Sachdev Tutorial

Power System Protection - Varanasi 2012 November 22
Professor Emeritus Mohindar S Sachdev,

University of Saskatchewan 1-1
Power System Protection
Course - Power System Protection
Professor Emeritus Mohindar S. Sachdev
Ph.D., D.Sc., Life Fellow IEEE, Life Fellow IEI, Fellow EIC
University of Saskatchewan
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Power System
Protection
2012 November 22 Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S - 2-
Outline of the course
Development of the previous century
Background information
Protection of transformers
Protection of transmission lines
Protection of generators
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Need
Protection principles
Technologies
Fuses
Electromagnetic technology
Electromechanical technology
Solid state technology
Numerical technology
Electronic transducer
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Electrical placement of relays
Protection zones
Device numbers
Backup protection
Main 1 Main 2 protection system
Breaker failure protection
Multifunction devices
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Differential protection
Ground fault protection
Overcurrent and distance protection
Thermal overload protection
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Distance protection
Phase comparison protection
Directional comparison protection
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Stator phase fault protection
Ground fault and unbalanced current
Loss of field and
Field ground fault
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
The material presented in this course is developed
from the material presented in the sources in the
attached list
Standards, Guides and Recommended
practices for Electric Power Systems, published
by the IEEE Standards Association,
Piscataway, NJ , USA
Instruction manuals published by relay
manufacturers
Monseth, I.T. and Robinson, P.H., Relay
Systems - Theory and Applications, McGraw
Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1935
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
Kaufmann, M., The Protective Gear Handbook,
Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd., London (UK),
1945
Mason, C.R., The Art and Science of Protective
Relaying, J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
NY, 1956
Kimbark, E.W., Power System Stability, Vol. II,
J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 1960
Atabekov, G.I., The Relay Protection of High
Voltage Networks, Pergamon Press, New York,
NY, 1960
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
Warrington, A.R., Protective Relays - Their
Theory and Practice, Vol. I and II, Chapman
and Hall, London (U.K.), 1962, 1969
Madhava Rao, T.S., Power System Protection -
Static Relays, McGraw Hill Book Company,
New Delhi, 1981
Cook, V., Analysis of Distance Protection, J ohn
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, ISBN: 0-471-
90749-9, 1985
Blackburn, J . Lewis, Protective Relaying,
Principles and Applications, Marcel Dekker,
Inc., New York, NY, ISBN: 0-8247-7445-0, 1987
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
Protective Relays Application Guide, GEC
Measurements Ltd., Stafford, U.K., 1987
Applied Protective Relaying, Westinghouse
Electric Corporation, 1987
Phadke, Arun G. and Thorp, J ames S.,
Computer Relaying for Power Systems,
Research Studies Press Ltd., Taunton,
Somerset, England, ISBN 0-86380-074-2.
Published in 1988
L.P. Singh, Digital Protection - Protective
Relaying from Electromechanical to
Microprocessor, New Age International (P)
Limited, New Delhi, India, ISBN 81-224-1053-7,
1994
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
A.T. J ohns and S.K. Salman, Digital Protection
for Power Systems, Peter Peregrinus Ltd. on
behalf of the Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Redwood Books, Trowbridge, UK, ISBN: 0-
86341-195-9, 1995
Power System Protection - Vol. 1, 2, 3 and 4,
The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
UK, ISBN: 0-85296 834-5, 836-1, 837-X and
838-8, 1995
Horowitz, S.H. and Phadke, A.G., Power
System Relaying, J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY, ISBN: 0-471-95887-5, 1995
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
Ziegler, Gerhard, Numerical Distance
Protection, Principles and Application, Publicis
MCD, Munich and Erlangen, ISBN: 3-89578-
142-8, 1999
Pilot Protective Relaying, Wlater A. Elmore
Editor, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, ISBN: 0-
8247-8195-3, 2000
Network Protection & Automation Guide, Alstom
T&D Energy Automation & Information,
Levallois-Perret, France, ISBN: 2-9518589-0-6,
2002
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System
Protection
Sources of material
Protective Relaying Theory and Applications,
Walter A. Elmore Editor, Marcel Dekker, Inc.,
New York, ISBN: 0-8247-0972-1, 2004
Ziegler, Gerhard, Numerical Differential
Protection, Publicis Corporate Publishing,
Erlangen, ISBN: 3-89578-234-3, 2005
Outline
Developments
Background
information
Transformer
protection
Line protection
Generator
protection
Sources
Power System Protection - Varanasi
2012 November 22
Introduction - Power System Protection
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 2-
Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 3-
Outline - this session
Environment
Technologies
Fuses, electromagnetic, electromechanical,
solid-state
Protection principles Relaying techniques
Overcurrent, directional, differential and distance
relays
Numerical relays
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 4-
Environment
Review
Protection
Need and Evolution
Protection zones
Relay - power system interface
Transducers
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 5- Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 9-
Need
Earthquakes, floods, storms, etc - physically
damage components of power systems
Insulation deteriorates with age and sooner or later
fails
These events cause short circuits - phase to
ground and phase to phase
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 10-
Need
The short circuits result in flow of excessive currents
in the system components causing excessive
heating that further damages the equipment
The faulted equipment must be isolated as soon as
it can be done so that the damage is limited
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 11-
Need
Interruptions cause
Loss of revenue
Loss of productivity
Customer annoyance
The impact of faults must be minimized by limiting
the size of the isolated system and duration of the
fault
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 12-
Evolution
Evolution of protection went through several stages
Fuses
Electromagnetic relays
Electromechanical relays
Solid state relays
Numerical relays
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 13-
Fuses
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 14-
HRC fuse
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 17-
Instantaneous Relay
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 18-
Single Input Amplitude Comparator
S
op
Core
Coil
Armature
Balance beam
Trip contact
S
0p
- Operting signal
S
r
- Restraining signal
Spring
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 19-
Dual Input Amplitude Comparator
S
op
S
r
Core
Coil
Armature
Balance beam
Trip contact
Spring
S
op
- Operting signal
S
r
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 20-
Electromechanical O/C relay
C.T.
Time Dial - only dial
numbers 6-9 shown
Back stop
Stationary
Contact
Moving
Contact
Disk rotor
Damping magnet
Restraining
spring
Shading
rings
Taps
Lam
inated m
agnetic circuit
9 8 7 6
S
h
a
f
t
torque
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 21-
Electromechanical u Comparator
C.T.
Disk rotor
Restraining
spring
Laminated
magneticcircuit
S
h
a
ft
torque
V
Laminated
magneticcircuit
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 22-
Induction cup
Pole
face
Pole
face
Yoke Yoke
Relay contacts
+
S
pol
S
op
+
|
op
|
pol
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 23-
Solid-state Technology
v
out
v
in
+
-
Z
2
Z
1
A
v
out
v
in
+
-
C
R
1
A
v
out
v
in
+
-
C
R
A
R
v
out
v
in
+
-
C
R
A
R
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 24-
Solid-state Technology
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 25-
Another Pulse Generator
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 26-
Protection techniques
Six major approaches
Overcurrent, over-voltage, under-current, under-
voltage, under-frequency, over-frequency
Directional discrimination
Distance protection
Traveling wave protection
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 27-
Overcurrent relays
Two types
Instantaneous overcurrent
Inverse time
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 28-
Instantaneous Overcurrent
I
s
T
0
Current
T
i
m
e
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 29-
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 12 14 16 18
10
8
6
4
3
0.5
Time dial setting
Current as a multiple of tap setting
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
n
g

t
i
m
e

i
n

s
e
c
o
n
d
s
10
type CO-7 over current relay
50-60 cycles
Typical time curves
Current tap settings:
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12 A
1
I/T O/C
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 30-
Voltage-current combinations in directional
relays
Often used combinations are
Current I
A
I
B
I
C
Voltage
V
A
-V
C
V
B
-V
A
V
C
-V
B
V
B
-V
C
V
C
-V
A
V
A
-V
B
[V
B
-V
C
]
+[V
A
-V
C
]
[V
C
-V
A
]
+[V
B
-V
A
]
[V
A
-V
B
]
+[V
C
-V
B
]
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 31-
Summary of Torque Equations
2 1
) cos( K VI K T = t u
2
0
1
) 30 cos( K VI K T + = t u
2
0
1
) 60 cos( K VI K T + = t u
2
0
1
) 90 cos( K VI K T + = t u
2 1
) cos( K VI K T + = t u
Connection Angle Torque Equation
0
o
30
o
60
o
90
o
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 32-
Ground Directional Relays
One option is to use the zero sequence voltage near the line
terminal and the zero sequence current in the line
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 33-
Negative Sequence Directional Relay
One relay can detect all phase-
to-phase and phase-to-phase-
to-ground faults
Negative sequence relay does
not react to load currents and
power swings
Instead for switching voltages
and currents, sequence filters
are used
I
2
Filter
V
2
Filter
Relay
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 34-
Distance relay (admittance)
Admittance relay -
characteristic passes
through the origin of the
impedance plane
Re
Im
Z
r1
Z
r2
Z
C
Operate
Restrain
o
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 35-
Distance relay (quadrilateral)
A combination of
multiple relays to
form a protection
function -
Quadrilateral
characteristic
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 36-
Differential principle
Extension of Kirchhoffs first law
Current out =Current in
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 37-
Modern transformers
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 38-
B
u
s

d
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
t
i
a
l

p
r
o
t
e
c
t
i
o
n
( )
' ' '
1 2 3 4
Re 4
LeadsCT
R
lay LeadsCT
i i i R
I
R R
+ +
=
+
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 39-
Bus protection with linear couplers
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 40-
Relay Logic
+
-
52TC
Protective Relay
CS CS CS CS
52a
CSa CSa CSa CSa
Ra Ra Ra
CS -
Ra -
52a -
52TC -
Contactor switch
Relay contact
Circuit breaker auxiliary contact
Circuit breaker trip coil
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 41-
Digital Electronics Technology
FACT: Virtually all new relays and control system
designs, whether simple or elaborate, are based on
P technology.
From fringe to the mainstream in 25 years
Electromechanical and analog electronic
continue due to inertia, special functions.
Today, P relaying is relaying!
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 42-
Why Computer-Based Relaying?
The real reasons
Economics
Technology from the mainstream.
The only technology for designers to give
users the functions they want at prices they
have come to expect.
Change of generations and attitudes.
Its hard to find new engineers who want to
work with anything but microprocessors, data
communications, PCs.
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 43-
User benefits...
Intelligent functions and features
Related functions in one package
Non-fault monitoring and information
Detailed fault recording and information
Data by remote communications
Supports network-based substation control
Self-monitoring; no routine maintenance
Less panel space, battery power, burden
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 44-
More of the benefits...
Standard products, configured via settings
No custom system engineering or wiring
Short ordering cycles, e.g. one week
Reduced inventories
Keep a few maintenance spares
Fast field repair by swap-out
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 45-
P
1or more
M
U
X
A/D
Sub-
system
LP FILTER
LP FILTER
LP FILTER
LP FILTER
Contanct Inputs
Relay Ouput
Relay Ouput
Relay Ouput
VT's
To
trip and
alarm
circuits
Contact
status
CT's
Communications Ports and HMI
3 to 64 instantaneous samples of
each ac input signal per power cycle
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 46-
History and Evolution
1968 - Published work of Rockefeller.
1971 - PRODAR 70, the first computer relaying
system (Westinghouse).
High-speed HV line protection.
Asynchronous sampling of line voltages and
currents.
Event logs with 1 ms resolution.
CPU
S&H
M
U
X
Filter
Filter
Filter
Filter
SCR Output
A/D
Sub-
system
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 47-
History and Evolution
Big changes introduced by microprocessors in late
1980s
Data communications - tie relays to remote PCs
and get operational information at the office.
First trials of relays linked by LAN into a full
substation automation system.
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 48-
Maintenance Impact
Old relays - alive or dead?
To find out, do regular maintenance!
Expensive.
How long between checks?
Maintenance causes many protection failures
- better to leave it alone?
P relays report failures instantly
No calibration drift
No periodic maintenance recommended
Repair by swap-out
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 49-
Maintenance Impact
Repair by swap-out - short downtime
Diagnose in lab or return to manufacturer
Minimal tests to re-commission
Need for setting the replacement unit
The key to successful maintenance with P relays is
accurate setting.
Hundreds of settings from paper lists, using
buttons on the front panel???
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 50-
Settings Management
The key to successful
maintenance
Keep a controlled settings archive for the entire
system.
Extract and load settings for a replacement relay
from the archive using data communications.
Set in the shop before installation, or at the
substation on commissioning.
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 51-
Cost
P relays cost less, arrive
quickly
Almost no inventory investment needed
Standard products - keep a few spare to back up a
large population in service
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 52-
Cost
0
10
20
30
40
50
1
9
8
0
2
0
0
5
Delivery
weeks
1
9
8
0
2
0
0
5
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 53-
Cost per year
Electromechanical relays
Interest +repayment of 120,000 over 30 years =
10,500
Maintenance and repair =1,000
Numerical relays
Interest +repayment of 15,000 over four years =
5,800
Maintenance and repair assuming 1 out of every
5 units will need replacement =1,200
Saving per year per relay is 4,500
39% of the cost of a unit
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 54-
Adaptive Protection
Adaptive protection is a philosophy which permits
and makes adjustments to protection functions
automatically for making the protection more attuned
to the prevailing power system conditions
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 55-
Adaptive Protection
Candidate Functions
Selecting the most suitable algorithm
Balancing security and dependability
Changing settings as the system configuration
modifies
Compensating for measurement errors
Transformer protection
Multi-terminal lines
Backup protection of transmission lines
Out of step protection
SUBSTA.
LAN
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 56-
Artificial intelligence techniques
ANN Basics
Neuron and Its Model
Neural Networks
Training
Implementations
Fault Direction Discrimination
Acceptability
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 57-
Future Trends
Two divergent trends:
Increasing consolidation of functions
Cross the protection-zone boundaries?
Cost benefits for distribution applications
Complex software assemblies - difficult to
modify or type-test - unexpected software
bugs
Lower-cost processors
Opportunity for more distributed, flexible,
robust systems
Combines well with existing approaches
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 58-
E
Circular
input polarisation
Elliptical
output polarisation
Pockels-Effect
I
H Input
polarisation
Shifted
output polarisation
E
Faraday-Effect
Non-conventional transducers
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 59-
Substation Communication
IEC 60870-
5-103
IEC 60870-5-101
IEC 870-6 TASE.2
(ICCP)
x
Enterprise WAN
ISDN, Internet
Ethernet,
Profibus EN 50170
Windows NT
TCP/IP
Modem
Modem
Office
Windows
world
WebBrowser
e-mail
Telecom
Call back
System
Control
Centre
HDLC
Remote
line-end
Relay to relay
WAP
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 60-
Bay Control Protection
1 2
Station bus
100 Mbit/s
Ethernet
Switch
100 Mbit/s
Ethernet
Switch
100 Mbit/s
Ethernet
Switch Station bus
Process bus Process bus
SICAM
Substation
Controler
HMI
Router
Remote Control
Intelligent Switchgear
Non-conventional
CTs and VTs
7SC64-0000-ABC SIPROTEC
MENU
ESC LED
F1 F2 F3 F4
741 .
8520
963+/-
CTRL ENTER Loca l Remote
Normal Test
RUN ERROR 7SC64-0000-ABC SIPROTEC
MENU
ESC LED
F1 F2 F3 F4
741 .
8520
963+/-
CTRL ENTER Loca l Remote
Normal Test
RUN ERROR
Bay Control
Non-conventional
CTs and VTs
100 Mbit/s
Ethernet
Switch
Process bus
7SC64-0000-ABC SIPROTEC
MENU
ESC LED
F1 F2 F3 F4
741 .
8520
963+/-
CTRL ENTER
Loca l Remote
Normal Test
RUN ERROR
Protection
1 2
Non-conventional
CTs and VTs
Bay Control Protection
1 2
System Control
Enterprise WAN
Future s/s communication
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 61-
Utility communication standard
IEC IEEE/ANSI
IEC
UCA
1997 1998
IEC
IEEE
IEC 61850
2004
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 62-
Highly integrated substation
EVT
S/A
CB
ECT
ISS
D
Bay
Control
Line
Protection
Bus Prot.
Bay Unit
Bus Protection
Central Unit
Substation
Control
Process bus
Station bus
87BB bus
S/A Sensor/Actuator
CB CB subsystem
ECT Electronic CT
EVT Electronic VT
ISS Isolator subsystem
D Diagnosis
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 63-
Evolution of P S relaying
70s
90s
?
00s
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 64-
Distribution Switchgear
One IED in place of black boxes
Traditional panels with mechanical relays and control
Modern panels with
digital multifunction relay
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 65-
Protection
Metering
Control
PQ
IED - Host for Multiple Functions
One feeder, one unit!
%
I
O
V
0 50 100
F
e
e
d
e
r

d
a
t
a

b
a
s
e
Local and Remote
Communications
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 66-
IED Designs
Intelligent numerical relay designs
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Numerical Relays
Tutorial
2012 November 22 - 67-
Conclusions
Power
System
Protection
Power System
Analysis
Analog
Electronics
Digital
Electronics
Communications
PC and P
Technology
Signal
Processing
Software
Development
Artificial
Intelligence
Outline
Environment
Need
Evolution
Fuses
Electromagnetic
Electro-
mechanical
Solid-state
Techniques
Digital
electronics
P relays
Adaptive
Other issues
2012 November 22
Background Information
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Power System
Protection
2012 Novemer 22 Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S - 2 -
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Protection zones
Device numbers
Backup protection
Redundant protection
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Single bus arrangement
Double bus arrangement
Breaker and a half scheme
Ring bus scheme
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
2012 Novemer 22 Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of
S
- 5 -
S
i
n
g
l
e

b
u
s

a
r
r
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
Relay
Relay
Voltage
Transformers
Bus
CB - Circuit Breaker
CT - Current Transformers
Relay
Relay
Relay
CB CT
CB CT
CB CT
CB CT
CB CT
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 6 -
D
o
u
b
l
e

b
u
s

a
r
r
a
n
g
e
m
e
n
t
M
a
in

B
u
s
CB - Circuit Breaker
CT - Current Transformers
VT - Voltage Transformer
Relay
Relay
Relay Relay
Relay
Relay
CB
VT
CT
CT
CB
A
u
x
ilia
r
y

B
u
s
VT
VT
VT
VT
CT CB
CT CB CB
CB
CT
CT
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
S
- 7 -
Breaker and a half scheme
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 8 -
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 9 -
Protection Zones
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
S
- 10 -
Protection Zones
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 11 -
Protection Zones
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 12 -
Generator
Transformer
Protection Zone
Bus Protection
Zone
L
in
e

P
r
o
t
e
c
t
io
n
Z
o
n
e
Current
Transformers
Circuit Breaker
Line Protection
Zone
Bus Protection
Zone
Bus Protection
Zone
Line Protection
Zone
Protection Zones
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Device Numbers
C37.2-1996, IEEE Standard Electrical Power
System Device Numbers
11: multifunction device
21: distance relay
24: volts per Hertz relay
25: synchronism check device
26: apparatus thermal device
27: undervoltage relay
32: directional power relay
37: undercurrent or underpower relay
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Device Numbers
System Device Numbers
37: undercurrent or underpower relay
40: field relay
46: negative sequence relay
49: machine or transformer thermal relay
50: instantaneous overcurrent relay
55: power factor relay
51: ac time overcurrent relay
59: overvoltage relay
60: voltage or current balance relay
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Device Numbers (continued)
System Device Numbers 62: time delay relay
62: time delay or time stop relay
64: ground detector relay
67: ac directional overcurrent relay
78: out of step or phase angle measuring
79: ac reclosing relay
81: frequency relay
85: carrier or pilot wire receiver relay
86: lock out relay
87: Differential relay
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Device Numbers (continued)
Suffix:
F Feeder or field
G Generator or ground
L Line or logic
M Motor or metering
N Neutral or network
T Transformer
TH Transformer high voltage side
TL Transformer low voltage side
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Backup protection
All components of protection system do not
always work; some fail sometimes
Backup protection should therefore be provided
Backup protection should be independent of the
main protection system
Two types of backup protection
Local backup
Remote backup
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Local backup
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Local backup
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Local backup
Options
Use same or different CTs
Use same or different VTs
Use same or different trip batteries
Energize same or different trip coil in the CB
If different trip coils are used, fuse each
circuit separately
Trip same or a separate CB provided for this
purpose
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Remote backup
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
S
- 22 -
Remote backup
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Main 1, Main 2
B
u
s

D
B
u
s

B
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
S
- 24 -
Main 1 Main 2 incorrect operations
Consider the following probabilities
Correct operation = 0.98
Incorrect operation =0.01
Failure to operate=0.01
On the occurrence of an external fault
Probability of one or both operating
incorrectly =0.0199
This probability is quite high especially at peak
load times
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Main 1 Main 2 adaptive approach
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Need for breaker failure protection
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
What can go wrong?
Breaker contact get stuck
Breaker contacts part but not totally
Contacts open but current flow is not
interrupted
Through the main circuit
Through the voltage grading circuits
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
What to detect and how?
Continued flow of current
Current flow detector
Set at less than minimum fault current
Breaker contacts have separated
Auxiliary contacts do not provide reliable
information
Combination of current flow and breaker
auxiliary contact
Combination of transformer differential relay
and breaker auxiliary contact
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Breaker failure
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
One timer per breaker concept
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
One timer per breaker concept
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
One timer per bus concept
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Typical time chart
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Typical time chart
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Not a new concept
Directional overcurrent relays from
electromechanical era is a long accepted
concept
Became more prevalent when solid-state
technology became acceptable
Has become an industry wide practice with
numerical relays
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Example 1
Areva P443
Distance protection
Delta directional comparison
Overcurrent protection
Under-voltage and over-voltage protection
Open phase protection
Breaker failure
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Example 1
Areva P443 (Continued)
Auto-reclose with check synchronism
VT fuse failure supervision
Loss of phase CT supervision
Post fault analysis
Fault location
Event records
Fault records
Disturbance records
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Example 1
Areva P443 (Continued)
Trip circuit supervision
CB state supervision
Communication (front and rear ports)
IEC 60870-5-103
DNP 3
Courier / K-Bus
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Example 2
Beckwith Electric M-3425A
Phase differential (87)
Split-phase differential (50DT)
Ground differential (87GD)
Negative sequence overcurrent (46)
Residual directional overcurrent (67N)
Inverse time neutral overcurrent (51N)
Inverse time overcurrent with voltage
restraint (51V)
Instantaneous neutral overcurrent (50N)
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Example 2
100% Stator Ground Fault Protection by low
frequency injection(64S)
100% Stator ground fault protection using 3
rd
harmonic neutral undervoltage or 3
rd
harmonic voltage differential
Phase overvoltage (59)
Neutral overvoltage (59N)
Over-excitation (V/Hz) (24)
Phase under-voltage (27)
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Example 2
Field ground (64F)
Loss of field (40)
Over/under-frequency (81)
Under-frequency time accumulation (81A)
Reverse power (32)
Out of step (78)
Inadvertent Energizing (50/27)
Synch Check (25)
Generator breaker failure (50BF)
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
Power System
Protection
Example 2
Two RS-232 ports and one RS-485 port
RJ45 Ethernet port
Modbus and BECO protocols
IRIG-B Time synchronization
Trip circuit monitoring
Redundant power supplies
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
2012 November 22
Power System
Protection
Summary
Protection zones
Device numbers
Backup protection
Redundant protection
Outline
Placement
Zones
Device
Numbers
Backup
Protection
Redundancy
Breaker failure
Multifunction
devices
Summary
4-1
Transformer Protection
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Power System
Protection
2012 November 21 Prof. Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S - 2 -
Outline
Introduction
Electrical faults
Electrical protection systems
Mechanical detection
Thermal protection
Backup protection for external faults
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Objectives
Isolate the faulted equipment
Limit damage
Minimize possibility of fire
Minimize hazards to personnel
Minimize risk of damaging adjacent HV
equipment
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-2
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Protection plan is based on
Cost of repairing damage
Cost of lost production
Adverse effects on the overall system
Spreading damage to adjacent equipment
Duration of unavailability of the damaged
equipment
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Processors that lead to failures
Expansion and contraction due to thermal
cycling
vibrations
Local heating due to eddy currents
Excessive heating due to overloading or
inadequate cooling
Forces due to flow of through fault currents
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Types of faults
Winding faults
Phase to ground short circuit
Phase to phase short circuit
Shorted turns
Core faults
Tap changer faults
Transformer accessories fault
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-3
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Comp-Years Subcomponent No. of
Outages
Total Time
(h)
9,302 Bushings including
CTs
93 22,144
Windings 31 24,876
O-L Tap Changer 187 51,806
Core 15 493
Leads 2 17
Cooling Equipment 28 1,590
Aux Equipment 24 6,166
Other 162 37,455
Transformer related outages over a four year period Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Control and Protection
Equipment
323 23,407
Surge Arrester 31 3,104
Bus 61 14,132
Disconnect 157 28,664
Circuit Switcher 3 71
CT (Free Standing) 11 1,585
Potential Devices 27 6,971
Motor-Operated
Ground Switch
31 7,661
Other 64 1,977
Unknown 220 34,341
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Internal fault currents
Limited by system capacity and system
impedance
The fault currents are reduced in magnitude by
CTs and are then applied to the relays protecting
the transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-4
Power System
Protection
Introduction
The fault currents from the
source and load sides are
not equal
A CT on the source side
may saturate
Causing sufficient restraint
for blocking the differential
relay
F
Source side Bus
Load side Bus
IF
IF
R
Current from co-generators
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
The fault current is limited
by the source impedance
plus the transformer
impedance
The CTs should not
saturate if appropriately
selected
Note that the fault current
is flowing through the
transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
The fault current
is limited
The CTs should
not saturate if
appropriately
selected
Note that the fault
current is flowing
through the
transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-5
Power System
Protection
Introduction
The fault current
is not flowing in
the transformer
One of the two
CTs may saturate
F2
R
Source side Bus
Load side Bus
IF IF
IF
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Performance of CTs
For a fault in the protection zone of a transformer
one CT or more CTs may saturate
For a fault outside the protection zone of a
transformer and the fault current flowing through
the transformer may also cause a CT to saturate
For a fault outside the protection zone of a
transformer and the fault current NOT flowing
through the transformer may also cause a CT to
saturate
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Other issues
Magnetizing inrush
High temperature
Insulating oil deterioration
Insulation failure
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-6
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Electrical protection systems
Ground fault protection
Over-excitation protection
Overcurrent protection
Distance protection
Gas accumulation / pressure protection
(Buchholz relay)
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Inrush phenomenon
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
A recording
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-7
Power System
Protection
Expected peak inrush current
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Inrush currents
Currents in the primary windings
flow when a transformer is switched on
when magnetizing voltage changes abruptly due
to
occurrence of a fault
change of the nature of fault from single
phase to two-phase to ground
out of phase synchronizing
inrush from an energized transformer to an
adjacent incoming transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Inrush currents
Inrush currents are many times the rated
current; limited by source impedance and
leakage reactance of the transformer
Appear to a differential relay as operating
currents
Almost no current for a major part of a cycle
Rich in harmonic content
A differential protection should not operate
due to magnetizing inrush
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-8
Power System
Protection
Time constant
Varies over a large range
Typical values
1 MVA transformer: ~0.15 s
10 MVA transformer: ~ 1.2 s
Transformer larger than 10 MVA: >1.2 s (up
to 700 s)
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Overexcitation
Also referred to as over-fluxing, excessive
volts per Hertz
Causes of overexcitation
Loss of load especially in the neighbourhood of a
network transformer that is at the end of a
transmission line
Loss of reactors connected to the transmission
system especially at off-peak load times
System voltage increase during off-peak load
times
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Overexcitation
Causes of overexcitation
directly connected generator-transformer units
when a unit is run at reduced speed and the
generator is excited
When load is shed while the transmission
lines remain connected to the generator
causing overvoltage (V/Hz can exceed 1.25)
Excitation control helps but may run up
against a limit
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-9
Power System
Protection
Overexcitation
The voltage applied to a transformer may be
expressed as
Manufacturers provide limiting flux verses
time and Volts per Hz curves
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Sample flux verses time
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
V
/
H
z

v
e
r
s
e
s

t
i
m
e
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-10
Power System
Protection
Overexcitation
Can occur at 1.05 pu voltage at the
transformer terminals at full load (0.8 pf) or
1.1 pu voltage at no load
Laminated steel core saturates, stray flux
increases in magnitude especially at the ends of
the core; this increases the heating
Can cause sever local overheating causing
eventual breakdown of core insulation and even
winding insulation
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Overexcitation
Overexcitation impacts differential protection
because of
The increase in magnetizing current
At 1.25 pu voltage the differential current can
be more than 15% - a typical setting
At 1.4 pu voltage the differential current can
be more than 50 % of the rated current
Fifth harmonic current increases
At 115 % voltage is 80 % of the 50 Hz
current; gradually decreases to 60%
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Measurement of V/Hz
This works out to be 0.9903 at 110 V (out of VT) and 50 Hz
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-11
Power System
Protection
Concerns
The waveform has to be clean (free of odd
harmonics, sub harmonics and dc offset)
Filters must have small band width and sufficient
attenuation out side the pass band
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
V/Hz numerical implementation
Phasor measurement should be
independent of the frequency of the
waveform
Most algorithms assume the frequency to be the
nominal frequency
Countermeasures must be taken
Correct the measurements of the phasor
Tie up sampling rate with the frequency of the
waveform
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-12
Power System
Protection
Electrical protection
Concept
Delta-wye transformer
Autotransformer
Coping with magnetizing inrush
Coping with Overexcitation
Coping with CT saturation
Internal faults during magnetizing inrush
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Differential protection external fault
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Differential protection internal fault
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-13
Power System
Protection
Concept balancing lead burdens
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
CT mismatch - example
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Current mismatch
Reasons for current mismatch
Magnetizing current of the transformer
Difference of accuracy class of the primary and
secondary CTs
Off-nominal tap setting of the transformer
Automatic tap changing
Magnetizing inrush currents
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-14
Power System
Protection
CT mismatch
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Concept - %age differential approach
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Concept restraining signals
Restraint takes several form in relay designs
|I
1
+ I
2
|
[I
1
+ I
2
]/2
[|I
1
| + |I
2
|]
[|I
1
| + |I
2
|]/2
Max(|I
1
|
,
|I
2
|)
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-15
Power System
Protection
Concept operating characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Concept external fault example
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Concept phase shift
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-16
Power System
Protection
Concept single phase faults
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Concept zero sequence currents
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-17
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Numerical relay application
All CTs are wye connected when numerical
relays are used because
Wye connected CTs are easier to wire and
trouble shoot
Residual overcurrent protection can be used
Enables the relay to perform multiple functions
Provides separate ground for the secondary
windings of the primary and secondary CTs
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-18
Power System
Protection
Currents out of delta connected CTs are 3
times the currents out of the wye connected CTs
The burden is three times when delta
connected CTs are used compared to when
wye connected CTs are used
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
CT mismatch and phase shift
compensations are provided by the relay
software
CT ratio mismatch is straight forward; use a
correction factor
Two out of many possible phase mismatch
methods are in the following slides
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Phase compensation
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-19
Power System
Protection
Phase compensation
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-20
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Coping with inrush currents
Three approaches
Harmonic restraint
Second and fifth harmonic restraint
Even harmonic restraint
Block the relay operation
Second harmonic blocking
Fifth harmonic blocking
Wave shape recognition
Low current duration
DC component blocking
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-21
Power System
Protection
Differential protection system
Use harmonic restraint in addition to
percentage differential approach
Avoids tripping during magnetizing inrush
Allows more sensitive settings of the relay
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
One approach implements the restraint in
the following form
Harmonic restraint is high
Provides security at the cost of operating
speed for internal faults with CT saturation
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Another approach implements the second
harmonic restraint
This became a necessity when it was noticed
that differential protection with total harmonic
restraint is blocked by the harmonic currents
experienced by a rectifier transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-22
Power System
Protection
More recently, the following operating
principles is being used
The fifth harmonic is added to block operation
during over-excitation of the transformer
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Another approach used for transformer
differential protection implements
The magnetizing current produced by some
transformers does not contain sufficient second
harmonic component. The fourth harmonic
component is therefore added to the increase
the restraint.
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Some relays use harmonic blocking instead
of harmonic restraint
These relays have two units, a differential
unit and a blocking unit
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-23
Power System
Protection
The operating unit implements
Two types of blocking units are used
Second harmonic blocking
Second and fifth harmonic blocking
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Second harmonic blocking implement the
following logic
Note that the blocking unit operates when the
second harmonic restraint does not exceed the
operating signal
Outline Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Second and fifth harmonic blocking
implement the logic that neither second nor
the fifth harmonic restraint indicates a block
condition
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-24
Power System
Protection
Waveform identification
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
DC blocking
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-25
Power System
Protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
CT saturation
Several approaches have been developed
for use with numerical relays for blocking
differential relays during external faults if a
CT saturates
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
One approach
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-26
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Thermal protection
Causes of overheating
Failure of cooling system
Overload
High ambient temperature
External faults not cleared
Abnormal operating conditions
Low frequency
High voltage
Harmonic load
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Nature of temperature rise
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-27
Power System
Protection
Thermal protection
Results of overheating
Shortened life of transformer
Insulation deterioration, ultimately failure
Coolant heated to temperatures more than its
flash point (resulting in fire)
Generate gases operating Buchholz relays
Hot Spot
Can be determined from the design
Manufacturers do it
Control action is based on utility practice
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Thermal protection
Top oil temperature
With or without hot spot temperature
Hot spot temperature
Measure
Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) are
embedded for monitoring temperature at pre-
selected locations in a transformer
RTD used in transformers are usually made
of platinum because it is an inert metal
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Thermal protection
Hot spot temperature
Simulate
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-28
Power System
Protection
Thermal protection
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Core faults
Insulation failure between laminations
Insulation failure between core and
supporting structure
Detected by Buccholz type relays
Viable protection for turn to turn faults
Gas accumulation
Very sensitive to internal faults that cause
decomposition of oil producing gas
Gas pressure
Can operate on high through currents
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Core faults
Dissolved gas analysis
Arcing is indicated by production of hydrogen
(H
2
), acetylene (C
2
H
2
) and ethylene (C
2
H
4
)
Cellulose breakdown is indicated by
production of methane (CH
4
) , ethylene,
carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide
(CO
2
)
Corona is indicated by the production of
hydrogen, methane and ethylene
Overheated oil produces hydrogen, methane,
ethylene and ethane (C
2
H
6
)
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-29
Power System
Protection
Core faults
Use of dissolved gas analysis
One typical approach is to determine total
dissolved combustible gases (TDCG)
Level 1 transformer operating normally
Level 2 exercise caution, analyze
monthly
Level 3 exercise caution, analyze
weekly, consider planned outage
Level 4, analyze daily and consider
removal from service
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Core faults
Use of dissolved gas analysis
Another approach is to calculate ratios of
components of dissolved gases (Doernenburg
or Rogers ratios)
DR-1 (RR-1): CH
4
/H
2
DR-2 (RR-2): C
2
H
2
/C
2
H
4
DR-3: C
2
H
2
/CH
4
, (RR-3): C
2
H
4
/C
2
H
6
DR-4: C
2
H
6
/C
2
H
2
Different indices indicate different types of
faults (IEEE Std. 57.104)
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
Power System
Protection
Core faults
Recommended gas analysis procedure
Periodical manually or automatically
Should begin when a new transformer is
commissioned
Test at regular intervals to establish
baseline data
Also recommended after a transformer
protection relay operates
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
4-30
Power System
Protection
Summary
Magnetizing inrush and overexcitation
Concept
Protection of delta/wye transformer
Protection of auto-transformer
Coping with inrush and overexcitation
Protection from ground faults
Coping with CT saturation
Thermal protection
Core faults
Outline
Introduction
Differential
Magnetizing
Inrush
Ground fault
Thermal pro
Overexcitation
Delta-wye Tr
Auto-transformer
Coping Inrush
CT saturation
An example
Core faults
5-1
Transmission Line Protection
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Power System
Protection
2012 November 22 Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, U of S - 2 -
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Outline this topic
Introduction
Protection systems
Without communication between terminals
Distance protection
Pilot protection
With communication between terminals
Directional comparison
Phase comparison
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-2
Power System
Protection
Outline this session
Introduction
Types of faults
Terms often used
SIR and Line length
Definition of distance relay
Protection systems
Distance protection
Group A relays
Group B relays
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Types of faults
Phase to ground short circuit
Phase to phase short circuit
Phase to phase to ground short circuits
Three phase short circuits
One phase open
With or without ground fault
Two phases open
With or without ground fault
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Operating voltage 100-149 kV; 1998-2002
kM-Years Subcomponent No. of
Outages
Total Time
(h)
227,608 Structures 237 20,470
Joints & dead ends 21 458
Conductor 274 8,991
Insulation system 1,822 46,902
Ground wire 64 1,081
Other 70 1,033
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-3
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Terminal-
Years
Subcomponent No. of
Outages
Total Time
(h)
10,658 Pro & Cont Eq 513 2,467
Surge Arrester 163 35
Bus 3 24
Disconnect 73 2,050
Circuit switcher 7 79
CT (free standing) 13 8,217
Potential devices 29 1,096
Other 51 197
Unknown 635 230
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Introduction
kM-Years Subcomponent No. of
Outages
Total Time
(h)
227,608 Defective equipment 426 17,503
Adverse weather 1,694 58,615
Adverse environment 101 729
System conditions 8 36
Human elements 26 206
Foreign interference 171 1,645
Unknowns 62 200
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Terminal-
Years
Subcomponent No. of
Outages
Total Time
(h)
10,658 Defective equipment 372 13,749
Adverse weather 224 63
Adverse environment 5
System conditions 61 2,050
Human element 181 112
Foreign interference 25 132
Unknown 619 193
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-4
Power System
Protection
Introduction
Other issues
Current inrush on line switching
Power swing protection
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Terms often used
Apparent impedance
Arc resistance
Back up zone, such as zone 2 of a distance
relay
Blocking signal (a logic signal)
Cross polarization (for directionality)
Distance relay
Dual polarization (current and voltage)
Infeed
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Terms often used
Multi-terminal
Out-feed
Overlapping protection
Permissive (requiring permission to trip)
Phase distance
Primary zone
Self checking
Source impedance (Thevenin)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-5
Power System
Protection
Terms often used
Source of fault current
Source-to-line impedance ratio (SIR)
Swing
Switch onto fault protection
Transfer trip
Unblocking
Untransposed
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Selecting line protection relays
Issues considered include
Reliability
Fault clearing time
Sensitivity
Manufacturers recommendations
Economics
Criticality of the line
Line length and loading
Source strength
Line configuration (tapped, # of terminals)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
SIR
Consider a 500 kV line
Positive sequence reactance 0.277 per km
On 100 MVA 500 kV base 0.00011 pu / km
Source impedance 0.0125 pu (corresponds to 8
000 MVA short circuit level)
If line length is 20 km
SIR is 0.0125/(20 0.00011) = 5.68
If the line length is 250 km
SIR is 0.0125/(250 0.00011) = 0.45
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-6
Power System
Protection
SIR
Consider a 66 kV line
Positive sequence reactance 0.442 per km
On 100 MVA 66 kV base 0.01015 pu / km
Source impedance 0.1 pu (corresponding to 1
000 MVA short circuit level)
If line length is 20 km
SIR is 0.1/(20 0.01015) = 0.49
If the line length is 1.8 km
SIR is 0.1/(1.8 0.01015) = 5.47
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Line length classifications
SIR
5 and more, line is classified as short
0.5 to 5, line is classified as medium
Less than 0.5 line is classified as long
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Impact of high SIR
Two reasons for high SIR
Short line
Low capacity source feeding the line
Consequence
Voltage is small when a fault occurs on the line
If the source impedance is high, the fault current
is low
Affects speed of operation, directionality and
steady state and transient reach of the relay
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-7
Power System
Protection
Distance protection
Definition
The Authoritative Dictionary of IEEE Standards
Terms, Seventh Edition - 2000 defines distance
relay as
A protective relay in which the response to
the input quantities is primarily a function of
the electrical circuit distance between the
relay location and the point of fault.
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Justification
Why do we need distance relays?
Because the coordination of overcurrent and
directional overcurrent relays is achieved by
using time delays
The time delays would become exceptionally
long when applied to large looped networks of
power systems
Not possible to protect complex systems using
overcurrent & directional overcurrent relays
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Justification
Distance protection was introduced to
overcome these problems
Most systems use one or another form of
distance relays for protecting transmission and
subtransmission lines
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-8
Power System
Protection
Understanding
Initial perception
The operation of these relays depends on the
distance of the fault from the relay location
Not necessarily true
Operation depends on other factors, such as
fault resistance
load currents
current sources on the line
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Purpose
Distance relays are used for
Starting a protection scheme when a short circuit
occurs
Selecting a faulted phase for tripping and auto-
reclosing
Identifying a trip zone
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Classification
Classifications of distance relays
Relays whose characteristics can be plotted on
the complex impedance and / or admittance
plane (Group A)
Relays whose characteristics can not be plotted
on the complex impedance or admittance plane
(Group B)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-9
Power System
Protection
Group A relays
Types of relays in Group A
Impedance characteristic
Offset impedance characteristic
Mho characteristic
Reactance characteristic
Lenticular characteristic
Apple characteristic
Quadrilateral characteristic
A straight line characteristic (Blinder)
Combinations of these characteristics
Elliptical characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Relays of Group A
Impedance and offset impedance relays
Operate
Restrain
o
Z
r1
Z
r2
Re
Im
C
Z
Z
Operate
Restrain
o
Z
r1
Z
r2
Re
Im
C
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Circular characteristic
Admittance and peanut characteristic
Re
Im
Z
r1
Z
r2
Z
C
Operate
Restrain
o
n Z
L
R
jX
Relay Location
Restrain
Peanut
Characteristic
O
p
e
r
a
t
e
Z
1
o
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-10
Power System
Protection
Lens characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Apple characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Reactance Relay
Reactance relay - straight line characteristic
parallel to the real axis
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-11
Power System
Protection
A combination of multiple relays to form
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Rhombus characteristic
A combination
of multiple
relays to form
Rhombus
characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Elliptical characteristic
Elliptical distance relay
Im
Re
Zr1
Zr2
O
p
e
r
a
t
e
Restrain
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-12
Power System
Protection
Blinder
Straight line characteristic (blinders)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Load blinders
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

+

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
A combination of multiple relays to
form a protection function - Impedance
relays in conjunction with a directional
relay
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-13
Power System
Protection
Group A Relays
A combination of two reactance relays and a
mho relay
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Group A Relays
Using blinders to reduce the coverage of
resistive component of the impedance
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Circular characteristic
Admittance relay -
characteristic passes
through the origin of the
impedance plane
r1
Z
Radius =
2
Re
Im
Z
r1
Z
r2
Z
C
Operate
Restrain
o
r1
Z
Center =
2
r1 r1
Z Z
Z-
2 2
>
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-14
Power System
Protection
Amplitude comparison
Multiplying both sides
with I
F
and replacing I
F
Z
with V, we get
r1 r1
F F
Z Z
I V - I
2 2
>
S
op
S
r
Core
Coil
Armature
Balance beam
Trip contact
Spring
S
op
- Operting signal
S
r
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Solid-state comp
The characteristic
of the admittance
relay is given by
r1 r1
F F
Z Z
I V - I
2 2
>
*(Z
r1
)/2
ADD
ADD
Level Detector
>
I
F
V
Trip
Convert todc
voltage
Convert todc
voltage
*(-1)(Z
r1
)/2
I
F
Invert
c
This characteristic can
be implemented by
using electronic circuits
as shown
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Admittance relay characteristic
r1
Radius =
2
z
2 2
2 r1 r1 r1
2 cos( )
2 2 2
z z z
z z u o

+ s
` `
) )
r1
Origin to Center =
2
z
2 2
2 r1 r1 r1
2 cos( )
2 2 2
z z z
z z u o

s
` `
) )
2
r1
( )cos( ) 0 z z z u o s
2
r1
( )cos( ) z z z u o >
Re
Im
Z
r1
Z
r2
z
c Operate
Restrain
o
z-c
u
Admittance relay characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-15
Power System
Protection
Relays of Group A
The relay characteristic given by
2 2
F r1 F
|I | ( )cos( ) |I | 0 z z z u o >
2
r1
) cos( ) ( z z z > o u
0 ) cos( ) (
2
r1
> z z z o u
can be rewritten as
Multiplying with the square of the
magnitude of the current, |I
F
|
2
, we get
2
1 F 2 3
|V| |I |cos( ) |V | 0 K K K u o =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Relays of Group A
The characteristic of
the Admittance relay
can also be described
by
o o
90 90 + < <
Re
Im
Z
r1
Z
r2
Z
r1
-Z
Operate
Restrain
o
Z
where is the angle of
(Z
r1
- Z) with respect to (Z)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Admittance characteristic
The characteristic is
also defined by
-90
o
< < +90
o
1
| || |cos( ) 0
F r
V I Z V >
1 1 2
| || |cos( ) 0
F r
K V I Z V K =
where is the angle
between Z and Z
r1
-Z
The characteristic can
now be defined by
Multiplying both terms
by I
F
and replacing I
F
Z
with V, we get V and
I
F
Z
r1
-V.
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-16
Power System
Protection
Electromechanical phase comparator
Induction cup
Pole
face
Pole
face
Yoke Yoke
Relay contacts
+
Spol
S
op
+
|
op
|
pol
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Solid-state comp
When is greater than -
90
o
as well as less than
+90
o
, the coincidence
between the positive
parts of the waveforms is
for more than one quarter
of the period.
Squaringcircuit
V
Squaringcircuit
Coincidence
90
o
Trip
Integrator
Level detector
I
F
Z
r1
-V
This property of coincidence
provides a means of designing a
suitable phase comparator.
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zero crossings
Phase displacement can also be checked
using a squaring circuit, a zero crossing
circuit, a logic gate and a trigger circuit.
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-17
Power System
Protection
Zero crossings
Squaringcircuit
V
Trip
Integrated
I
F
Z
r1
-V
Level detector
I
F
Z
r1
-V
ZeroCrossingdetector
Output of AND gate
Squaringcircuit
Phaseshifting&
Pulsecircuits
AND
Trigger circuit
V
I
F
Z
r1
-V
Trip
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Selecting inputs
Which voltages and currents should be used
for measuring impedance?
For phase fault relays
For ground fault relays
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Observation
The considerations so far lead to the
conclusion
positive sequence impedance of the line can
be measured by using the voltage and
current pairs listed in the next slide when
two or three phase faults are experienced
and in the slide that follows when single
phase to ground faults are experienced
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-18
Power System
Protection
Observation
Faulted Phases Voltage Current
A and B V
A
- V
B
I
A
- I
B
B and C V
B
V
C
I
B
I
C
C and A V
C
- V
A
I
C
- I
A
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Observation
Faulted Phase Voltage Current
A V
A
I
A
+ 3kI
0
B V
B
I
B
+ 3kI
0
C V
C
I
C
+ 3kI
0
1L
1L 0L
3Z
Z Z
= k
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
R
jX
Near terminal
of the line
Remote terminal
of the line
Re
I
V
A
I
CB
Z
S
F
Application
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-19
Power System
Protection
Line vs. relay impedance
pb
pr
vt
V
V
N
=
pl
pr
ct
I
I
N
=
pr pb ct
pr pl vt
V V N
I I N
=
ct
sr bF
vt
N
Z Z
N
=
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Power flow
R3 R2 R1
I
A
A B
I
A
CB1 CB2 CB3
Z
S
Z
R
E
A
I
B
E
B
I
A
E
A
I
B
E
B
I
B
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
A
CB
Z
S
CB
CB
Line 3
Line 2
Line 1
R
e
Line-side Faults
F
1
I
1
I
1
V
I
2
I
3
I
S
V
I
1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-20
Power System
Protection
Bus-side Faults
A
CB
Z
S
CB
CB
Line 3
Line 2
Line 1
R
e
F
1
I
2
I
S
I
3
I
1
I
2
V
V
I
1
V
I
1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Directionality
o
nZ
1L
Bus B
Bus X
Bus A
R
jX Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Directionality
o
nZ
1L
Bus B
Bus X
R
jX
Bus A
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-21
Power System
Protection
Zone 1 setting
R
2
R
1
A B
I
2
I
1
CB 2 CB 1
R
jX
Relay at Bus A
n Z
L
Restrain
O
p
e
r
a
t
e Admittance Relay
Characteristic
MSL Z
1
o
Bus B
(a)
R
jX
Relay at Bus B
n Z
L
Restrain
O
p
e
r
a
t
e
Admittance Relay
Characteristic
MSL
Z
1
o
Bus A
(b)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 1 setting
R
2
jX
2
Relay 2
Maximum
sensitivity
line
o
R
1
jX
1
Relay 1
Restrain
Both Relays Operate
Maximum
sensitivity
line o
Relay 1
Operates
Relay 2
Operates
Restrain
Restrain
Restrain
Line impedance locus
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 2 setting
R
1
A
CB 1
R
2
B
CB 2
R
6
C
CB 6
R
3
CB 3
R
4
R
5
CB 4
CB 5
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-22
Power System
Protection
Zone 2 setting
R
1
A
CB 1
R2
CB 2
R6
C
CB 6
R3
CB 3
B
T
IM
E
Zone-1 R
1
Zone-2 R
1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 2 setting
R
1
A
CB 1
R2
CB 2
R6
C
CB 6
R3
CB 3
B
Zone-1 R
3
Zone-2 R
3
T
IM
E
Zone-1 R
1
Zone-2 R
1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 3 setting
R
1
A
CB 1
R
2
B
CB 2
R
3
CB 3
R
4
C
CB 4
R
5
CB 5
T
IM
E
Zone-1 R1
Zone-2 R
1
Zone-1 R
3
Zone-2 R
3
Zone-3 R1
Z
o
n
e
-
3
R
3
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-23
Power System
Protection
Zone 3 Setting
R
1
jX
1
Bus A
Restrain
o
jX
3
o
Bus B
R
3
Z
o
n
e
-
1
Z
o
n
e
-
2
Bus C
Zone-1
Zone-2
Zone-3
Z
o
n
e
-
3
Bus D
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 1-3 settings
R
4
C
CB 4
R
2
B
CB 2
R
3
CB 3
R
0
A
CB 0
R
1
CB 1
T
IM
E
Zone-1 R
4
Zone-2 R
4
Zone-1 R
2
Zone-2 R
2
Zone-3 R4
Z
o
n
e
-
3
R
2
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Zone 1-3 Settings
R
2
jX
2
Bus B
jX
4
o
R
4
Bus C
Z
o
n
e
-
1Z
o
n
e
-
2
Z
o
n
e
-
3
Bus A
o
Zone-1
Zone-2
Zone-3
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-24
Power System
Protection
Why mho relays?
n Z
L
Restrain
Impedance Relay
Characteristic
Directional Relay
Characteristic
Offset Impedance
Relay Characteristic
R
jX
o
Relay Location
Restrain
Operate
mho Relay
Characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Why quadrilateral relays?
Mho relay
Quadrilateral
relay
Line
o
R
jX
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Why quadrilateral relays?
Mho relay
Quadrilateral
relay
Line
o
R
jX
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-25
Power System
Protection
Cone type dual blinder
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Load encroachment blinder
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
L
in
e
im
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
lo
c
u
s
Power System
Protection
Load encroachment blinder
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
L
in
e
im
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
lo
c
u
s
5-26
Power System
Protection
Expanding relay characteristic
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Group B distance relays
Three types of relays in Group B
Relays for detecting three phase faults
Relays for detecting two phase faults
Relays for detecting single phase to
ground faults
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
We will consider two designs
KD relays
Sequence voltage balance relays
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-27
Power System
Protection
KD relays
These induction cup relays which are applied two voltages
1 A B r1 A B
V (V V ) Z (I I ) =
1 1 2 2
T K V V sin( )-K =
Relay operates when V2 leads V1.
Note that V
1
is the polarizing voltage and the torque
equation is
2 B C r1 B C
V (V V ) Z (I I ) =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
A transmission line - fault at z
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
A
B' C'
B
C
I
B
I
C
-I
B
Z
r1
-I
C
Z
r1
V
1
V
2
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
A transmission line - fault at y
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
A
B' C' B C
I
B
I
C
-I
B
Z
r1
-I
C
Z
r1
V
1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-28
Power System
Protection
A Transmission Line - Fault at x
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
A
B' C'
B C
IB
IC
-IBZr1 -ICZr1
V
1
V2
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
A transmission line - fault at y
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
V
2R
V
1R
V
1R
-I
1
Z
r1
V
2R
-I
2
Z
r1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
A Transmission Line - Fault at z
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
V
2R
V
1R
V
1R
-I
1
Z
r1
V
2R
-I
2
Z
r1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-29
Power System
Protection
A transmission line - fault at x
RB RA
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
y x z
Z
r1
V
2R
V
1R
V
1R
-I
1
Z
r1
V
2R
-I
2
Z
r1
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Observations
One Group B relay is sufficient to detect
phase A to phase B,
phase B to phase C and
phase C to phase A faults
For this purpose
Induction cup type relay can be used
Symmetrical components amplitude comparators
can be used
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Summary
Introduction
Types of faults, Terms often used, SIR and Line
length, Definition of distance relay
Protection systems
Distance protection
Group A relays
Relay characteristics
Inputs to groups A relays
Group B relays
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-30
Power System
Protection
A Transmission System
R3 R2
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Sequence Networks
Positive Sequence Network
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1F
Z
1L
V
1R
Z
2L
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
Negative Sequence Network
V
2R
N
0
V
0F
F
0
I
0
Z
0L
Zero Sequence Network
V
0R
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Voltages and current during a fault
The sequence voltages at the relay location are
1R 1F 1 1L
V V I Z = +
AR 1R 2R 0R
V V V V = + +
The phase voltages at the relay location are
1 120 a = Z

2R 2F 2 2L
V V I Z = +
0R 0F 0 0L
V V I Z = +
2
BR 1R 2R 0R
V V V V a a = + +
2
CR 1R 2R 0R
V V V V a a = + +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-31
Power System
Protection
and the phase currents at the relay are
AR 1 2 0
I I I I = + +
2
BR 1 2 0
I I I I a a = + +
2
CR 1 2 0
I I I I a a = + +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
The line voltages at the relay location are
2
AR BR 1R 2R 0R 1R 2R 0R
V V (V V V ) ( V V V ) a a = + + + +
2
1R 2R
(1 )V (1 )V a a = +
2
1F 1 1L 2F 2 2L
(1 )(V I Z ) (1 )(V I Z ) a a = + + +
2 2
BR CR 1F 1 1L 2F 2 2L
V V ( )(V I Z ) ( )(V I Z ) a a a a = + + +
2
CR AR 1F 1 1L 2F 2 2L
V V ( 1)(V I Z ) ( 1)(V I Z ) a a = + + +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Similarly, the differences of phase currents
are
2
AR BR 1 2 0 1 2 0
I I (I I I ) ( I I I ) a a = + + + +
2
1 2
(1 )I (1 )I a a = +
2 2
BR CR 1 2
I I ( )I ( )I a a a a = +
2
CR AR 1 2
I I ( 1)I ( 1)I a a = +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-32
Power System
Protection
Three phase fault
2
AR BR 1 1L
V V (1 )I Z a =
PositiveSequenceNetwork
F
1
N
1
V
1R
Z
1L
V
1F
I
1
2
BR CR 1 1L
V V ( )I Z a a =
CR AR 1 1L
V V ( 1)I Z a =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Three phase fault
AR 1
I I =
2
AR BR 1R
I I (1 )I a =
2
BR 1
I I a =
CR 1
I I a =
2
BR CR 1R
I I ( )I a a =
CR AR 1R
I I ( 1)I a =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Three phase fault
The ratios of line voltages and differences of phase
currents are
2
AR BR 1 1L
2
AR BR 1
V V (1 a )I Z
I I (1 a )I

=

1L
Z =
2
BR CR 1 1L
2
BR CR 1
V V ( )I Z
I I ( )I
a a
a a

=

CR AR
1L
CR AR
V V
Z
I I
1L
Z =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-33
Power System
Protection
Two phase fault (phase B - phase C)
) Z I V )( ( ) Z I V )( ( V V
2L 2 2F
2
1L 1 1F
2
CR BR
+ + + = a a a a
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1R
Z
1L
V
1F
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
NegativeSequenceNetwork
V
2R
Z
2L
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Since V
1F
=V
2F
, this voltage is
2 2
BR CR 1F 1 1L 2F 2 2L
V V ( )(V I Z ) ( )(V I Z ) a a a a = + + +
{ }
2
BR CR 1 2 1L
V V ( )(I I ) Z a a =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
The phase current and the difference of the phase
currents are given by
2
BR 1 2
I ( I I ) a a = +
2 2
BR CR 1 2 1 2
I I ( I I ) ( I I ) a a a a = + +
2 2
1 2
( )I ( )I a a a a = +
2
1 2
( )(I I ) a a =
2
CR 1 2
I ( I I ) a a = +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-34
Power System
Protection
The ratio of the line voltage and differences of phase
currents is
2
BR CR 1 2 1L
2
BR CR 1 2
V V ( )(I I )Z
I I ( )(I I )
a a
a a

=

1L
Z =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Phase B - C ground fault
) Z I V )( ( ) Z I V )( ( V V
2L 2 2F
2
1L 1 1F
2
CR BR
+ + + = a a a a
N
0
V
0F
F
0
I
0
Z
0L
ZeroSequenceNetwork
Z
2L
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
NegativeSequenceNetwork PositiveSequenceNetwork
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1F
Z
1L
2
1 2 1L
( )(I I )Z a a = +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
The phase current and the difference of the phase
currents are given by
2
BR 1 2 0
I ( I I I ) a a = + +
2 2
BR CR 1 2 0 1 2 0
I I ( I I I ) ( I I I ) a a a a = + + + +
2 2
1 2
( )I ( )I a a a a = +
2
1 2
( )(I I ) a a =
2
CR 1 2 0
I ( I I I ) a a = + +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-35
Power System
Protection
2
BR CR 1 2 1L
2
BR CR 1 2
V V ( )(I I )Z
I I ( )(I I )
a a
a a

=

and the ratio of the line voltage and differences of
phase currents is
1L
Z =
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Phase A ground fault
The line voltage V
AR
in terms of the sequence voltages
at the fault and the sequence currents is
) Z I V ( ) Z I V ( ) Z I V ( V
0L 0 0F 2L 2 2F 1L 1 1F AR
+ + + + + =
N
0
V
0F
F
0
I
0
Z
0L
ZeroSequenceNetwork
Z
2L
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
NegativeSequenceNetwork PositiveSequenceNetwork
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1F
Z
1L
V
2R
V
0R V
1R
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
Power System
Protection
Since V
1F
+ V
2F
+V
0F
= 0, this voltage is
AR 1F 1 1L 2F 2 2L 0F 0 0L
V (V I Z ) (V I Z ) (V I Z ) = + + + + +
0 2 1 AR
I I I I + + =
The phase A current is given by
1 2 1L 0 0L
(I I )Z I Z = + +
1 2 0 1L 0 0L 1L
(I I I )Z I (Z Z ) = + + +
0L 1L
1 2 0 0 1L
1L
Z Z
(I I I ) 3I ( ) Z
3Z

= + + +
`
)
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
5-36
Power System
Protection
Z
1L
can be measured by using the phase A
current plus a compensated zero sequence
current and the phase A voltage. The
compensated current is given by
0L 1L
COMP AR 0
1L
Z Z
I I 3I ( )
3Z
= +
Outline
Introduction
Electrical inputs
Classifications
Group A relays
Application
Group B relays
Summary
6-1
Transmission Line Protection
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
DISTANCE
RELAYS
Power System
Protection
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Outline this topic
Introduction
Protection systems
Distance protection
Pilot protection
Phase comparison
Outline Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-2
Power System
Protection
Outline this session
Protection systems
Distance protection (continued)
Relay performance
Close-in faults; memory action and
polarization
Pilot protection
Phase comparison
Outline Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Relay performance
Arc resistance
Impact of current fed from the remote terminal
Performance of phase-fault relays for a
Phase B-C fault
Phase A-G fault
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Performance of phase fault relays
Consider a line with sources at both
terminals
R3 R2
A B
I
B
I
A
CB1 CB2
Z
S
Z
r
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-3
Power System
Protection
V
R
1
A
I
1sA
CB
1
Z
S1
R
2
B
I
1sBF
CB
2
Z
S2
I
1sA
F1
R
F
I1sA
F
1
N
1
V1sB
Z1sAF
R1
I1sF
V1sA
I1sB
RF
Z
1sBF
Performance of phase fault relays
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Three phase fault
The positive sequence voltages at the relay
location are
1 1 1 1 R R L F F
V I Z I R = +
The phase voltages at the relay location are
1 1 1 AR R L F F
V I Z I R = +
1 120 a = Z
2 2
1 1 1 BR R L F F
V a I Z a I R = +
1 1 1 CR R L F F
V aI Z aI R = +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Three phase fault
The line voltages at the relay location are
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
1 1
AR BR R L F F
V V a I Z a I R = +
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1 BR CR R L F F
V V a a I Z a a I R = +
( ) ( )
1 1 1
1 1
CR AR R L F F
V V a I Z a I R = +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-4
Power System
Protection
Sequence current during a fault
The sequence currents at the relay location
are
( )
2
1
1
AR BR R
I I a I =
2
1
( )
BR CR R
I I a a I =
1
( 1)
CR AR R
I I a I =
2
1 1 1
; ;
AR R BR R CR R
I I I a I I aI = = =
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Estimated impedance
Recollect
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
1 1
AR BR R L F F
V V a I Z a I R = +
( )
2
1
1
AR BR R
I I a I =
Phase A-B relay estimates
1
1
1
AR BR F
L F
AR BR R
V V I
Z R
I I I
= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Estimated impedance
Similarly the other phase relays estimates
1
1
1
BR CR F
L F
BR CR R
V V I
Z R
I I I
= +
1
1
1
CR AR F
L F
CR AR R
V V I
Z R
I I I
= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-5
Power System
Protection
Impact Of Arc Resistance
I
1sA
Z
1sAF
I
1sF
R
F
Z
1sAF +Z
F
I
1sA
R
jX
I
1sB
I
1sF
R
jX
I
1sA
I
1sB
I
1sF
I
1sB
Z
1sBF
I
1sF
R
F
Z
1sBF
+Z
F
F1
R
1
A
I
1sA
CB 1
Z
S1
R
2
B
I
1sB
CB 2
Z
S2
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Line Impedance Locus
Re
Im
including arc resistance
Pre-fault power flowfromthe remote
terminal to the local terminal
Re
Im
including arc resistance
Pre-fault power flowfromthe local
terminal to the remote terminal
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Two phase fault (phase B-C)
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
( )( ) ( )( )
BR CR F R L F R L
V V a a V I Z a a V I Z = + + +
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1R
Z
1L
V
1F
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
Negative Sequence Network
V
2R
Z
2L
R
F
/2 R
F
/2 I
1F
I
2F
( )
1 2 1 2
2
F
F F F F
R
V V I I = +
( )( )
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
( ) ( )( )
2
F
BR CR R L R L F F
R
V V a a I Z a a I Z a a I I = + +
1 1 2 2
2 2
F F
F F F F
R R
V I V I =
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-6
Power System
Protection
( )( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
( ) ( )
2
F
R R L R R L F F
R
a I aI Z aI a I Z a a I I = + + +
( )
1
( )
2
F
BR CR L BF CF
R
I I Z I I = +
( )
1
( ) ( ) 2
BF CF BR CR F
L
BR CR BR CR
I I V V R
Z
I I I I

= +

( )( )
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2
( ) ( )( )
2
F
BR CR R L R L F F
R
V V a a I Z a a I Z a a I I = + +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
1 2 2
1 2
2
F F
F
L
R R
a a I a a I
R
Z
a a I a a I
+
= +
+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
1 2 2
1 2
( ) 2
F F
BR CR F
L
BR CR R R
a a I a a I
V V R
Z
I I a a I a a I
+
= +
+
1 2 1 2
;
F F R R
I I I I =
( )
( )
2
2
1 2
2
2
( ) 2 2
F
BR CR F
L
BR CR R
a a I
V V R
Z
I I a a I
= +

2
1
2
( ) 2
BR CR F F
L
BR CR R
V V I R
Z
I I I
= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
AR BR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
The line voltage (phase A-B) is
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
2
1 1 2 1
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
AR BR R L R L
F F
V V a I Z a I Z
V a V a
= +
+ +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2 1
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
AR BR R R L
F F
V V a I a I Z
V a V a
( = +

+ +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-7
Power System
Protection
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 1
AR BR R R
I I a I a I = +
The difference of line currents in phases A and B is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
R R
AR BR
L
AR BR R R
F F
R R
a I a I
V V
Z
I I a I a I
V a V a
a I a I
( +

=
+
+
+
+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
1 1
F F
L
R R
V a V a
Z
a I a I
+
= +
+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1 2
1 2
3 1
1 1
F F F
AR BR
L
AR BR R R
V a I R
V V
Z
I I a I a I

= +
+
1 2 2 F F F F
V V I R =
1 2 R R
I I
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 2
2
3 1
F R F
L
R
V a I R
Z
a a I

= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 2
2
3 1
F F F
AR BR
L
AR BR R
V a I R
V V
Z
I I a a I

= +

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2
1 2 2
2 2
1 3 F F R L S AR BR
L
AR BR R R
a I R I Z Z V V
Z
I I a a I a a I
+
= +

( )
2 2 2 2 F R L s
V I Z Z = +
( )
2
1 2 2
2
3
AR BR F
L L S F
AR BR R
V V I
Z j Z Z a R
I I I
= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-8
Power System
Protection
( ) ( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
CR AR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
The line voltage (phase C-A) is
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
2
1 1 2 1
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
CR AR R L R L
F F
V V a I Z a I Z
V a V a
= +
+ +
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2 1
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
CR AR R R L
F F
V V a I a I Z
V a V a
( = +

+ +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 1
CR AR R R
I I a I a I = +
The difference of line currents in phases C and A is
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
1 1
F F
L
R R
V a V a
Z
a I a I
+
= +
+
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
R R
CR AR
L
CR AR R R
F F
R R
a I a I
V V
Z
I I a I a I
V a V a
a I a I
( +

=
+
+
+
+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
1 2
3 1
1 1
F F F CR AR
L
CR AR R R
V a I R V V
Z
I I a I a I

= +
+
1 2 2 F F F F
V V I R =
1 2 R R
I I
( )
( )
2 2
1 2
2
3 1
F F F
L
R
V a I R
Z
a a I

= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-9
Power System
Protection
( )
( )
2 2
1 2
2
3 1
F F F CR AR
L
CR AR R
V a I R V V
Z
I I a a I

= +

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 2
2 2
3 1
R L S F F CR AR
L
CR AR R R
I Z Z a I R V V
Z
I I a a I a a I
+
= +

( )
2 2 2 2 F R L s
V I Z Z = +
( )
2 2
1 2 2
2
3
CR AR F
L L S F
CR AR R
V V I
Z j Z Z a R
I I I
= + +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Three two-phase faults
( )
2 2
1 2 2
2
3
CR AR F
L L S F
CR AR R
V V I
Z j Z Z a R
I I I
= + +
( )
2
1 2 2
2
3
AR BR F
L L S F
AR BR R
V V I
Z j Z Z a R
I I I
= +
2
1
2
( ) 2
BR CR F F
L
BR CR R
V V I R
Z
I I I
= +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Impedance diagram
1L
Z
BC
Z
CA
Z
AB
Z
( ) 1 2
3
L S
j Z Z +
( ) 1 2
3
L S
j Z Z +
2
2
2
F F
R
I R
I
2 2
2
F
F
R
I
a R
I
2
2
2
F F
R
I R
a
I
60
o
60
o
R
j X
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-10
Power System
Protection
Range of measurements
Z
ab
j X
Z
ca
Z
bc
Mho Relay
R
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
The line voltage V
AR
in terms of the
sequence voltages and currents is
AR 1F 1R 1L 2F 2R 2L 0F 0R 0L
V (V I Z ) (V I Z ) (V I Z ) = + + + + +
N
0
V
0F
F
0
I
0
Z
0L
ZeroSequenceNetwork
Z
2L
I
2
N
2
F
2
V
2F
NegativeSequenceNetwork
I
1
F
1
N
1
V
1F
Z
1L
V
2R
V
0R V
1R
R
F
R
F
R
F
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 AR F R L F R L F R L
V V I Z V I Z V I Z = + + + + +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 BR F R L F R L F R L
V a V I Z a V I Z V I Z = + + + + +
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 0 CR F R L F R L F R L
V a V I Z a V I Z V I Z = + + + + +
( )( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
AR BR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
( )( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 BR CR F R L F R L
V V a a V I Z a a V I Z = + + +
( )( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
CR AR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-11
Power System
Protection
( )( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
AR BR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2
1 1 1 1
AR BR R L R L F F
V V a I Z a I Z a V a V = + + +
1 2 0 0
3
F F F F F
V V V I R = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 0
2
0
1 1 1
1 3
F
AR BR R R L F F
F
V V a I a I Z a a V a V
a I R
( = + +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0
1 1
1 1 3
F
AR BR R R L R L S
F S F F
V V a I a I Z a a I Z Z
a I Z a I R
( = + + +

+
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 1
AR BR R R
I I a I a I = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 0
2
0
1 1 1
1 3
F
AR BR R R L F F
F
a I R
( = + +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
2
0
0 2
1 2
1 1
1 3
1 1
F
R L S
AR BR
L
AR BR R R
S F
F
R R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I a I a I
a Z R
I
a I a I
= +
+
+
+
+
( )( ) ( )
( )( )
2
2 2 2
1
2
2
0
0
2
3
1 3
3
F
R L S
AR BR
L
AR BR R
S F
F
R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I I
a Z R
I
I
= +
+
+
1 2 R R
I I
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-12
Power System
Protection
( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 0
2
1 1
90 3 30
3 3
F
o o F
L L S S F
R
I
Z Z Z Z R
I

= + + Z + + Z
( )( )( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1
2
2
0
0
2
3
1 3
3
F
R L S
AR BR
L
AR BR R
S F
F
R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I I
a Z R
I
I
= +
+
+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )( ) ( )( )
2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 BR CR F R L F R L
V V a a V I Z a a V I Z = + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2 BR CR R L R L F F
V V a a I Z a a I Z a a V a a V = + + +
1 2 0 0
3
F F F F F
V V V I R = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 0
2
0
2
3
F
BR CR R R L F F
F
V V a a I a a I Z a a V a a V
a a I R
( = +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( )( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2
2 2
0 0 0
2
3
F
BR CR R R L R L S
F S F F
V V a a I a a I Z a a I Z Z
a a I Z a a I R
( = + + +

+
( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 BR CR R R
I I a a I a a I = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 0
2
0
2
3
F
BR CR R R L F F
F
V V a a I a a I Z a a V a a V
a a I R
( = +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-13
Power System
Protection
BR CR
BR CR
V V
I I
( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
2
0
0 2
1 2
2
3
F
R L S
BR CR
L
BR CR R R
S F
F
R R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I a a I I
a a Z R
I
a a I I
=

+
+

1 2 R R
I I
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( )( ) ( )( )
2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
CR AR F R L F R L
V V a V I Z a V I Z = + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 2 1 1 2
1 1 1 1
CR AR R L R L F F
V V a I Z a I Z a V a V = + + +
1 2 0 0
3
F F F F F
V V V I R = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 0
0
1 1 1
1 3
F
CR AR R R L F F
F
a I R
( = + +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 2 2
0 0 0
1 1
1 1 3
F
CR AR R R L R L S
F S F F
V V a I a I Z a a I Z Z
a I Z a I R
( = + + +

+
( ) ( )
2
1 2
1 1
CR AR R R
I I a I a I = +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2 0
0
1 1 1
1 3
F
CR AR R R L F F
F
a I R
( = + +

+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-14
Power System
Protection
( )( )( )
( )( )
2
2 2 2
1
2
0
0
2
3
1 3
3
F
R L S
CR AR
L
CR AR R
S F
F
R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I I
a Z R
I
I
= +
+
+
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
1 2
1 2
0 0 0
2
1 2
1 1
1 1 3
1 1
F
R L S
CR AR
L
CR AR R R
F S F F
R R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I a I a I
a I Z a I R
a I a I
= +
+
+
+
1 2 R R
I I
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 0
2
1 1
90 3 30
3 3
F
o o F
L L S S F
R
I
Z Z Z Z R
I

= + + Z + + Z
( )( )( )
( )
2
2 2 2
1
2
0
0
2
3
1 3
3
F
R L S
CR AR
L
CR AR R
S F
F
R
a a I Z Z
V V
Z
I I I
a Z R
I
I
= +
+
+
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Impedance diagram
30
o
R
j X
30
o
1L
Z
( ) 2 2
1
3
L S
j Z Z +
2
0
2
1
30
3
o R
S F
F
I
Z
I

Z
2
2
1
30
3
o R
F
F
I
R
I
Z
AB
Z
( ) 2 2
1
3
L S
j Z Z +
2
0
2
1
30
3
o R
S F
F
I
Z
I

Z
2
2
1
30
3
o R
F
F
I
R
I
Z
CA
Z
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-15
Power System
Protection
Range of measurements
Z
CA
Z
AB
Admittance
Relay
R
j X
Outline
Performance
Close-in faults
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Distance protection
Close-in faults
When a fault is experienced close to the location
of the relay, the voltage collapses and the
calculated impedance becomes zero. It is not
possible to tell whether the fault is on the line
side of the relay or is on the bus side of the
relay.
The mho relays and other inherently directional
relays loose their ability to distinguish bus side
faults from line side faults
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Remedial measures
Two types of remedial measures used are
Use pre-fault voltage (memory action)
Polarize the relays with voltages from un-faulted
phase or phases
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-16
Power System
Protection
Memory action
The concept has been around for a long
time but its implementation has not always
been easy
Because numerical relays save data
concerning the voltage and current
waveforms, using memory action has
become a very viable option
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Forms of memory actions
Some forms of memory action used in
distance relays are
Pre-fault voltage or voltages of the faulted phase
or phases
Pre-fault positive sequence voltage appropriately
phase shifted
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Use of pre-fault phase voltages
If the voltage at the relay location is less
than (say) 10% of the nominal value
Add a fraction of the pre-fault voltage of the
faulted phase (say 10 %)
This is a valid approach because when a fault
occurs the phase angles of voltages do not
change substantially. Even if they do, the
nature of directionality is correctly determined
The location of the fault is not correctly given by
the impedance calculated in conjunction with the
memory action.
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-17
Power System
Protection
Memory polarized phase-phase relay
Operating voltage Polarizing voltage
( ) ( )
1 A B A B
V V I I Z 1A
jV
( ) ( )
1 B C B C
V V I I Z
1B
jV
( ) ( )
1 C A C A
V V I I Z
1C
jV
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Memory polarized phase-phase relay
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
(
V
B
-
V
C
)

-
(
I
B
-

I
C
)
Z
1
(
V
B
-
V
C
)

-
(
I
B
-

I
C
)
Z
1
Power System
Protection
Memory polarized ground fault relay
( )
0 1
3
A A
I k I Z V +
1A
V
( )
0 1
3
B B
I k I Z V +
1B
V
( )
0 1
3
C C
I k I Z V +
1C
V
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-18
Power System
Protection
Memory polarized phase fault relay
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Cross polarized phase-phase relay
( ) ( )
1 A B A B
I I Z V V
C
jV
( ) ( )
1 B C B C
I I Z V V
A
jV
( ) ( )
1 C A C A
I I Z V V
B
jV
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Cross polarized phase-phase relay
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-19
Power System
Protection
Cross polarized phase-ground relay
1 A A
I Z V ( )
B C
j V V
1 B B
I Z V ( )
C A
j V V
1 C C
I Z V ( )
A B
j V V
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Cross polarized phase-ground relay
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Blown VT fuse
A blown VT fuse is another cause of no
voltage to the relay
The measured impedance becomes small
Loss of polarization to the phase comparators
Will have a tendency to operate
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-20
Power System
Protection
Possible remedial measures
A few possible options
Use overcurrent relays to supervise that the
current is more than the maximum expected load
current; if not block the tripping by distance relay
Supervise the negative and zero sequence
voltages and currents; if negative and/or zero
sequence voltages are present but there are no
negative and/or zero sequence currents, block
the tripping by distance relay
Supervise auxiliary contacts of circuit breakers in
the VT circuits
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Comments
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Distance protection
The most popular method for protecting
transmission and subtransmission lines
Some basic issues are
Distance is measured in the form of impedances
or their components from the voltages and
currents observed at the relay location
Impedance is a single frequency parameter
Most of the time, impedances are determined
from fundamental frequency components of
voltages and currents
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
A-C wire pilot relaying
Circulating current type
Opposing voltage type
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-21
Power System
Protection
Wire pilot current balance
1 1 2 2 0 0 c
V K I K I K I = + +
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Wire pilot voltage balance
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Communication
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Types of communication systems
Short lines
Current differential
Permissive overreaching transfer trip
Phase comparison
Directional comparison blocking
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-22
Power System
Protection
Medium lines
Step distance
Current differential
Permissive underreaching transfer trip
Phase comparison
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Long lines
Step distance
Permissive overreaching transfer trip with
unblocking on loss of channel
Phase comparison
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Communication media
Leased telephone lines
Power line carrier (PLC)
Microwave
Point-to-point radio
Fiber optic
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-23
Power System
Protection
Phase comparison arrangement
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Phase comparison
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Phase comparison
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-24
Power System
Protection
The basic principle is the same as that
discussed for transformer protection
Advantages of using differential protection
include
No voltage signal is needed (CCVT transient
response not a concern)
Possible to detect evolving faults
Possible to detect inter-circuit faults
Immune to power swings
Impedance unbalances
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Disadvantages and concerns include
Need to account for charging current during
normal operation and fault
Cannot compare sample values
Communicating information between terminals
Needed band width of the communication
channel
Time needed for transmitting data between
terminals
Channel delay asymmetry
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
A numerical implementation
Calculate the current phasors at the line
terminals
Time tag the calculated values
Send the information to the remote terminal
Time align the phasors received from the
remote terminal with the phasors calculated
locally
Implement percentage differential approach
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-25
Power System
Protection
A numerical implementation
Time alignment requires
Either the sampling of data be synchronized
Or information transmission delays be
determined and used
The ping-pong technique is often used
A test signal is sent to the remote terminal
from where it is sent right back
The one way transmission time is
assumed to be one-half the two way time
(not necessarily correct)
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Consider the relay at terminal A; also consider that the
line is providing load to the system connected at B (I
A
and I
B
are phasors)
Neglecting the charging current, I
B
=I
A
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Define
1 0
B
A
I
a jb
I
j
= +
= +
This is also true for external faults.
Consider the ratio for different operating conditions
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-26
Power System
Protection
Internal and external faults
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Source voltages out of phase
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Channel asymmetry
Channel delay asymmetry can be up to 2
ms
This corresponds to a phase angle of up to 36
o
at 50 Hz
The apparent phase displacement between
I
A
and I
B
during internal faults with infeed
and out-feed can be in the range of 36
o
This is also valid for external faults and load
conditions
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
6-27
Power System
Protection
Total relay design concept
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Summary
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Oldest in operation; very versatile and
flexible especially for use in multiterminal
lines
Compares direction of power flow at the
terminals
For internal faults power flows into the line
from all terminals and tripping is permitted
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Directional comparison system
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
6-28
Power System
Protection
Directional comparison system
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Uses distance relays for phase faults and
instantaneous overcurrent or directional
relays for ground faults as fault detectors
All fault detectors must reach beyond the
remote end of the line (zone 2 distance
relays are suitable)
Pilot trip is connected in parallel with the
zone 2 delay timer
Carrier is started by phase distance and
directional relays
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
No communication signal is received at
either terminal when the fault is on the
protected line
Zone 2 distance protection relays operate at both
terminals
Circuit breakers at both terminals trip at high
speed (6 to 16 ms time delay)
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
6-29
Power System
Protection
Directional comparison unblocking
Instead of starting transmission of a
communication signal on the occurrence of
a fault, directional comparison unblocking
transmits a blocking frequency (also called
guard) continuously during normal operation
The channel is generally a frequency-shift
(FSK) power line carrier
The channel is monitored continuously to
prevent tripping on loss of a channel
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Underreaching transfer trip
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Underreaching transfer trip
If the fault is in the zone common to both
relays, both relays trip
If the fault is in the zone of Relay R
A
, it
operates; sends a trip to the local breaker
(CB 1) and transmits a trip (in the form of an
audio tone) to the relay R
B
provided at the
remote end of the line
This trips the breaker at the terminal B of the
line (CB 2)
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
6-30
Power System
Protection
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System
Protection
Summary
Distance protection
Relay performance
Use of memory action
Polarized distance relays
AC pilot-wire protection
Communication media
Phase comparison protection
Directional comparison systems
Communication
Comments
Outline
Close-in faults
Performance
Summary
A-C pilot wire
Phase
comparison
Differential
Directional
comparison
Power System Varanasi 2012 November 22
Professor Emeritus M.S. Sachdev, University of
Saskatchewan
7-1
Generator Protection
Saskatoon, SK
CANADA
Power System
Protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Outline this topic
Introduction
Protection systems
Stator ground fault protection
Field ground fault protection
Loss of field protection
Current unbalance protection
Inadvertent energizing
Abnormal frequency protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-2
Power System
Protection
Generator-transformer unit protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Stator faults are considered seriously
because
The fault currents are high
Stress the winding due to mechanical forces
Stress the mechanical structure due to these
forces
Repair cost and time to repair are exceptionally
large
Cost of replaced energy is usually very high
Therefore, minimize damage
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Usual actions
For sever faults
disconnect the generator from the system
Use rapid de-excitation system to decay the field
current rapidly
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-3
Power System
Protection
General comments
Percentage differential relay is often used to
protect from three phase, two phase and
two-phases to ground faults if the neutral is
grounded through a high impedance
Differential relay is also effective if the
generator is solidly grounded
Differential relay does not detect turn-to-turn
faults
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Percentage differential protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Fixed slope %age differential relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-4
Power System
Protection
Variable slope %age differential relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
High impedance differential relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Comments
During normal operation and external faults,
the line and neutral side currents are equal
Line side and neutral side CTs must have
the same turns ratio
The characteristics of the line side and
neutral CTs should be matched
The operating elements should be
connected at the zero potential location
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-5
Power System
Protection
Delta connected generators
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Split phase generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Another split phase generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-6
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Split phase protection
Split phase protection is usually used in
addition to differential protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Stator winding ground fault
The ground fault depends on the manner in
which the generator neutral is connected to
ground
The two extremes of grounding practices
are
Solidly ground the generator
Not grounded at all
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-7
Power System
Protection
Generator solidly ground
Almost never done because the fault currents
would be very large and would cause substantial
damage
Generator not grounded at all
There will be no fault current when a ground fault
is experienced
But the voltages of the un-faulted phases will
increase by a factor of 1.73
Will stress the insulation to higher than
normal levels
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
The objective for grounding is to reduce fault
currents and avoid over-voltages
Two types of grounding
Low impedance grounding
High impedance grounding
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Low impedance grounding situations
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-8
Power System
Protection
Low impedance grounding situations
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Low impedance grounding
The resistance / reactance is selected so
that the single phase to ground fault current
is in the range of 200 A and 150% of rated
current
Differential protection provides some
protection for single phase to ground faults
Achieve increased sensitivity by using a
ground differential relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Ground differential
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-9
Power System
Protection
Ground differential
Selected auxiliary CT ratio ensures that
there is definite restraining torque for
external ground fault
The arranged differential relay is quite
sensitive to internal ground faults
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
High impedance grounding
Many generators are grounded through high
resistances
The resistance is connected across a single
phase distribution transformer connected in
the neutral of the generator
The voltage rating of the distribution
transformer is line to neutral (or higher)
voltage of the generator
The transformer should not saturate at
105% of the rated voltage
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
High impedance grounding protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-10
Power System
Protection
For a fault at the generator terminal full
voltage is impressed on the distribution
transformer primary
The overvoltage relay (59 GN) is sensitive to
the fundamental frequency component of
the voltage and insensitive to the third
harmonic component
The pick up voltage of the relay is usually 5
V.
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
This arrangement is usually able to detect
ground faults within 2-5% of the winding
from the neutral end
When a system single phase to ground fault
occurs, zero sequence voltage is induced at
the generator neutral because of capacitive
coupling of the windings of the unit
transformer. This can cause the operation
of the 59 GN relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
100% winding protection techniques
Basically, two types of techniques are used
Third harmonic voltage based techniques
Neutral or residual voltage injection technique
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-11
Power System
Protection
Third harmonic voltage techniques
The voltages of most generators contain
third harmonic components
when they are not supplying any power as well
as when they are loaded
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Third harmonic voltages
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Comments
The pattern of third harmonic component of
generator voltage leads to the following
approaches for detecting stator winding
ground faults
Third harmonic undervoltage technique
Third harmonic residual terminal voltage
Third harmonic comparator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-12
Power System
Protection
Third harmonic undervoltage
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Undervoltage relay setting should be well below the
minimum third harmonic during normal operation
59 C supervisory relay is provided to block 27 during
generator shut down
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
The settings of the undervoltage and overvoltage
relays should overlap for all fault locations near the
neutral (~30% of the winding).
An overlap equal to 1% of rated voltage is usually
adequate
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-13
Power System
Protection
If the generator does not develop enough third
harmonic until it is loaded, an overcurrent relay is
used to supervise the third harmonic undervoltage
protection system
The protection system will not be effective during low
load and no load (consider alternatives)
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Third harmonic terminal residual
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Third harmonic terminal residual
The level of third harmonic voltage at the generator
terminal increases when a ground fault is experienced
near the neutral.
The relay should be set at a level that it does not
operate during normal operation of the generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-14
Power System
Protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
The premise is that the ratio of the third
harmonic components of the voltages at the
generator terminal and neutral is constant
during normal operation but changes if a
fault occurs on the generator neutral or
generator terminals
The scheme works like a differential relay
comparing the third harmonic components
from the two ends of the generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
This approach detects faults near the
neutral and near the terminals and the 59
GN detects ground faults on about 95 % of
the winding from the terminals. The two
systems together protect 100 % of the
generator winding in the event of ground
faults
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-15
Power System
Protection
Voltage injection scheme
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Field ground fault
DC field circuit is not grounded and a single
ground does not cause problems. But the
chances of second ground fault increase
and if it happens, it would usually short
some of the field circuit resulting in magnetic
unbalance. If this happens, unbalance
forces exist that would cause vibrations and
further damage of the machine. It is,
therefore necessary to detect field ground
fault.
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Field ground fault
There is no established industry practice on
the actions that should be taken if a field
ground fault occurs.
Some utilities trip the generator while others
prefer to sound an alarm
More than 80% generators have field
ground detectors
Only 30% applications trip the generator on
the occurrence of a field ground fault
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-16
Power System
Protection
Field ground fault
Causes for nuisance operations of field
ground fault protection systems
The older units were brush type generators and
the field ground fault relays were instantaneous
types
These relays operated frequently during start
up due to intermittent ground caused by
Moisture
Copper and carbon dusting
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Using a dc source
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Using a voltage divider
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-17
Power System
Protection
Brushless machine
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Loss of field
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Loss of field
Generator draws reactive power from the
system it is connected to; jeopardizing
system operation
If adequate reactive power is available, the
generator run at higher than normal speed
(2-5%) operating as an induction machine.
Induced currents flow in the field faces
causing excessive heating, deformity etc.
Necessary to disconnect the generator from
the system
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-18
Power System
Protection
Loss of field
Causes
Filed open circuit
Filed short circuit
Accidental tripping of field circuit breaker
Regulator control system failure
Loss of field to the main exciter
Loss of ac supply to the excitation system
Factors that impact consequences
Size of the generator
Load just before loss of field
Stiffness of the system
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Should respond to loss of field
Should not respond to
Load changes
System faults
Transients that do not cause instability
Techniques used
Supervising field current
Supervising reactive current (or reactive power)
supplied by the generator
Use an offset mho relay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Load impedance trajectories
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-19
Power System
Protection
The load impedance locus on loss of field suggest
that the following off-set mho relay would be suitable
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
A time delay of 0.5 to 0.6 s can be used
This approach is appropriate if X
d
is in the 1.0 to 1.2
pu (on machine parameters) range
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Modern machine have X
d
that ranges from
1.5 to 2.0 pu
With such high setting, there are chances of
the relay operating during underexcited
operation conditions
The diameter of the mho circle is therefore
limited to 1.0 pu
This means that the protection system will
not operate on loss of field if the generator
was lightly loaded
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-20
Power System
Protection
Two offset mho units
The deficiency can be removed by using two offset
mho units, one unit of 1.0 pu diameter and the other of
X
d
diameter
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Two offset mho units
The unit of 1.0 pu diameter can be set with no time
delay and the unit with X
d
diameter can be set with 0.5
to 0.6 s delay
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Use two offset mho units, a directional unit
and an undervoltage unit
Both units look into the generator
Offset mho unit 1 trips without any time
delay
Offset mho unit 2 is coordinated with the
minimum excitation limit and the steady
state limit of the generator
During abnormally low excitation, it sounds
an alarm
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-21
Power System
Protection
Another approach
Should unit 2 and the undervoltage unit
operate, tripping is initiated; a time delay of
0.25 to 1.0 s is used
Caution
When used with hydro generators that have to
also work as synchronous condensers, this
protection system can operate when the unit is
underexcited to absorb VARS. An undervoltage
relay can be added to prevent operation if the
voltage is more than 90 %
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Consider the system shown in this single line
diagram
The systems on the left of Bus A and the system on the
right of Bus B represent two independent power systems
The relays measure impedances looking in to the line
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Swing locus
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-22
Power System
Protection
Swing locus
Electrical centre, sometimes called swing
centre, used to be in the transmission
systems
With the development of EHV systems and
modern generators having large
impedances, the swing centers in many
cases lies in the generator impedance or in
the impedance of the step up transformer
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Swing example
Consider a generator
that has the following
parameters
A relay can be provided
at the generator terminals
looking towards the
transformer
The settings should not
reach into the system so
that the generator and the
step up transformer are
not disconnected from the
system for a swing that is
in the power system
'
0.25
0.10
0.25
d
T
S
X
X
X
The electrical center is

in the transformer
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Swing example
Another alternative is to provide a relay at
the system side of the transformer looking
towards the generator
This would provide backup protection for the
transformer and to some degree the
generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-23
Power System
Protection
Single mho relay scheme
A mho relay provided at
the transformer terminal
The diameter shown in
this figure is 1.2 pu
There are dangers
associated too small a
diameter (breaker
recovery voltage can be
too high)
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Single mho relay scheme
There are dangers
associated with too big a
diameter (tripping for
stable swings)
An overcurrent relay is
used to supervise the
mho relay so that it does
not operate during loss of
field condition
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
A blinders scheme
A blinder contact closes
when the swing enters
the operating area
crossing the right hand
blinder
Another blinder contact
closes when the swing
exits the operating area
via the left hand blinder
The CB is tripped
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-24
Power System
Protection
Double mho and double rhombus
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Double lens scheme
Double mho, double
blinder, double rhombus
and double lens schemes
are used with varied logic
It is important to ensure
that the circuit breaker is
opened only when it is
safe to do so
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Generators experience unbalanced currents
because
System asymmetries
Single phase transformer with different
impedances
Untransposed lines
Unbalanced loads
Abnormal conditions
1-phase and phase-phase faults
Open circuits
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-25
Power System
Protection
Abnormal conditions
Phase-phase faults at the generator terminals
Comment
A 1-phase to ground fault on the wye side of a
delta-wye transformer looks like a phase to
phase fault from the delta side
A 1-phase to ground fault on the generator does
not create as much negative sequence currents
as the phase-phase fault does (neutral is usually
grounded through a high resistance)
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Flow of positive sequence currents produce
flux that rotates with the rotor at
synchronous speed
Flow of negative sequence currents produce
flux that rotates at the synchronous speed
but in the direction opposite to the rotation of
the rotor
This flux rotates at twice the frequency around
the rotor and it produces voltages on the pole
faces; currents flow in the pole faces towards the
retaining rings
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
This flux rotates at twice the frequency around
the rotor and it produces voltages on the pole
faces; currents flow in the pole faces towards the
retaining rings
This overheats the wedges (used to hold the
field winding in place); expands the retaining
rings causing arcing under the rings
Large down times are needed to repair such
damage
Heating is proportional to the square of the
negative sequence current in the generator
winding
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-26
Power System
Protection
The heating due to the flow of negative
sequence currents is limited for each
machine using the concept
2
2
I t K
I
2
is the RMS negative sequence current
t is time in seconds
K is a constant that depends on the design
of the generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Permissible K (ANSI C50.13)
Type of generator Permissible K
Salient pole generator 40
Synchronous condenser 30
Cylindrical rotor generator
Indirectly cooled 20
Directly cooled (0-800 MVA) 10
Directly cooled (0-1600 MVA) See figure
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Permissible K (ANSI C50.13)
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-27
Power System
Protection
Two types of inverse time overcurrent relays
are used for this protection function
Extremely inverse time overcurrent relay of
electromechanical design
Time overcurrent relays matched for the
negative sequence current capability solid
state and microprocessor based designs
(I
2
t) is a straight line characteristic when
plotted on the log-log scale
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Inadvertent energization
Inadvertent energization can cause serious
damage to a generator
Several protection systems can be used to
disconnect the generator from the system,
such as
Frequency supervised overcurrent relay
Voltage supervised overcurrent relay
Directional overcurrent
Distance relay looking in to the generator
Anti-motoring protection
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
O/C relay with voltage supervision
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-28
Power System
Protection
O/C relay with voltage supervision
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Off nominal frequency can cause vibrations
of various parts of steam and gas turbines
setting up fatigue and ultimate damage
Frequency is controlled by shedding load
(and sometimes generation) in the system
If the system frequency relays are not able
to maintain in reasonable limits, action must
be taken at the generator level
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Reduced frequency means
reduced operating speed of generator and
turbine
reduced ventilation and cooling
increased load current
Consequence is reduced short time thermal
capability of the generator (permissible
short-time operating levels are specified in
standards; i.e. C50.13)
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-29
Power System
Protection
Operation at increased frequency (due to
loss of load) means
increased speed
increased ventilation
Consequence is that operation at over-
frequency does not cause overheating of
generator
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Turbine capability at lower than nominal
frequency is primarily limited by the natural
frequencies of the long tuned blades in the
low pressure turbine element
Operation at normal level but at low speed
can increase pitting, corrosion and erosion
of blade edges
Loss of blade life during normal operation
should also be considered
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Protection against over frequency is not
applied because operator intervention is
expected
Systems that can split into islands should
consider using under frequency protection
of generators
C37.106 includes typical operating limits of
steam turbines
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Saskatchewan
7-30
Power System
Protection
Typical steam turbine operating limits
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary
Power System
Protection
Summary
Topics discussed in this session
Stator ground fault protection
Field ground fault protection
Inadvertent energizing
Outline
Other issues
Introduction
Stator phase
fault protection
Stator ground
fault protection
Field ground fault
protection
Loss of field
protection
Out of step
Current
unbalance
Summary

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Power System Protection - Varanasi 2012 November 22

Professor Emeritus Mohindar S Sachdev,

The electrical center is

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