DISTILLATION

Example 1

Estimate the dew point and the bubble point of the mixture of composition 12 mole% ethane, 60
mole % propane, 15 mole% 2-butane and 13 mole% 1-butane at a pressure of 15 bar.
Equilibrium ratios of (k = y/x) at 15 bar are given in table Q. 1.

Table Q.1. Equilibrium ratios at 15 bar

Temp C 26.6 37.7 57.5 65.5 93.3
Ethane 2.1 2.6 3.31 3.6 5.0
Propane 0.74 0.92 1.26 1.4 1.9
2-butane 0.34 0.43 0.64 0.73 1.1
1-butane 0.25 0.33 0.52 0.6 0.92

Solution 1

The problem can be solved using relative volatility or equilibrium ratio values.

Dew point calculation

Method I Use of relative volatility

Steps

1. Assume the dew point as 65.5 C.
2. Obtain k values for all the components at the assumed temperature and the system
pressure.
3. Calculate relative volatility values with respect to a selected component (j).
4. Calculate
j i
i
y
,

values.


The Table Q 1.2 gives the results obtained for 65.5 C.




Table Q. 1.2
xf K at 65.5 y
i
/
i

Ethane 0.12 3.6 4.93 0.02
Propane 0.6 1.4 1.92 0.31
2-butane 0.15 0.73 1.00 0.15
1-butane 0.13 0.6 0.82 0.16
0.65


Reference component (j) is 2-butane.

At the dew point ;

( )
j i i j
y k
,
/ =

k
j
= 0.73

65 . 0
,
=
j i
i
y

Therefore 65.5 C is not the dew point of the mixture.

A new temperature is selected such that;
( )
calculated
j i i new j
y k
, ,
/ =

For 2-butane k value becomes approximately 0.65 at 57.7 C. Assume dew point is 57.7 C.
The Table Q 1.3 gives the results obtained for 57.5 C.


Table Q. 1.3
xf K at57.5 y
i
/
i

Ethane 0.12 3.31 5.172 0.023
Propane 0.6 1.26 1.969 0.305
2-butane 0.15 0.64 1.000 0.150
1-butane 0.13 0.522 0.816 0.159
0.637

k
j
= 0.65

637 . 0
,
=
j i
i
y

j i
i
j
y
k
,

Therefore 57.5 C is the dew point of the mixture.

Method II Use of k value


Assume the dew point as 57.5 C. Table Q.1.4 gives calculated values of x
i
at 57.5C.

Table Q. 1.4
xf K at57.5 X
i
= y
i
/k
Ethane 0.12 3.31 0.036
Propane 0.6 1.26 0.476
2-
butane 0.15 0.64 0.234
1-
butane 0.13 0.522 0.249
0.996

1
i
x , Therefore assumed

temperature is the correct temperature.

If the assumed temperature is incorrect select new temperature such that
calculated i old j new j
x k k
, , ,
=

Bubble point calculation

Method I Use of relative volatility

Assume bubble point is 37.7 C.

Table Q. 1.5
xf K at 37.7
relative
volatility ixi
Ethane 0.12 2.6 6.047 0.726
Propane 0.6 0.92 2.140 1.284
2-butane 0.15 0.43 1.000 0.150
1-butane 0.13 0.33 0.767 0.100
2.259

At the bubble point
j
i j i
k
x
1
,
=


32 . 2
43 . 0
1 1
259 . 2
,
= = =
j
i j i
k
x

Therefore, the bubble point of the mixture is approximately 37.7 C.


If the assumed temperature is incorrect select new temperature such that
( )
i j i
new j
x
k
,
,
1

=
Find the temperature (T
new
) at which k value of j
th
component is k
j,new.

Method II Use of k value

Assume bubble point is 37.7 C.

Table Q. 1.6
xf K at 37.7
i i i
x k y =
Ethane 0.12 2.6 0.312
Propane 0.6 0.92 0.552
2-
butane 0.15 0.43 0.0645
1-
butane 0.13 0.33 0.0429
0.9714

1 9714 . 0 =
i
y

Therefore, the bubble point of the mixture is approximately 37.7 C.

Example 2

A liquid mixture composed of 85 mole% ethane, 4 mole % propane, 4 mol% butane and 7
mole% pentane is flash vaporized at a rate of 275 mol/hr in flash chamber operating at 15.5 C
and 27.6 bar. Calculate the liquid and vapor product flow rates and their compositions.

Equilibrium vaporization ratios of ethane, propane, butane and pentane at 15.5 C and 27.6 bar
are 1.2, 0.43, 0.13 and 0.036 respectively.

Solution 2

Assume V/F = 0.5

k
i
values for the operating temperature and pressure obtained from DePreister chats are given
in the third column of the table Q 2.1.
Using;
) / )( 1 ( 1
,
F V k
x k
y
i
i f i
i
+
=

Table Q 2.1
assume V/F = 0.5
K Xi V/F KX K(V/F) y
ethane 1.2 0.85 0.5 1.02 0.6 0.92727273
propane 0.43 0.04 0.5 0.0172 0.215 0.02405594
butane 0.13 0.04 0.5 0.0052 0.065 0.00920354
Pentane 0.036 0.07 0.5 0.00252 0.018 0.00486486
0.96539708

0 . 1
i
y

V/F is incorrect.

Assume V/F = 0.6

K Xi V/F KX K(V/F) y
ethane 1.2 0.85 0.6 1.02 0.72 0.91071429
propane 0.43 0.04 0.6 0.0172 0.258 0.02613982
butane 0.13 0.04 0.6 0.0052 0.078 0.01087866
Pentane 0.036 0.07 0.6 0.00252 0.0216 0.00597723
0.95370999




V/F=0.6 is incorrect.

Assume V/F = 0.4

K Xi V/F KX K(V/F) y
ethane 1.2 0.85 0.4 1.02 0.48 0.94444444
propane 0.43 0.04 0.4 0.0172 0.172 0.02227979
butane 0.13 0.04 0.4 0.0052 0.052 0.00797546
Pentane 0.036 0.07 0.4 0.00252 0.0144 0.00410156
0.97880126


V/F=0.4 is incorrect.

Assume V/F= 0.266
K Xi V/F KX K(V/F) y x
ethane 1.2 0.85 0.266 1.02 0.3192 0.96847702 0.807064
propane 0.43 0.04 0.266 0.0172 0.11438 0.02027393 0.047149
butane 0.13 0.04 0.266 0.0052 0.03458 0.00676572 0.052044
Pentane 0.036 0.07 0.266 0.00252 0.00958 0.00338903 0.09414

0.99890571
1.000397


0 . 1 9989 . 0 =
i
y

Assumed V/F is correct.

Vapor and liquid product compositions are given in last two columns respectively.


Note: In this example new V/F values were assumed by guessing. However new V/F can be
assumed as follows. But theses methods are more suitable for calculations using computers.

i) Newtons convergence method.
( )
(
(

+ |

\
|
= |

\
|
2
,
2
.
) / )( 1 ( 1
) 1 (
) / )( 1 ( 1
) 1 (
F v k
x k
F V k
x k
F
V
F
V
i
F i i
i
F i i
old new


ii) Rachford-Rice function = = ) , ( R R f
) / )( 1 ( 1
) 1 (
,
F D k
x k
i
i f i
+

If 0 ) , ( > R R f ; i.e V/F is too low.
If 0 ) , ( < R R f ; i.e V/F is too high.


Example 3

Show that at 80 C and 1035 kN/m
2
the q factor of the following feed is 0.667.

Component CH
4
C
2
H
6
C
3
H
8
C
4
H
10
C
5
H
12
C
6
H
14

x
i,f
0.03 0.07 0.15 0.33 0.30 0.12
k
80
21.0 5.9 2.49 0.95 0.395 0.18

Solution 3

Consider this problem as flash vaporization of the feed at the given condition. L/F ratio is the q
factor.

Therefore, V/F = 0.333

Calculate y
i,v
using;


) / )( 1 ( 1
,
F V k
x k
y
i
i f i
i
+
=

K82 Xi,f V/F Kxi,f K(V/F) Yi,v
C1 21.000 0.030 0.333 0.630 6.993 0.082
C1 5.900 0.070 0.333 0.413 1.965 0.157
C3 2.960 0.150 0.333 0.444 0.986 0.269
C4 1.000 0.330 0.333 0.330 0.333 0.330
C5 0.420 0.300 0.333 0.126 0.140 0.156
C6 0.190 0.120 0.333 0.023 0.063 0.031
1.025


0 . 1 025 . 1 =
i
y

Assumed V/F is correct.

Therefore, q factor of the feed is 0.667.

Example 4

The feed described in Example 3 is to be fractionated at that pressure so that the vapor distillate
contains 98% of the C
3
H
8
but only 1% of the C
5
H
12.
.
a) Identify the key components.
b) Determine the minimum reflux ratio required and product compositions under
R
min
using Underwood equations.
c) Determine the minimum number of plates required and product compositions
under total reflux using Fenske equation.
d) Estimate the number of trays required if the reflux ratio is 0.8 using Gilliland
correlation.
e) Determine product compositions when R = 0.8.

Solution 4

a) Determination of key components

Basis F = 100 kmol/hr
Assume an average column temperature = 80 C
C
1
and C
2
are tracers in bottoms and C
7
is a tracer in distillate. See table 1; light key is C
3
and
heavy key is C
5
.

b) Minimum reflux condition

Substituting in Underwood equation [1].
q factor of the feed=0.667
) 1 (
. .
q F
F x
i
iF i
=
|
|

\
|

..(1)
Solve Equation 1 for values;
+
|
|

\
|

94 . 14
7 94 . 14
+
|
|

\
|

30 . 6
15 30 . 6
+
|
|

\
|

405 . 2
33 405 . 2

+
|
|

\
|

00 . 1
30 00 . 1
+
|
|

\
|

456 . 0
12 456 . 0
= 100(1 -0.66)
The values will lie between values.
53.2 >
1
> 14.94 >
2
> 6.3 >
3
> 2.405 >
4
> 1 >
5
>0.456
To solve the problem values between
Ik
and
HK
is necessary. i.e
3
and
4
.
For hand calculations
3
and
4
can be found by trial and error procedure.
3
=4.7760.
4
=1.4177.
Now
3
and
4
can be used to solve Underwood equation 2.
(

i
iD i
D x . .
= ) 1 ( +
m
R D (2)

|

\
|

776 . 4 2 . 53
3 2 . 53
+
|

\
|

776 . 4 97 . 14
7 94 . 14
+
|

\
|

776 . 4 3 . 6
7 . 14 3 . 6
+
|

\
|

776 . 4 405 . 2
405 . 2
4
D x
D


+
|

\
|

776 . 4 0 . 1
3 . 0 0 . 1
+ |

\
|

776 . 4 456 . 0
0 456 . 0
= ) 1 ( +
m
R D ...
2(a)
|
|

\
|

2 . 53
3 2 . 53
Similarly substituting
4
= 1.4177
( ) 1
4177 . 1
.
+ =
|
|

\
|

m
i
iD i
R D
D x

\
|

4177 . 1 2 . 53
3 2 . 53
++
+ |

\
|

4177 . 1 405 . 2
405 . 2
4
D x
D
. = ) 1 ( +
m
R D ...
2(b)
Solve 2(a) and 2(b)
05 . 13 .
4
= D x
D

99 . 60 ) 1 ( = +
m
R D

D x F x W x
D F W 4 4 4
. . = 05 . 13 33 .
4
= W x
W
95 . 19 .
4
= W x
W

D D x
iD
=

. D =38.05 W =61.9
D ( R
m
+1 ) =60.99
38.05 ( R
m
+1 ) =60.99
R
m
=0.608


|
|
|

\
|
=
W
W x
x
iW
iW
.

Now the distillate and bottom product compositions can be calculated. See Table Q 4.1.

Then the assumed average column temperature should be checked.
Find the distillate dew point.
Distillate dew point (trial and error) 46
0
C.
Similarly obtain the residue bubble point.
Residue bubble point =113
0
C.
Average column temperature =
2
113 46 +

=79.5
0
C
Assumption t
av,column
= 80
0
C is valid.

c) Fenske equation
|
|
|

\
|
=
D
D x
x
iD
iD
.



ave
m
N
) 45 . 6 ln(
3 . 0
7 . 29
3 . 0
7 . 14
ln
1
(

\
|
|

\
|
= +
34 . 8
46 ,
=
iK
00 . 5
113 ,
=
iK


00 . 5 34 . 8
,
=
ave iK
45 . 6
,
=
ave iK



For ;
4
C
|
|

\
|
=
+
W x
D x
W x
D x
W hK
D hK N
i
iW
iD m
.
.
.
.
.
1

=
( )
|

\
|
7 . 29
3 . 0
4 . 2
56 . 4

=0.547
Material Balance;
F x W x D x
F D D
. . .
4 4 4
= +
33 . .
4 4
= + W x D x
D D

67 . 11 .
4
= D x
D
33 . 21 .
4
= W x
W

= = 67 . 36 . D D x
iD

= = 33 . 63 . W W x
iW

Now complete the table Q 4.2.
Feed tray location;
ave iK
D hK
W hK
W iK
D iK
m
D x
W x
W x
D x
N
) ln(
ln
1
.
.
.
.

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
= +
4 56 . 4 1 = +
m
N
4 56 . 3 =
m
N


|

\
|

1
3 . 6
ln
3 . 0
15 . 0
10 2 . 8
4 . 0
ln
3
min , F
N
= 2.48
Assume relative feed location is constant as we change the reflux ratio from total reflux to a
finite value.

N
N
N
N
F
F
=
min
min ,




d) Calculation at finite reflux ratio

8 . 0 = R
106 . 0
1 8 . 0
608 . 0 8 . 0
1
=
+

=
+

R
R R
m

From Gilliland correlation 5 . 0
1
=
+

N
N N
m

8
55 . 3
=
=
N
N
m

Accuracy of the shortcut method by Gilliland correlations is % 30
|
|

|


\
|

(

(



(

(



=
hK
iK
F hK
F iK
D hK
D iK
F
x
x
x
x
N


ln
ln
.
.
.
.
min ,
Determine distillation of components by linear interpolation.
R
1 + R
R

D x
iD
. W x
iW
.


1.0
( D x
D
.
4
)

=11.67 ( W x
W
.
4
)

=21.33
R=0.8 0.444 12.89 20.10
m
R
=0.608

0.378
( D x
D
.
4
)
min
=13.05 ( W x
W
.
4
)
min
=19.95

Now complete the table for finite reflux ratio. (See table Q.4.3)
At R=0.8,

= 89 . 37 .D x
iD

= 11 . 62 .W x
iW

Table Q 4.1: Product compositions at minimum reflux

Compon
ent
x
i,F
F. x
i,F
D.x
i,D
W.x
i,
w

80
x
i,D
x
i,w

C
1
0.03 3 3 Nil 53.2 0.0789 Nil

C
2
0.07 7 7 Nil 14.9
4
0.1839 Nil

Lk C
3
0.15 15 14.7 0.3 6.3 0.386 4.8x10
-
3

C
4
0.33 33 13.0
5
19.9
5
2.40
5
0.343 0.321

Hk C
5
0.30 30 0.30 29.7 1.0 7.8x10
-
3
0.479

C
6
0.12 12 Nil 12 0.45
6
Nil 0.193

D = 38.05 kmols/hr x
i,D
= 0.9996
W = 61.9 kmols/hr x
i,w
= 0.9978

Table Q 4.2: Product compositions at total reflux

Compon
ent
x
i,F
F. x
i,F
D.x
i,D
W.x
i,
w

80
x
i,D
x
i,w

C
1
0.03 3 3 Nil 53.2 0.081 Nil

C
2
0.07 7 7 Nil 14.9
4
0.190 Nil

Lk C
3
0.15 15 14.7 0.3 6.3 0.400 4.73x10
-
3

C
4
0.33 33 11.6
7
21.3
3
2.40
5
0.318 0.336

Hk C
5
0.30 30 0.30 29.7 1.0 8.18x10
-3
0.468

C
6
0.12 12 Nil 12 0.45
6
Nil 0.189

D = 36.67 kmols/hr x
i,D
= 0.997
W = 63.33 kmols/hr x
i,w
= 0.997

Table Q.4.3 : Product compositions at R = 0.8

Compon
ent
x
i,F
F. x
i,F
D.x
i,D
W.x
i,
w

80
x
i,D
x
i,w

C
1
0.03 3 3 Nil 53.2 0.079 Nil

C
2
0.07 7 7 Nil 14.9
4
0.184 Nil

C
3
0.15 15 14.7 0.3 6.3 0.387 4.83x10
-
3

C
4
0.33 33 12.8
9
20.1
0
2.40
5
0.340 0.323

C
5
0.30 30 0.30 29.7 1.0 7.91x10
-3
0.478

C
6
0.12 12 Nil 12 0.45
6
Nil 0.193

D = 37.89 kmols/hr x
i,D
= 0.997
W = 62.11 kmols/hr x
i,w
= 0.998





Example 5.

A tray tower with a total condenser produces a distillate containing 10 mole % iso-butane, 35
mole% n-butane, 35 mole% n-pentane and 20 mole% n-hexane. The column pressure is
approximately 1 bar and the reflux ratio is 2. Calculate;


a) The approximate temperature of the top tray.
b) The composition of the liquid leaving the top tray
c) The composition of the vapor rising from the second tray.

The equilibrium ratios (k=y/x) at 1 bar.



Component
k values at various Temperatures
25 C 35 C 45 C
Iso butane 3.25 4.20 5.40
n- butane 2.35 3.00 4.05
n-pentane 0.65 0.94 1.30
n-hexane 0.19 0.35 0.50

Solution 5


Total condenser is used. Therefore, the compositions of V
1
, R and D are same (y
1
).

The temperature of the tray 1 = Dew point of V
1
= Bubble point of L
1

Check the given temperatures for the dew point of the vapor V
1
. Results are given in Table
Q.5.1. The results show that 35 C is the approximate dew point of V
1
.

Therefore, approximate temperature of the top tray is 35 C.

Composition of the liquid leaving top tray = x
i
values at 35 C.

Equation of the top operating line;

1 1
1
+
+
+
=
+
R
x
x
R
R
y
D
n n


When n = 1;

1 1
1 2
+
+
+
=
R
x
x
R
R
y
D


V
2
V
1
L
1

D
R
R =2, x
D
values are same as y
1
. Substituting in the TOL y
2
values can be calculated and
given in the last column of Table Q.5.1.


Table Q.5.1


k

vapor
comp

x
i
=y
1
/k
y
2


25
C
35
C
45
C
y
1
25 C
35 C 45 C

Iso
butane
3.25 4.2 5.4 0.1
0.030769 0.02381 0.018519 0.04919
n- butane 2.35 3 4.05 0.35
0.148936 0.116667 0.08642 0.194367
n-
pentane
0.65 0.94 1.3 0.35
0.538462 0.37234 0.269231 0.364645
n-hexane 0.19 0.35 0.5 0.2
1.052632 0.571429 0.4 0.447238
1.7707 1.0842 0.7741 1.0554


Example 6

A feed of 150 kmol/hr containing 45 mol% methanol and 55 mol% water is to be separated in a
continuous distillation column to give a distillate containing 98 mol% methanol and a bottom
product containing 3 mol% methanol. The column is operated at 1 bar with a reflux ratio of 1.2.
The feed comprises 40% saturated vapor and 60% liquid at its boiling point. The reboiler is
heated by saturated steam at 2.5 bar.

a) Determine the liquid and vapor flow rates in the rectifying section and the stripping
section of the column.
b) If sieve plates are used in the column determine a suitable value for the diameter of the
column.
c) Assuming that the column is to operate for 8000 hr per annum and the cost of steam is
Rs. 1200 per tonne, estimate the approximate annul steam cost.

Data : Relative molar masses Methanol : 32 gas density = 1 kg/m
3

Water : 18 liquid density = 1000 kg/m
3


Assume liquid viscosity is same viscosity of water.

Enthalpy of vaporization of water at 1 bar 2258 kJ/kg
2.5 bar 2182 kJ/kg
Solution 6



Data:

R =1.2
F =150 kmol/h
F, x
F
D, x
D
W, x
w
V
n
, L
n
V
m
, L
m
L
L
o
x
D
= 0.98
x
F
= 0.45
x
w
= 0.03

Overall Material Balance;

W D F + =

Material balance for the more volatile component;

w D F
x W x D x F + =

Substituting data and solving for D and W;

D = 66.31 kmol/h

W = 83.68 kmol/h

D
L
R
o
=

h kmol D L
o
/ 57 . 79 2 . 1 = =

h kmol L L
n o
/ 57 . 79 = =

Material balance for the top section of the column;

h kmol V D L V
n o
/ 88 . 145 31 . 66 57 . 79
1
= + = = + =

Feed is a vapor liquid mixture.

V
f
40% and L
f
60%

Feed rate is 150 kmol/h

vapor in the feed = 150 x0.4 =60 kmol/h

Liquid in the feed = 150 x0.6 = 90 kmol/h




Material balance over the feed tray;

h kmol L L L
F n m
/ 57 . 169 90 57 . 79 = + = + =

n F m
V V V = +

h kmol V
m
/ 88 . 85 60 88 . 145 = =

v
= 1 kg/m
3

L
= 1000 kg/m
3



For the rectifying section;

0172 . 0
1000
1
88 . 145
57 . 79
= = =
L
v
LV
V
L
F

Fig. Q 6.1: Flooding velocity, sieve plates


Assume tray spacing = 0.45 m

From the flooding curve; for F
LV
= 0.0172, K
1
=0.08

s m K U velocity Flooding
v
v L
f
/ 528 . 2
1
1 1000
08 . 0
1
=

= =

Assume 75% flooding;

s m U U
f operating
/ 896 . 1 75 . 0 = =

Average molecular weight of the mixture assuming 50% methanol = 32 x 0.5 +18 x 0.5 = 25

h m V
n
/ 1 / 25 88 . 145
3
=

s m V
n
/ 013 . 1
3
=

operating
n
U
A
V
=

A Cross sectional area of the column


A = 0.5 m
2


2
4
D A

=

Substituting;

D = 0.79 m

Similarly for the stripping section

062 . 0
1000
1
88 . 85
57 . 189
= = =
L
v
LV
V
L
F

Assume tray spacing = 0.45 m

From the flooding curve; for F
LV
= 0.0172, K
1
=0.078

s m K U velocity Flooding
v
v L
f
/ 465 . 2
1
1 1000
078 . 0
1
=

= =

Assume 75% flooding;

s m U U
f operating
/ 848 . 1 75 . 0 = =

Average molecular weight of the mixture assuming 50% methanol = 32 x 0.5 +18 x 0.5 = 25

h m V
m
/ 1 / 25 88 . 85
3
=

s m V
m
/ 596 . 0
3
=

operating
m
U
A
V
=

A Cross sectional area of the column


A = 0.322 m
2


2
4
D A

=

Substituting;

D = 0.640 m

Diameter of the rectifying section = 0.790 m



Diameter of the stripping section = 0.640 m

c)

Material balance for the bottom section of the column;

h kmol W L V
M m
/ 89 . 85 68 . 83 57 . 169 = = =

Let S steam consumption per year

yr kg yr kg
yr kmol h kmol V
m
/ 10 36 . 12 / 18 8000 89 . 85
/ 8000 89 . 85 / 89 . 85
6
= =
= =


Heat balance;

bar bar m
S V
5 . 2 1
=

Enthalpy of vaporization of water at 1 bar 2258 kJ/kg
2.5 bar 2182 kJ/kg

S = 1.279 x 10
7
kg/yr

Cost of steam is Rs 1200 per tonne


Steam cost = 1.279 x 10
7
x 1200/1000 =1.534 x 10
7
Rs


Example 7

Calculate the diameter of the stripping section if a column packed with 2.5 cm ceramic raschig
rings is used for the separation described in example 6.

Solution 7

=
L
G
G
L

'
'
062 . 0
1000
1
88 . 85
57 . 189
=

From the flooding curve for packed columns Fig. Q. 7.1;

15 . 0
2 . 0
3
2
=
|
|

\
|
W
L
L
G B G
e g
S U

From the Table Q.7.1;
For 2.5 cm ceramic raschig rings;


S
B
= 190 m
2
/m
3
e = 0.71

=
|
|

\
|
2 . 0
3
2
W
L
L
G B G
e g
S U

15 . 0 05 . 0
001 . 0
001 . 0
1000
1
71 . 0 81 . 9
190
2
2 . 0
3
2
= =
|

\
|

G
G
U
U


U
G
=1.73 m/s

Assume 75% flooding;

s m U U
G operating
/ 2978 . 1 75 . 0 = =

Average molecular weight of the mixture assuming 50% methanol = 32 x 0.5 +18 x 0.5 = 25

h m V
m
/ 1 / 25 88 . 85
3
=

s m V
m
/ 5963 . 0
3
=

operating
m
U
A
V
=

A Cross sectional area of the column


A = 0.4594 m
2


2
4
D A

=

Substituting;

D = 0.7648 m

Diameter of the rectifying section = 0.7648 m





Fig. Q.7.1









Table Q.7.1