can use to
indicate to other personnel that you are
trapped include:
F using a BA distress signal;
F tapping on walls; and
F making loud noises and calling out for
assistance.
Refuge points
If you need to find refuge when trapped,
lost or disorientated due to fire, smoke or
structural collapse:
F locate strong structural supports of the
building close to walls or beneath door
frames; and
F use heavy objects to provide some
protection.
Industrial Hazards
Factories and other industrial buildings
present their own particular hazards.
Particular attention should be exercised
when entering these premises as they may
contain highly flammable chemicals which
may explode or produce toxic fumes.
Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Chapter 2 – Hazards
Problem areas
The hazards in industrial buildings vary
according to the processes or work under-
taken. Hazards may include:
F plating baths;
F tanning pits;
F large vats;
F oil baths;
F open light shafts;
F paints and chemicals;
F trap doors; and
F heavy machinery which may weigh down
and weaken floors.
What to do
Some companies may post notices indicat-
ing the presence of particular hazards. You
should make a point of looking out for these
signs before entering the premises. Also,
common sense experience, local knowledge
and information provided by other approp-
riate personnel such as on-site engineers or
electricians are invaluable in warning emer-
gency personnel about industrial hazards.
Your pre-incident plan will be invaluable. For
further information regarding industrial
hazards, refer to the AFAC learning manual,
1.06 – Occupational Hazards.
25
 Chapter 2 – Hazards

Notes

26 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 2 – Hazards

Chapter 2
Summary
F The main hazards at an incident include: X move to an exit point;
X smoke, darkness and heat; X move down the building and not up, if
X electricity; possible;
X structural collapse; X close doors behind you to minimise
X industrial hazards (machinery, equip- the spread of fire;
ment etc.); and X follow a hose line back, keeping it
X hazardous materials. between the feet;
X find a wall, continue around it until an
F Precautions for working in a smoky
exit point is reached;
environment:
X listen for sounds outside;
X work in pairs;
X follow the line of the floorboards to an
X mark any unsafe areas and commun-
exit point; and
icate this information to other crews
X use signs and signals such as
and the OIC;
clapping, pounding on walls, whistling
X progress on hands and knees as the
and leaving equipment on the floor.
air space at floor level is clearest and
the temperature is lower; F Factories and other industrial structures
X when it is necessary to move upright, present their own particular hazards:
shuffle, do not walk; X chemical baths;

X when feeling for hot surfaces, use the X paints;

back of the hand cautiously; X open light shafts;

X move down backwards on all fours X trap doors; and

using the hands and feet; X heavy machinery which may weigh
X do not move up/down stairs too down and weaken floors.
quickly;
F In these circumstances rescuers should
X use slow and deliberate movements;
check for warning signs, indicators of
X if you feel disoriented or light-headed,
hazards and avoid taking unnecessary
advise your fellow team member and
risks.
leave the building; and
X keep an eye on one another to ensure

safety.

F If lost or trapped in a smoky environment:

X sound the BA distress signal unit;

X move away from the source of the fire;

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 27

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 2 – Hazards

Notes

28 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 2 – Hazards

Chapter 2
Self Assessment
✔ box)
True or False (✔

1 Smoke, heat and darkness can give a 8 If you become disoriented or light-
false impression of the conditions inside headed, tell your team member, take a
a structure. rest and then continue.
True False True False

2 Unsafe areas in a structure should be 9 Always make a mental note of entry and
marked. exit routes when conducting a search
and rescue in a structure.
True False
True False
3 Working in pairs enables rescuers to
cover a greater area. 10 If trapped or immobilised activate your
distress signal unit.
True False
True False
4 If the palm of the hand touches an
electric wire, the shock may cause the 11 A hose line can be used to assist in
muscles in the hand to pull back. finding an escape route.
True False True False

12 Explore the centre of a room if you are

5 When feeling for hot surfaces, use the unable to find an exit along the walls.
palm of your hand cautiously.
True False
True False
13 Floor boards can sometimes be used to
6 Moving down stairs backwards on all direct rescuers out of a smoky building.
fours assists in breathing and protects
True False
the face from heat.
True False 14 If disorientated or lost find the nearest exit.
True False
7. Slow and deliberate movements increase
your rate of breathing.
True False

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 29

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 2 – Hazards

Short Answer
1 Describe the precautions that should be followed when working in a smoke-filled environment.
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

2 Describe the actions to take if trapped in a smoke-filled environment.

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

Activity
1 Under supervision, conduct a mock search and rescue in a smoke-filled structure.

Note: if you have any problems understanding the material or supplying satisfactory answers,
see your supervisor for clarification and help.

30 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Chapter 3
Electrical Hazards
The presence of any electrical power source or live electrical circuit in the vicinity of a
fire or rescue incident is a potentially fatal hazard for a rescuer. The main risks consist
of coming into contact with:
F two live wires;
F one live wire and the ground; and
F energised objects.

In each case the person in contact with the wires will become part of an electrical circuit
and may be killed or injured.

Some Facts About Electricity the flow of electricity and therefore, can
provide you with some protection (i.e.
F The force of electricity is measured in volts.
current cannot flow through them
F Electricity is commonly classified as high
readily).
or low voltage.
F If you grasp a live conductor, you may
F Electrical supply to homes varies between
suffer a muscle spasm and be unable to
240 and 415 volts alternating current.
let go of the electrical source until the
F Industrial or commercial buildings may
power is switched off or until you fall clear,
have, in addition to low voltage supply, a
dragged by your body weight.
high voltage supply of 11,000 volts or
F If exposed to very high voltages such as
more, terminating at a transformer.
the amount carried in power lines, a cas-
F All materials conduct electricity to varying
ualty may be thrown clear of the circuit.
extents. Materials are classified as:
This results in less internal damage, such
X conductors (e.g. metal, water and wire)
as heart failure, but may cause severe
have little resistance to the flow of
surface burns.
electricity and are used to readily
F Some indicators of the presence of live
transfer electricity in large amounts;
electrical equipment are:
X semi-conductors (e.g. wood and
X switch is in the “on” position;
earth) can conduct varying amounts of
X appliance or equipment is still operating;
electricity depending on environmental
X arcing characterised by blue flashes;
conditions such as moisture content
X sparking of exposed conductors; and
and contaminants; or
X a sharp cracking noise which may be
X insulators (e.g. glass, ceramics, some
continuous.
plastics and rubber compounds) resist

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 31

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards
F A person experiencing an electrical shock
will undergo violent, uncontrollable
muscle spasms in the limbs or throughout
the body.
Warning: remember that all electrical equip-
ment should be treated as live until proven
otherwise. Experience of mild shock indic-
ates that there is an electrical hazard in the
area. You will need to withdraw and identify
the hazard before proceeding.
Where Can You Find
Electrical Hazards?
Electricity and electrical circuits are located
in structures, power lines and electrical
installations. Wiring can be internal and/or
external, and can be high or low voltage.
Electrical hazards may be:
F overhead or underground (cables,
wiring);
F concealed behind walls;
F in roof spaces or voids;
F beneath floors;
F associated with industrial machinery; and
F associated with domestic appliances.
The location of electrical circuits may not be
obvious. Be aware that light switches, power
switches, appliance cords and extension
cords are among the most commonly
encountered potential hazards and require
special attention. It is important to note that
some unlicensed electrical work may have
been conducted in the structure resulting in
electrical hazards where you might not
normally expect them.
32 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
You must always consider the possibility of
the presence of live electrical wiring when
participating in a search and rescue.
Electricity in a Burning or
Damaged Building
You may be called on to perform a search
and rescue in a house or building fire
where electricity continues to operate. The
OIC, liaising with the local electricity auth-
ority, will determine whether the electricity
to the building should be disconnected
and is guided by the circumstances at
each incident. Generally, the power circuit
should be switched off as soon as poss-
ible. The circuit controlling the lights
should be left on as long as possible so
that visibility is maintained. Be aware that
lifts may operate on a separate circuit. Your
OIC will direct you as to whether you may
or may not use the lifts. A building’s power
should be disconnected if:
F its structure is affected by fire;
F its structure is damaged by water, storm
or earthquake; or
F it is likely that electric wires may have
dislodged or been broken.
Auxiliary lighting should be used in these
situations.
Electrical wiring can create seen and
unseen hazards such as:
F sagging wires; and
F wiring contacting metal framework, wall
panels or building fittings such as stair
railings.
Edn 1 – June 2003

Where Else May Damaged
Wiring be Found?
Damaged wiring may also occur outside
a building. For example, fallen power supply
lines may energise objects such as fire
appliances and other vehicles, metal fen-
cing, telephone cabling, wet ground or
charged fire hoses.
Warning:
F Electrical hazards may be present in both
fire and non-fire incidents. Always assume
that any wires and equipment are live.
F Always assume that sagging, broken or
fallen wires are live and capable
of killing people.
F Remember, electricity always seeks the
easiest path to the ground. If you touch
two energised wires or an energised wire
and the ground at the same time, you will
become part of an electrical circuit and
there is a high risk that you will be killed
or injured.
Action to Take
On arrival
F Do not park your vehicle beneath over-
head power lines, or on or near fallen
power lines. Consider your safety when
you are positioning equipment such as
hose lines and ladders.
Remember: look up and live!
F Use your torch and the vehicle lights if
you cannot see your surroundings
clearly.
F Determine the position of any potential
electrical hazards. For example, is the
Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards
external power supply obvious? If not, is
there an underground or internal power
supply?
F Identify whether the power supply is high
or low voltage.
You are more likely to encounter high
voltage in industrial or work shop situations
because the machinery has a high power
demand. Generally, normal residential wiring
is low voltage. When working around pot-
ential electrical hazards, use extreme
caution as both high and low voltage can
kill. Be aware that there is an increased risk
of electric shock where high voltage is
present. Your OIC will instruct you as to the
appropriate course of action when high
voltage is present.
Remember: high voltages are only to be
disconnected by power supply authorities.
The power supply authority should be
contacted where an electrical hazard is
encountered.
If you are instructed by your OIC to isolate
the power supply at the switchboard, you
should, where possible:
F operate the switch with the back of your
hand at arm’s length;
F turn your head away to avoid possible
flash injuries; and
F remove circuit fuses where fitted.
Always check with your OIC before
reconnecting the power supply.
It is beyond the scope of this manual to
provide full details on the nature of
electricity. For further information, it is
suggested that you contact your local
electricity authority.
33
 Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards
During search and rescue
When working around electrical hazards,
there are some common safe working
practices that you should follow.
F If you find an electrical hazard, inform
your crew members and the OIC. Avoid
the danger area. It should be cordoned
off as soon as possible – even dry ground
will conduct electricity for some distance
around fallen wires.
F When working around fallen wires, keep
eight (8) metres away from the point
where the wire contacts the ground
because the ground can be energised.
Be aware that hose lines and equipment
should not be dragged across or placed
within this eight metre area as electric
shock may result.
F Emergency personnel must supervise the
general public to prevent accidental
contact with energised objects. As a rule,
members of the public should be kept at
least 30 metres away.
F If a wire is broken, locate both ends to
determine the size of the danger area.
F Avoid touching a wire with any object that
is a conductor as contact could result in a
fatal shock (e.g. if a hose line or ladder
contacts an energised metal fence or
other structure).
F Where possible avoid puddles, damp
ground, wet flooring and any other wet or
damp surfaces as they can become
energised.
F If you encounter a person in contact with
a live electrical conductor, do not
become a casualty yourself. Determine
whether the person is in contact with high
or low voltage electricity. If the person is in
34 SAFETY FIRST
Search and Rescue
contact with high voltage electricity, you
must wait until the power supply authority
isolates the supply. Do not attempt to
touch the casualty.
F If you are certain that the casualty is in
contact with low voltage electricity, do not
touch the person. You may be able to
assist providing you follow specific
precautions. If you can quickly identify
and safely isolate the low voltage power
source, do so (e.g. pull out a fuse or turn
a switch off). If the power cannot be
isolated, it may be possible to:
X drag the casualty clear by grabbing
only dry clothing, avoiding contact with
the skin; or
X use a dry, insulated, non-conducting
material such as a belt, towel or a piece
of wood to drag or push the casualty
clear.
X be alert for metal buttons, studs,
buckles and jewellery because these
are conductors.
F Avoid stepping on or touching wiring or
energised objects.
F Avoid brushing against or bumping any
wiring or electrical equipment.
F Be aware of dislodged overhead wiring
brushing against your helmet.
F Avoid applying water to electrical hazards.
Water is a conductor and will increase the
risk and the hazard area.
For more information on the nature and
behaviour of electricity, refer to the AFAC
learning manual 1.06 – Occupational
Hazards and the Electrical Safety Handbook
for Emergency Services Personnel.
Edn 1 – June 2003

Chapter 3
Summary
F Rescuers must be aware of the risks
involved when coming into contact with
live wires and energised objects. The risks
include injury or even death.
F The force of electricity is measured in volts
and is classified as high or low voltage.
F Materials are classified as conductors,
semi-conductors or insulators.
F Electricity and electrical circuits are
located in structures, power lines and
electrical installations. Wiring may be
internal or external and can be high or
low voltage.
F Electrical hazards may be located:
X overhead or underground (power
lines);
X behind walls;
X in roof spaces or voids;
X beneath floors;
X in industrial machinery; and/or
X in domestic appliances.
F The OIC will determine whether the
electricity to the building should be
isolated and is guided by the
circumstances at each incident.
F Electrical wiring may create seen and
unseen hazards such as:
X sagging wires; and
X wiring contacting metal framework,
wall panels or building fittings, such as
stair railings.
Edn 1 – June 2003
Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards
F Damaged wiring may also occur outside
a building.
F Electrical hazards may be present in
both fire and non-fire incidents. Always
assume always that any wires and
equipment are live.
F Always assume that sagging, broken or
fallen wires are live and capable of killing
people.
F Electricity always seeks the easiest path
to the ground. If a person touches two
energised wires or touches an energised
wire and the ground at the same time, the
person will become part of an electrical
circuit and may be killed or injured.
F Do not park your firefighting vehicle
beneath overhead power lines, or on or
near fallen power lines.
F Determine the position of any potential
electrical hazards.
F Identify whether the power supply is high
or low voltage.
F When working around potential electrical
hazards, use extreme caution, as both
high and low voltage can kill.
F When working around electrical hazards,
you must apply safe work practices.
SAFETY FIRST 35
Search and Rescue
 Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards

Notes

36 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

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 Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards

Chapter 3
Self Assessment

Short Answer
1 Where are electricity and electrical circuits located?
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

2 Who determines whether electricity should be disconnected at an incident?

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

3 What happens if a person touches two energised wires or an energised wire and the ground
at the same time?
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

4 Identify four actions you should take upon arrival at an incident.

i .............................................................................................................................................
ii .............................................................................................................................................
iii .............................................................................................................................................
iv .............................................................................................................................................

5 Identify five safe work practices you should follow when working around electrical
hazards at an incident.
i .............................................................................................................................................
ii .............................................................................................................................................
iii .............................................................................................................................................
iv .............................................................................................................................................
v .............................................................................................................................................

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 37

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards

6 In what unit is the force of electricity measured?

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

7 How many volts are supplied to:

(a) households; and
.............................................................................................................................................

(b) commercial buildings.

.............................................................................................................................................

8 In the context of electricity, materials are classified in three ways – what are they?
i .............................................................................................................................................
ii .............................................................................................................................................
iii .............................................................................................................................................

9 What happens to a person experiencing electrical shock?

.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

Activity
1 Under supervision, inspect a domestic dwelling and an industrial site and identify the potential
electrical hazards.
Note: if you have any problems understanding the material or supplying satisfactory answers,
see your supervisor for clarification and help.

38 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Chapter 4
Rescue Techniques
During a search, you will encounter people who will rely on your assistance.
Whatever their predicament they must be rescued with speed and without being
subjected to further danger and injury. Reassure them that help has arrived and
that you will take them to safety. It is important that you show confidence when
carrying out your tasks as a firefighter.

Note: the following techniques must be carried out by at least two people.

Selecting a Technique The backward drag

The technique you use will depend on
the person’s condition and the resources
available. Rescues are conducted either
with or without equipment. Whether you
use equipment or not, it is important to
select the appropriate technique. You will
need to determine whether the person is:
F conscious or unconscious;
F mobile or immobile; and
F injured or uninjured.
The backward drag is used when a casualty
is too heavy to lift (Figure 4).
This technique requires one rescuer to:
F lay the casualty on their back;
F kneel down behind the casualty;
F pass your hands under their armpits;
F cross the casualty’s wrists slightly in front
of the body;
F grabbing their wrists, stand almost upright
and raise the casualty’s head and
shoulders off the floor; and

Rescues Without Equipment

Most rescues will fall into this category. The
simplest being when you lead a person to
safety. If you encounter someone who
refuses your help and thinks they can find
their own way out, you must insist on
escorting them to safety. Never lead a
person into situations where rescue is made
more difficult or impossible.

Some of the techniques that you would use

without equipment are detailed below. Figure 4 – backward drag

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 39

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

F moving backwards, drag the casualty to The fore and aft carry
safety. The fore and aft technique (Figure 6) is as
follows:
Remember to protect the casualty’s head
F lay the casualty on their back;
and guard against their arms hitting objects.
F raise the person to a sitting position;
The second rescuer will: F your partner stands between the
F be positioned behind first rescuer; and casualty’s legs facing away from the feet
F place hand on BA cylinder of first rescuer while you stand behind the casualty and
and guide first rescuer and casualty to grasp the person under the arm pits;
safety. F your partner bends down and grasps
each leg behind the knees;
Note: stairs should not be negotiated using F lift the casualty together;
the backward drag (see rescue techniques F stand facing in the same direction;
using a stretcher). F move forwards; and
F remove the casualty to safety.
Human crutch
This technique is used with casualties who
can walk with assistance (Figure 5).
F The rescuers stand at the casualty’s sides;
F the casualty’s arms are placed over the
rescuers shoulders; and
F the rescuers grasp the casualty’s relevant
wrist and with the free arm, support the
casualty around the waist.

Figure 5 – human crutch (two rescuers)

Figure 6 – fore and aft

40 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

The two-handed seat

The two handed seat is used for rescuing
casualties who have to be carried rather
than dragged. This technique is often used
in hospitals and nursing homes where mass
evacuation of casualties is required.

You should:
F stand behind the casualty and face the
other rescuer;
F using your hands closest to the casualty,
lock your fingers to form a seat as shown
in the diagram (Figure 7);
F place the formed hand seat beneath the
casualty’s thighs;
F seat the casualty;
F with your free arms, reach across the
back of the casualty and grasp the
clothing to form the back of the seat;
F direct the casualty to drape their arms Figure 7 – two-handed seat
over your shoulders; and
F carry the casualty to safety.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 41

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Rescues Using Equipment

Rescue using blankets
This technique can be used where the
casualty is unconscious and no other
equipment is available (Figure 8). It is to be
undertaken by two rescuers. Rescuers
should:
F lay out a blanket on the floor next to the
casualty;
F either roll the casualty onto the blanket or
work the blanket beneath the casualty;
F position the casualty in the middle of the
blanket face up;
F position both rescuers at the casualty’s
head and grasp one corner of the blanket
each; and
F raise the blanket and the casualty’s head
and shoulders slightly off the floor and
drag the casualty to safety with the
rescuers moving in a forward direction.

Bed removal
In hospitals and some nursing homes, beds
are designed to be moved through wide
doors and corridors. Be aware when moving
patients and their beds that you must not
disconnect any life support or other equip-
ment, unless instructed. Consult with medical
staff where available and follow your OIC’s
instructions.

Figure 8 – rescue using a blanket

42 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Specialised equipment Rescues using aerial appliances

Emergency personnel are sometimes Aerial appliances will include:
required to rescue casualties using F turntable ladders;

specialised equipment. Use of this equip- F hydraulic platforms;

ment depends on its availability and the F ladder platforms; and

type of incident. The situations where F telebooms.

equipment is used include:

People may be able to climb down aerial
F rescues from heights;
appliance ladders without assistance or be
F rescues from depths such as wells, shafts
lowered in the platform’s cage. Rescuers
and trenches; and
may assist casualties down ladders using
F horizontal carries.
lowering devices and rescue harnesses.
Rescues from multistorey buildings The techniques used for rescuing casualties
Emergency personnel are often required to using aerial appliances will vary according to
rescue people trapped in multistorey the type of appliance used. You should refer
buildings. If these people cannot be led or to SOPs/FGPs for further information on the
carried to safety from within the building, an techniques to be used.
external rescue is required using equipment
including:
F small equipment – ropes, lines, harnesses
and associated equipment and portable
extension ladders; and
F aerial appliances – turntable ladders and
hydraulic platforms.

Rescues using ropes, lines

and harnesses
Ropes, lines and harnesses are used to
lower a casualty to safety. The types of
ropes, lines, harnesses and methods used
can vary. For further information refer to
SOPs.

Rescues using portable ladders

Portable ladders encompass both single
length and portable extension ladders. The
types of portable ladders used can vary. For
further information refer to SOPs/FGPs.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 43

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Rescues using slings, Self-rescue

stretchers and litters
If you find yourself in a situation where your
These are used for moving immobile or
line of retreat has been cut or your escape
injured casualties to safety. The Paraguard
route blocked, you will need to implement a
Stretcher and the Stokes Litter are two
self-rescue.
which are commonly used.
The techniques for self-rescue will be in
With stretchers such as the Paraguard,
accordance with SOPs/FGPs.
where the casualty can be firmly secured,
the casualty can be raised or lowered either
horizontally or vertically.

Be aware that the Stokes Litter can also be

used to lower a casualty either horizontally
or vertically.

With other stretchers, the casualty should

be kept horizontal (Figure 9).

Horizontal lowering or raising using a

stretcher is ideal where it is essential for
medical reasons to keep the casualty
horizontal. The casualty is secured to the
stretcher and the stretcher is lowered in a
horizontal position.

Figure 9 – rescue using a litter and sling

44 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Chapter 4
Summary
F Casualties are removed by rescuers F The technique selected will depend upon
working in teams of at least two whether the casualty is:
personnel. X conscious or unconscious;

X mobile or immobile; or
F Rescues are conducted either with or
X injured or uninjured.
without equipment.
F The two methods used for rescuing a
F The following techniques need no
casualty on a stretcher are:
equipment:
X horizontal lowering or raising; and
X the backward drag;
X vertical lowering or raising.
X the human crutch;
X the fore and aft carry; and F Self-rescue is undertaken by rescuers
X the two-handed seat. when their line of retreat has been cut or
their escape route blocked.
F The following techniques use equipment:
X using blankets;
X bed removal;

X rescues from heights;

X using ropes, lines and harnesses;

X using aerial appliances; and

X using slings, stretchers and litters.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 45

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Notes

46 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Chapter 4
Self Assessment
✔ box)
True or False (✔

1 The technique you select for a search 9 Beds in all hospitals and nursing homes
and rescue depends on the person’s are generally designed to be moved
condition and resources available. through wide doors and corridors.
True False True False

2 The backward drag is the most 10 Rope lines, knots and techniques used
appropriate technique for an injured, for rescue may vary.
light weight casualty. True False
True False

3 Stairs should be negotiated using the

backward drag.
True False

4 The human crutch is undertaken by

one rescuer.
True False

5 In carrying out the fore and aft carry,

only one rescuer is required.
True False

6 Hand seats are part of standard brigade

equipment.
True False

7 In the two-handed seat, rescuers place

the hand seat beneath the casualty’s
thighs.
True False

8 A rescue using blankets is conducted

when a casualty is conscious and can
assist.
True False

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 47

Search and Rescue
 Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

Activities
1 Under supervision, conduct an inspection of a hospital or nursing home in your local area.
During the inspection, identify:
X the types of beds used;

X whether evacuation sheets are fitted; and

X whether the beds can be moved through doors and corridors.

2 Identify the type of equipment used in your brigade for conducting a rescue.
3 Identify any specific procedures for rescue.

Note: if you have any problems understanding the material or supplying satisfactory answers,
see your supervisor for clarification and help.

48 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
Glossary of Terms
Auxiliary lighting Irrespirable atmospheres
Portable, high-powered lighting systems usually Atmospheres which are harmful to the respiratory
powered by generators or specialist vehicles. system and in which the following hazards exist: high
temperatures, oxygen deficiency, toxic gases, fumes
and smoke.
Conductor
A material which has little resistance to the flow of
electricity. Live wire
A wire charged with an electric current.
Disorientated
Confused sense of direction. Manually
By hand.
Entrapped
Enclosed or surrounded, which without assistance, Occupants
an individual can not be released or removed to a People living, working or visiting inside a building.
safe environment.
Personal lines
Exterior rescue Lifelines or guidelines used to link rescuers to each
A rescue that takes place using aerial appliances and/ another or to fixed objects.
or portable ladders.
Persons reported
Fumes People who are within a structure or in the vicinity of
Gases. an incident and may be trapped.

Hazard Pre-incident plan

Something that is potentially dangerous. Advanced planning and preparation for an emergency
situation.
Immobilised
Unable to move as and when desired. Primary search
A rapid and thorough search of all areas which can
be entered safely.
Insulator
A material which resists the flow of electricity.
Premises
Property (building or land).
Interior rescue
A search and rescue conducted within a building.
Secondary search
A search which takes place once the situation is under
Intermittent
control or the fire is contained. It accounts for all
Happening at irregular intervals.
occupants and confirms the presence of casualties.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 51

Search and Rescue
 Glossary of Terms

Semi-conductor
A material which can conduct varying amounts of
electricity, depending on a range of conditions.

Shuffle
Walk without lifting the feet.

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)

A set of organisational directives that establish a
standard course of action on the fireground to increase
the effectiveness of the firefighting team. They are
written, official, applied to all situations, enforced and
integrated into CFA’s management of incidents.

Trapped
To have restricted movement.

Volt
Unit by which electrical force is measured.

52 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Breathing Apparatus
Self Assessment Answers
Chapter 1 – Search and Rescue Procedures
True or False
1 True 2 True 3 False 4 True 5 False 6 True 7 True
8 True 9 True 10 True 11 True 12 True 13 False 14 False
15 True 16 False 17 True 18 True 19 True 20 True 21 False
22 True 23 True 24 False 25 True 26 True

Chapter 2 – Hazards
True or False
1 True 2 True 3 True 4 False 5 False 6 True 7 False
8 False 9 True 10 False 11 True 12 True 13 True 14 True

Chapter 3 – Electrical Hazards

Short Answer
1 Electricity and electrical circuits circuits can be found in:
(a) structures;
(b) power lines; and
(c) electrical installations.

2 The Officer-in-Charge, in liaison with the local electricity authority where appropriate, will determine whether
or not electricity must be disconnected.

3 If a person touches two energised wires or an energised wire at the same time, the person will become
part of an electrical circuit and may be killed or injured.

4 i Do not park your firefighting vehicle beneath overhead power lines, or on or near fallen power lines.
ii Use your torch and the vehicle lights if you cannot see your surroundings clearly.
iii Determine the position of any potential electrical hazards.
iv Identify whether the power supply is high or low voltage.

5 Any five of the following.

F Inform crew members and the OIC of any electrical hazards.
F Stay away from loose or fallen wires and keep others well away.
F When working around fallen wires, keep 8 metres away from the point where the wire contacts the
ground.
F Supervise the general public to prevent accidental contact with energised objects.
F If a wire is broken, locate both ends to determine the size of the danger area.
F Do not touch a person in contact with a live electrical conductor.
F Do not touch a person in contact with low voltage electricity.
F Avoid stepping on or touching wiring or energised objects.
F Avoid accidentally brushing against or bumping wiring or energised objects.

Edn 1 – June 2003 SAFETY FIRST 49

Search and Rescue
 Self Assessment Answers

F Be aware of dislodged overhead wiring brushing against your helmet.

F Avoid applying water to electrical hazards. Water is a conductor and will increase the risk and the
hazard area.

6 The force of electricity is measured in volts.

7 (a) 240 –415 volts alternating current.

(b) 11,000 volts or more.

8 i Conductors;
ii semi-conductors; and
iii insulators.

9 The person will undergo violent, uncontrollable muscle spasms in the limbs or throughout the body.

Chapter 4 – Rescue Techniques

True or False
1 True 2 True 3 True 4 True 5 False 6 True 7 True
8 True 9 False 10 False

50 SAFETY FIRST Edn 1 – June 2003

Search and Rescue
 Search and Rescue

Learning Manual

SAFETY FIRST

SAFETY FIRST