2012

RESEARCH PAPER
ANCIENT SCIENTIFIC PRACTICES IN THE INDIAN WORLD
This is a research paper enumerates detailed information and analysis on the ancient scientific practices in India and its contribution to the scientific world.

NEIL SENGUPTA DELHI PRIVATE SCHOOL, SHARJAH 25/5/2012

INTRODUCTION

Ancient India was a land of renowned scientists and scholars with remarkable contributions to the field of Science and technology. Vedas the oldest scriptures of India is thought to be the pillar of modern scientific knowledge. The word Veda means knowledge and the sages of the ancient times discovered the subtle nature of reality, and coded it in the form of the Vedas. Hence the Vedas were considered to be very honourable and deemed as an important scripture of ancient India. So extraordinary steps were taken to preserve it over the ages, though its meaning is little understood as of today.

The Rig Veda is the oldest Indian text and one of the oldest surviving in the world

Today, though we have made tremendous advances in the field of science and technology all over the world the great contributions of ancient India cannot be undermined and a thorough study of our rich past should be undertaken by every Indian.

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In this research work an attempt is made to capture Indias illustrious past by first highlighting some great interpretation of the ancient scriptures and then the practices in various fields of science and technology. Some great researchers & indologists who have unearthed Indias past have been summarized below.

Nancy Wilson Ross who served on the board of the Asia Society of New York has written: Many of Indias ancient theories about the universe are startlingly modern in scope and worthy of a people who are credited with the invention of the zero, as well as algebra and its application of astronomy and geometry; a people who so carefully observed the heavens that they determined the moons syndical revolution much more correctly than the Greeks. Many hundreds of years before those great European pioneers, Galileo and Copernicus, a section of the Vedas known as the Brahmanas contained this astounding statement: The sun never sets or rises. When people think the sun is setting, he only changes about after reaching the end of the day and makes night below and day to what is on the other side. Then, when people think he rises in the morning, he only shifts himself about after reaching the end of the day night, and makes day below and night to what is on the other side. In truth, he does not see at all. "The Indians, whose theory of time, is not linear like ours that is, not proceeding consecutively from past to present to future have always been able to accept, seemingly without anxiety, the notion of an alternately expanding and contracting universe, an idea recently advanced by certain Western scientists. 3|Page

Dick Teresi is an author and coauthor of several books about science and technology, including The God Particle. He is cofounder of Omni magazine and has written for Discover, The New York Times Magazine, and The Atlantic Monthly. He writes as below : "The big bang is the biggest-budget universe ever, with mind-boggling numbers to dazzle us a technique pioneered by fifth-century A.D. Indian cosmologists, the first to estimate the age of the earth at more than 4 billion years. "Two thousand years before Pythagoras, philosophers in northern India had understood that gravitation held the solar system together, and that therefore the sun, the most massive object, had to be at its center." "Twenty-four centuries before Isaac Newton, the Hindu Rig-Veda asserted that gravitation held the universe together. The Sanskrit speaking Aryans subscribed to the idea of a spherical earth in an era when the Greeks believed in a flat one. The Indians of the fifth century A.D. calculated the age of the earth as 4.3 billion years; scientists in 19th century England were convinced it was 100 million years." Dick Teresis article on the Earth as a sphere: The existence of rather advanced concepts like the Earth as sphere and the cause of seasons is quite clear in Vedic literature. For example, the Aitareya Brahmana declares: 4|Page

The Sun does never set nor rise. When people think the Sun is setting (it is not so). For after having arrived at the end of the day it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making night to what is below and day to what is on the other sideHaving reached the end of the night, it makes itself produce two opposite effects, making day to what is below and night to what is on the other side. In fact, the Sun never sets.

Dick Teresis article on Earth as Flat at Poles: "Twenty-four centuries before Isaac Newton, the Hindu Rig-Veda asserted that gravitation held the universe together. The Sanskrit speaking Aryans subscribed to the idea of a spherical earth in an era when the Greeks believed in a flat one. The Indians of the fifth century A.D. calculated the age of the earth as 4.3 billion years; scientists in 19th century England were convinced it was 100 million years." From the Crises in Modern Thought: The Crises of Reason - By Swami Kriyananda (J. Donald Walters) we also get Rig Veda quotes "Seven horses draw the chariot of Surya". These seven horses are the seven colors compromising light. These seven colors become visible in a rainbow or when light passes through a prism. Vedic literature used large numbers and employed modern decimal enumeration, compared with the primitive Greek and Roman arithmetic. The first recorded evidence of "Hindu" numerals is at least as old as the Ashoka's edicts , 250 B. C.

Not just astronomy, but other physical concepts appear in quite a developed form in ancient Indian literature. These include atomism, superposition of various sound notes, the division of time into very small units of the order of a 100,000th of a second, and so on. 5|Page

The Laya Yoga Samhita stated that just as the beams of sunlight entering a room reveal the presence of innumberable motes, so infinite space is filled with countless brahmandas (solar systems). The atomic structure of matter was discussed in the ancient Vaisesika treatises. And in the Yoga Vashista it was stated, in a passage very similar to the foregoing: "There are vast worlds all placed way within the hollows of each atom, multifarious as the motes in a sunbeam."

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Jean-Sylvain Baily India has left a universal legacy determining for instance the dates of solstices, as noted by 18th century French astronomer Jean-Sylvain Baily. Bailly said: "The movement of stars which was calculated by Hindus 4,500 years ago, does not differ even of astronomy are much more ancient than those of the Egyptians - even the Jews derived from the Hindus their knowledge."

Detailed information and analysis on the ancient scientific practices in India are covered next in the following areas: Mathematics Astronomy Physics Chemistry Biology Metallurgical Sciences Civil Engineering & Architecture Shipbuilding & Navigation Medical Science & Surgery

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MATHEMATICS
In ancient India mathematical practices and concepts can be traced to Vedic literature, which was around 4000 years old when a number of mathematical treatises were developed. India is considered the birth place of ZERO which owes its origin to the Indian philosophy that had a concept of 'sunya'. The literal translation of which is 'void' and zero emerged as a derivative symbol. Concepts of decimal system, algebra, square root and cube root also originated in ancient India. The great mathematician Aryabhatta wrote in his book Aryabhatiaya on the following: Algebra (which Aryabhatta calls as equations of form by = ax +c Quadratic equations Calculation of circumference of a circle of a given diameter and proposed that =62832/20000 which is approximately 3.1416. Trigonometry, which gives a table of sines calculating the approximate values at intervals of 90/24 = 3 45' Bijaganitam ) consisting of solutions of

Sum of the first n integers, the squares of these integers and also their cubes Formulae for the areas of a triangle and of a circle.

Another mathematician of the 12th century, Bhaskaracharya also authored several treatises on mathematics and one of them, named Siddantha Shiromani has a chapter on algebra. He is known to have given a basic idea of the Rolle's theorum and was the first to conceive of differential calculus.

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The 14th century Indian mathematician Madhava along with other mathematicians of the Kerala school, studied infinite series, convergence, differentiation, and iterative methods for solution of non-linear equations. Jyestadeva of the Kerala school wrote the first calculus text, the Yuktibhasa, which explores methods and ideas of calculus. The Shulbasutras (ancient texts) gave precise geometric expression of the so called Pythagorean Theorem. Right angles were made by ropes marked to give the triads (3,4,5) and (5,12,13). Examples of other geometrical operations in the Shulbasturas: Squaring the circle geometrically constructing a square having the same area as a given area. Adding or subtracting the area of two squares to produce two squares. In the last construction 2 works out to 577/408 or 1.414215 correct to the 5th decimal.(Same precision as 3).

Solutions in integers Nx2 +1=y2 were proposed by Brahmagupta (the bhavana method). Brahmagupta in his Brahmasputa Siddhanta gave the idea of the inverse relationship between zero and infinity.

Bhaskara II(12th century) developed the improved cyclic method (chkravala); eg.,smallest solutions to 61x2+1=y2 are 226153980 and 1766319049. Lagrange reached the same solutions in the 18th century, but through a much longer method.

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ASTRONOMY
Ancient India's contributions in the field of astronomy was well documented. The earliest references to astronomy were found in the Rig Veda, which are dated 2000 BC. However Aryabhatta was the first to gives a systematic treatment of the position of the planets in space. He believed that the apparent rotation of the heavens was due to the axial rotation of the Earth. This observation was mentioned by him at three places in Aryabhatiya (a treatise by Aryabhatta). The Skanda-Purana also described the Earth as revolving like a Bhramarika (spinning top). Aryabhatta believed that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight, and also that the orbits of the planets are ellipses. He correctly explained the causes of eclipses of the Sun and the Moon. He pointed out that for an eclipse to occur, the moon should be at one of its nodes, that is, at one of the two points where the lunar orbit intersects the ecliptic path. He wrote in his Aryabhatiya The moon covers the sun and the great shadow of the earth ie Bhu Chaya eclipses the moon Varahamihira in his famous Brihat Samhita explained at length the scientific cause of an eclipse and tells that at at solar eclipse the moon enters (covers) the suns disc. He also explained that at the lunar eclipse the moon enters the shadow of the Earth. Aryabhatta gave the circumference of the earth as 4,967 yojanas and its diameter as 1 5811/24 yojanas. Since 1 yojana = 5 miles this gives the circumference as 24 10 | P a g e

835 miles, which is an excellent approximation to the currently accepted value of 24 902 miles. He also gave the radius of the planetary orbits in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit. Aryabhatta describes orbit of the sky as 12,474,720,576,000 yojanas which has been calculated to be of the same order as the distance illuminated by the sun. This is quite likely a coincidence but his conception of the scale of the universe is noteworthy. Aryabhattas period of one sidereal rotation of the earth (ie with reference to the fixed stars in the sky) works out to be 23hours 56minutes 4 seconds, which is so accurate. Another ancient scientist Bhaskara I had mentioned For us , the sky extends as far as it is illuminated by the rays of the Sun. Beyond that the sky is immeasurable .The sky is beyond limit ; it is impossible to state its measure. The above highlights the concept of infinity of universe conceived in those days. Bhaskara II a scientist was credited with devising a rather versatile instrument Phalaka Yantra which was used in field of astronomy also.

PHYSICS
As in modern physics, ages ago, Indian philosophers envisaged the universe as having a cyclical nature. The end of each kalpa brought about by Shiva's (an Indian deity) dance is also the beginning of the next. Rebirth follows destruction. This was the birth of cosmology. The ancient Indian scriptures illustrates time scales as follows with years shown against them: Satya : 1,728,000 years Treta : 1,296,000 years Dvapara : 864,000 years Kali : 432,000 years Chaturyauga : 4,320,000 years They also mention duration of a day of Brahma = One kalpa = 1000 chaturyaga The above is about 4.32 billion years. Based on above the famous US Astronomer Carl Sagan said : 11 | P a g e

The ancient Indian scripture is the only one of the worlds great faiths dedicated to the idea that the Cosmos itself undergoes an immense, and indeed an infinite, number of deaths and rebirths. It is the only one that mentions of the time scales correspond, no doubt by accident, to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang. And there are much longer time scales still. The ancient Indian scientists came closest to modern ideas of atomic structure, quantum physics, and other current theories. India developed very early, enduring atomic theories of matter. Possibly Greek atomic thought was influenced by India, via the Persian civilization. The Puranas (ancient Indian text) describe time units from the infinitesimal truti, lasting 1/1,000,0000 of a second to a mahamantavara of 311 trillion years. Hindu sages describe time as cyclic, an endless procession of creation, preservation and dissolution. Scientists such as Carl Sagan have expressed amazement at the accuracy of space and time descriptions given by the ancient sages of India, who fathomed the secrets of the universe through their mystically awakened senses. The Indian philosophers believed that except ether or space, all other elements were physically palpable and hence comprised of small and minuscule particles of matter. They believed that the smallest particle which could not be subdivided further was paramanu. Paramanu a Sanskrit word literally means 'beyond atom' and this was a concept at an abstract level which indicated the possibility of splitting atom, which is now the source of atomic energy. Kanada, a 6th century, Indian philosopher was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian, philosopher Pakudha Katyayana, who was a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Kanada taught that light and heat are variations of the same reality. In Rig Veda there is a hymn as below: Tatha ca smaryate yojananam Sahasre dve dve sate dve ca yojane Ekena nimisaradhena kramamana The above is translated as: [O Surya(sun)] you who traverse 2202 yojana in half a nimesa 12 | P a g e

With a yojana of 13.6 km and a nimesa of 16/75th of a second this amounts to 280,755 km/s just 6% from the speed of light (299,792 km/s) Quite an inspiring fact on the speed of light calculated in ancient India. Bhaskara II (in his treatise Sidhanta Siromani) gives the smallest unit of weight which is 1 dhansi = 0.123mg used in the ancient times. Ghati Yantra as shown below was used in the ancient times as water clock. It consisted of a bowl with a small hole at its bottom sinks after 24mn (a unit of time called ghati equal to 1/60th of a day)

Ancient texts refer to various devices like gnomons, sun dials etc which have disappeared but point to a long scientific practice of observation. Today we see the massive structures like the Jantar Mantar in Jaipur, New Delhi which were used as sundials in ancient India and for many scientific work & measurements.

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Sun dial at Jantar Mantar Delhi

Sun dial at Jantar Mantar Jaipur Ancient Indian scriptures also mentions the existence of gravitational force. A definition to gravity is discussed in Naya Kandili Gravity is the cause for falling of liquids and solids. It is invisible and is inferred motion . Gravity acts not only on the body , but also equally on its finer constituents. 14 | P a g e

In another ancient text Surya Sidhanta it is written : Everyone on the earth feels that he is at the top of the earth . But this is not true . Earth is not flat instead it is spherical in shape. As the earth is round, every person considers himself at the top of the earth where he or she is standing. So downward direction is towards the centre of the earth for everyone. Ancient Indians had identified two kinds of motion, one caused without contact and the other produced by material or physical contact. The later is divided further into four types as below. 1) Nodana - Motion due to direct contact with a body exercising continued pressure

2) Abhighata - Motion due to direct contact for an instant with a body that strikes and produces an impact.

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3) Sthitisthapaktva - Motion due to direct contact with a n elastic body which exercise a moving force by means of its elasticity in the act of restitution of original form.

4) Vegavaddravya SamyuktaSamyoga - Motion due to contact with a body which is itself in contact with another which possesses Vega(momentum or impresses motion) 16 | P a g e

Measuring Instruments found from the ruins of Indus Valley Civilization exhibits the measurement practices of ancient India. Lothals measuring scale.

Kalibangans terracotta scale.

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The description of Tides is accurately given in Vishnu Purana as follows : "In all the oceans the water remains at all times the same in quantity and never increases or diminishes; but like the water in a cauldron, which in consequence of its combination with heat, expands, so the waters of the ocean swell with the increase of the Moon. The waters, although really neither more nor less, dilate or contract as the Moon increases or wanes in the light and dark fortnights..

CHEMISTRY

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The advance nature of ancient India's chemical science is exhibited in the distillation of perfumes and ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, polishing of mirrors, preparation of pigments and colours. The ancient text Rasaratna Samuchchaya gives a detailed method of distillation as below.

The above translates as: Place the chemical in a vessel provided with a long tube inserted in a an incline position which enters the interior of another vessel arranged as a receiver. The mouth of the vessel and the joint should be covered with clay and cloth. Now put a strong fire at the bottom of the vessel containing chemicals while the other vessel is in cold water. The apparatus is used for distillation.

This apparatus was first introduced by Nagarjuna for the extraction of essence from cinnabar and was called Tiryak Patana Yantra. The paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora which look fresh even after 1000 years testify to the high level of chemical science practiced in ancient India. 19 | P a g e

AJANTA CAVE PAINTINGS An interesting procedure that gives proof of the usage and preparation of the battery cell is recorded in the Agastya Samhita. The following lines illustrate the electrical cell.

The above translates as: Place copper plates in an earthen pot, Cover it copper sulphate and moistened saw dust. Spread zinc powder and cover it with mercury. Due to chemical reaction positive and negative electricity is produced. It further says that due to this water is decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen.

BIOLOGY
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In addition to the physical sciences, very interesting and modern concepts of botany and biology, including the concepts of micro-organisms, are also encountered in the ancient texts, for example, in the Mahabharata: They (trees) drink water by their roots. They catch diseases of diverse kinds. Those diseases again are cured by different operations as one can suck up water through a bent lotus stalk, trees also, with the aid of the wind, drink thorough their roots. They are susceptible to pleasure and pain, and grow when cut or chopped they are not inanimate Vrihi and other so-called seeds of rice are all living organismsagain (men) while walking about hither and thither kill innumerable creatures hidden in the ground by trampling on them; and even men of wisdom and enlightenment destroy animal life, even while sleeping or in repose themselves the Earth and the air all swarm with living organisms.

METALLURGICAL SCIENCES
In all the early civilizations found in ancient India metallurgy was always an important practice and profession among the people. This is largely evident in the coinage found dating from the 8th Century B.C. to the 17th Century A.D revealing the advances made in smelting technology in ancient India. By the side of Qutab Minar, in Delhi, stands an Iron Pillar which is believed to be cast in the Gupta period around 500 AD. The pillar has been standing in the open for last 1500 years withstanding the wind, heat and weather, but still has not rusted, which throws light on the advanced metallurgical practices used in those days.

IRON PILLAR NEAR THE QUTAB MINAR

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Taxila, located about 20 miles north of Rawalpindi in Pakistan, has yielded few brass objects such as two bangles, one vase and a pot datable to 3rd century BC to 1st century AD. Some of them contain very high quantity of zinc i.e., 34.34% which requires pure zinc to be mixed with copper and could have been possible only after discovery of zinc as a separate metal and its preparation by a process such as distillation. This demonstrates the metallurgical process practiced in ancient India with respect to Zinc production. In Kautilyas Arthasastra there is a chapter that begins with the importance of 'mines and metals' in the society where it is told gold, silver, diamonds, gems, pearls, corals, conch-shells, metals, salt and ores derived from the earth, rocks and liquids were recognized as materials coming under the purview of mines. The metallic ores had to be sent to the respective Metal Works for producing 'twelve kinds of metals and commodities'. This fact underlines the importance of metallurgical process during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya as back as the 4th century BC

CIVIL ENGINEERING & ARCHITECTURE

India's urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, where planned urban townships existed 5000 years before. The city of Mohenjo-daro had a planned layout based on a street grid of rectilinear buildings. Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brick and wooden superstructures. The city is divided into two parts, the Citadel and the Lower City. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individual households or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells. Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses, presumably those of wealthier inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been set aside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace, possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened onto side-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.

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THE WELL One large building in Mohenjo-daro as a "Great Granary" which appeared to be grain storage-bays, complete with air-ducts to dry the grain. Close to the "Great Granary" is a large and elaborate public bath, sometimes called the Great Bath.

THE GREAT BATH Other large buildings include a "Pillared Hall", thought to be an assembly hall of some kind, and the so-called "College Hall", a complex building comprising 78 rooms, thought to have been a priestly residence.

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GATEWAY AT HARAPPA

From then onwards, the ancient Indian architecture and Civil engineering continued to develop and grow. It found manifestation in construction of temples, palaces and forts across the Indian peninsula and the neighbouring regions. In ancient India, architecture and Civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala. In India today, there are several marvels of ancient architecture like: Ajanta, Ellora Caves. Temples like Khajuraho , Mahabodhi, Brihadisvara , Mahabalipuram , Konark etc. Sanchi Stupa (picture below)

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SHIPBUILDING & NAVIGATION

The science of shipbuilding and navigation was well known to ancient Indians. There is an account of a naval expedition sent out by King Turga under the command of his son Bhujyu in the Rigveda. However, the ship broke down in a storm, but some of the occupants including King Turga and Ashvins, the twin brothers, who came in their hundred-oared galley, rescued his followers. This account tells us three different things: Ships were sent to foreign countries for the purpose of trade; Multi-oared boats were used in expeditions; Vedic Aryans had knowledge of sea routes. 25 | P a g e

Archaeological excavations have revealed that during the Harappa period (2500 BC), there was a prosperous naval trade between Kathiawar and the Persian Gulf countries. The existence of a port city called Lothal, 80 km southwest of Ahmedabad, is a significant evidence in the present context. This port city had docking facilities analogous to modern ports . There were other ports also along the Gujarat Makrau and Konkan-Malabar coasts. There is a reference on early maritime commerce from India in the Bible also. In the days of Solomon items such as ivory, spices and peacocks were available only from India. For information on navigation during the Mauryan times, we depend mostly on the Jataka stories. Greek writers such as Arrian and Curtius described that shipping was a highly developed industry in India in the 4th century BC and the same made possible the course of Alexander's army of over 100,000 soldiers through the Indus. According to them, Mauryan kings not only encouraged sea trade but also modernised naval administration. Kautilya's Arthasastra vividly describes the duties of the head of the naval department and the port officers. The author of Periplus who hailed from Alexandria provides the most important source of information regarding seaports of India in those days. He describes various ports on both the western and the eastern coasts in his book. The Gupta emperors had shown a great interest in the field of navigation and also encouraged inland and overseas navigation for trade. Hamza of Isahan writers (5th century CE) mention that Indian ships used to be moored at Hira near Hufa on the Euphrates river, the major role in the sea trade being played by the merchants from Sindh and Gujarat. Even around 500 AD something like sextants and mariner's compass were used by the ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, at around the beginning of the 20th century published an article in the Bombay Gazetteer that revealed the following: The early Indians are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying building foundations and other religious ceremonies. The compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The Sanskrit word 'Maccha-Yantra or 'fish-machine' was used for this instrument which is known as the mariner's compass today.

MEDICAL SCIENCE & SURGERY

Ayurveda practiced rampantly these days is a science of medicine which dates back to its origins in ancient India. Ayurveda constitutes ideas about ailments and 26 | P a g e

diseases, their symptoms, diagnosis and cure, and relies heavily on herbal medicines, including extracts of several plants of medicinal values. Ancient scholars of India like Atreya, and Agnivesa have dealt with principles of Ayurveda as long back as 800 BC. Their works and other developments were consolidated by Charaka who compiled a compendium of Ayurvedic principles and practices in his treatise Charaka-Samahita It remained like a standard textbook almost for 2000 years and was translated into many languages, including Arabic and Latin. 'Charaka-Samahita' deals with a variety of matters covering physiology, etiology and embryology, concepts of digestion, metabolism, and immunity. Preliminary concepts of genetics also find a mention, for example, Charaka has theorized blindness from the birth is not due to any defect in the mother or the father, but owes its origin in the ovum and the sperm. In ancient India, several advances were also made in the field of medical surgery. Specifically these advances included areas like plastic surgery, extraction of cataracts, and even dental surgery. Roots to the ancient Indian surgery go back to 800 BC. Shushruta, a medical theoretician and practitioner wrote a medical compendium called 'Shushruta-Samahita. This ancient medical compendium describes at least seven branches of surgery: Excision, Scarification, Puncturing, Exploration, Extraction, Evacuation, and Suturing. The compendium also deals with matters like plastic surgery and ophthalmology. The compendium also focuses on the study the human anatomy by using a dead body.

CONCLUSION
The detailed analysis, illustrations, citations cited in this research work shows the glorious history of ancient India in the field of science and technology which every Indian should feel proud of and it open up the window to the world as to what is the position of India on the world map when it comes to its contribution to science and technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1) The Surya Siddhanta:The Hindu Book of Astronomy edited by Ebenezer Burgess 2) Aryabhatta I and his Astronomy by S. Balachandra Rao. 3) Indian Mathematics and Astronomy: Some Landmarks by S .Balachandra Rao 4) www.indianscience.org 27 | P a g e

5) www.iisc.ernet.in 6) Encyclopedia of Classic Indian Sciences: Helaine Selin 7) A Concise History of Sciences in India by DM Bose 8) Chemistry and Chemical techniques in India by B.V Subbarayappa 9) www.crystalinks.com 10) www.hinduwisdom.info

This paper was awarded the prize for the second best research paper: http://www.jsspsdubai.com/admin/upload/SchoolReport2012(2).pdf

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