Research and Development Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association

RESEARCH

DEPARTMENT 227

Bulletin

Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete

By G. J. Verbeck

Authorized reprint from pages 113-124 PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE A Symposium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson held in Toronto, Canada, April 1967 by the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, and the American Concrete Institute, and reprinted by permission of the copyright owner

FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF THE SULPHATE RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE

By G. J. Verbeck

PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT LABORATORIES Old Orchard Road Skokie, Illinois 60076

71

Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete

G. J. VERBECK*

KEYWORDS: Air content; air-entrained concretes; air-entraining cements C3A: cement content; concretes; deterioration; field tests; fly ash; longtime study; marine atmospheres: por,tland cements: portland cement (Type II); sea water; su]fate resistance; sulfate-reslstmg cement (Type V); sulfate soils.

several decades the Portland Cement Association has conducted various studies on the sulphate resistance of concrete. These studies include both field and laboratory investigations. Because of their particular interest, the field studies primarily will be considered. These field studies of the sulphate resistance of concrete involved the exposure of concrete both to sulphate soils and sea-water. They were undertaken as part of the Long-Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete (1-4). The exposure site for the study of concgete performance in sulphate soils, shown in Figurel, is located at Sacramento, California, where there are two large test basins in which approximately 20006- by 5;4-by 34-in. or 6- by 6- by 30-in. concrete beams have been installed. The soil in basin 1 contains approximately 10 per cent sodium sulphate; the soil in basin 2 contains approximately 7 per cent sodium sulphate and 3 per cent magnesium sulphate. A broad range in cement compositions and concrete mix proportions has been included in this exposure. For the present purpose, only the broader and more interesting aspects of the study will be presented. An over-all picture of the more important results that have been obtained is presented in Figure 2 which shows, for the basin 1 exposure, average data obtained for the different types of portland cement in non-air-entrained concretes having cement contents of 4, 5?4,or 7 U.S. bags per cu yd. The Figure shows the average rate of deterioration of these concretes made with the different types of cement and at the three cement contents, as a function of the average C9A content of the different cement types shown. The deterioration of the concrete specimens was evaluated visually, by measurements of strength after various periods of exposure, and by measurement of dynamic modulus of elasticity. The average rate of deterioration, expressed as per cent per year, means that where the average rate is over 100 per cent, the failure of the specimens occurred in less than one year.
DURING THE PAST *G. J. Verbeck, Director of Research, Portland Cement Association, Research Laboratories, Skokie, Illinois. An author of many papers on concrete technology, Mr. Verbeck received the ASTM Sanford E, Thompson Award in 1959 and 1962. He is active on committees of the HRB, ASTM, and ACI.

114

PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE

FIGURE1. Concrete beams exposed to sulphate soils at Sacramento, Calif,

k > \

>0
z-

m;
120 $

Pjl 00 -

Cti
0
E
n 80 Ilzrl $+
$4 ,

k Ld 60 -

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0

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20 0

2 4 AV. C3A

6 8 lb CONTENT,

12

FIGURE 2. Effect of cement content of concrete and average C3A contents of different types of cement on rate of deterioration in sulphate soil exposure (basin 1).

FIELD ANDLABORATORY STUDIESOF CONCRETE

115

Where the rate of deterioration is quite low, for example in the Types IV and V cements in the 7-bag mix at low C3A contents, failure of the concrete specimens would be projected beyond 50 years of exposure. The results in Figure 2 show that for a particular cement content the performance of the concrete depends upon the C3A content of the cement. The results also show that cement content has a marked effect. The performances of the 5%-bagl concrete mixes were at least twofold better than the performance of the 4-bag concrete mixes at equal CSA contents and the performance of the 7-bag concrete mixes was perhaps 10 to 20 times better than the 4-bag mixes. This effect of cement content is so great that the average Type I or Type III cement in the
(3? >
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FIGURE 3. Relationship between C3A content of individual cements and rate of deterioration (5Xbags per cu ydbasin 1). 5%-bag mix was about equal to the Type IV or V cement in the 4-bag mix, and the average Type I cement in the 7-bag concrete mix performed twice as well as the average Type IV or V cements in the 5?&bagmix. It must be emphasized that these are average results, averages of the particular cements selected to represent each type of cement; each point represents the average of the 3 to 8 different cements considered as representative of the type indicated. The average relationships presented in Figure 2, although valid, show some degree of deviation. It is interesting to compare the performance of the individual cements on this same basis. Such data are shown in Figure 3 for the 5%-bag concrete mix, the data for the 4-bag and 7-bag concrete mixes being essentially similar. It can be seen that the individual cements also show some variance from the average relationships, some concretesperforming from one-half to twice as well as might be expected from the indicated C3A content. lAII referencesto bag(s) and to gallon(s) are in U.S. measurements.

116

PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE

There are several possible explanations for such apparent variations. These include inaccuracies in observation of the state of deterioration, lack of uniformity of exposure conditions, secondary influences of properties of the concrete or cement other than theCtA content, or inaccurate measurementof theamountof the very important CsA component that the cement actually contains. The CtA content, as expressed in Figure 3, is that which has been estimated from direct chemical analysis of the cement and calculated with corrections for the minor oxides that the cement contains, The assumptions made in such calculations, however, can significantly affect the results. In addition, the actual amount of the CSA phase is also affected considerably by other factors such as the rate of cooling of the clinker during manufacture. It is interesting, therefore, to compare the observed performances of the individual cements towards sulphate attack with the C3A content of the cements estimated by various procedures. Such comparisons are made in F@re 4. The data shown, again for the 5%-bag concrete mix, compare the rates of deterioration of the different cements with their C3A contents determined from: ( 1) calculation in accordance with ASTM Specification for Portland Cement, C-150; (2) calculation with correction for minor oxides, as previously shown; (3) estimation using X-ray diffraction techniques; (4) estimation by microscopic, petrographic examination. 80
60

Calculated
ASTM
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Calculated
CORR. MINOR OXIDES
q q q q

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FIGURE 4. Comparison of relationships between rate of sulphate deterioration and C3A contents estimated by different methods (5%bags per cu ydbasin 1).

FIELD

AND LABORATORY

STUDIES

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117

Figure4 indicates that none of these other methods significantly improves the relationships obtained by method 2 and that other factors characteristic of the cement or the concrete are evidently involved. In addition to the cement content, the air content of the concrete has an important influence on sulphate resistance. In Table I a comparison is made of the average performance of concretes made with four Type I cements, nonairentrained and air-entrained, at cement contents of 4, 5%,and 7 U.S. bags per cu yd. It is clearly seen that the air-entrained concretes performed better, showing a lower rate of deterioration at each cement content.
TABLE I

EFFECT OFCEMENT CONTENT ANDAIRENTRAINMENT ONDETERIORATION OFCONCRETES EXPOSED TOSULPHATE SOIL (basin 1) Deterioration (% per yr) Cement Type Inon-A/E IA/E 4 bags 117 88 51~ bags x 7 bags z

It is shown in Figure 5 that the beneficial effect of air entrainment is due to a reduction in water-cement ratio. The relationship between water-cement ratio and sulphate deterioration for the concretes containing 4, 5%,and 7 bags of cement per cu yd is a direct function of water-cement ratio as affected by air entrainment, Obviously, the role of air is to reduce the water-cement ratio, decrease the permeability of the mature concrete, and thereby retard ingress of sulphates and subsequent sulphate attack. Its role is not, for example, to provide space for the deposition of otherwise expansive reaction products. The importance of air entrainment is perhaps made more apparent by the information in Table II, which compares the rate of deterioration of air-entrained and non-air-entrained concretes made with Type II and Type V cements. It should be noted that both types of cements had low average C~A contents and that all concretes made with these cements performed very well. After 16 years of exposure, the estimated life of the poorest concrete is about 55 years and of the best concrete about 300 years. The importance of both the cement content and air entrainment are clearly seen. It is interesting to consider the effect of a pozzolanic replacement of cement on the sulphate resistance of concrete. Table III presents information on replacement with a particular fly ash in air-entrained concretes made with Type I, II, and V cements, at three cement contents. Replacement with this particular fly ash (based on 7 years of exposure) improved sulphate resistance with the Type I cement only in the very lean 4-bag concrete, and reduced performance in the 5%- and 7-bag concrete mixes. The fly ash replacement with the Type II and Type V

118

PERFORMANCE

OF CONCRETE

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yd

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: $

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w n g

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60

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,/
WATER- CEMENT RATIO GALS / BAG

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AV.
FIGURE

and effect of air

5. Relationship between rate of sulphate deterioration and water-cement ratio entrainment (basin 1).

cements at all three cement contents provided no significant improvement or reduction of sulphate resistance, particularly at the 40 per cent replacement level. Perhaps this provides sufficient examples of the general findings at the California exposure site. The work just described, however, has been limited to those concretes exposed in basin 1 in which the soil contained about 10 per cent sodium sulphate. In most instances, companion specimens were also exposed in basin 2, which contained approximately 7 per cent sodium sulphate and 3, per cent magnesium sulphate. Although a detailed analysis will not be presented here, it must be noted (see Figure 6), that the result obtained in the basin 2 exposure showed less destruction than in basin 1, particularly for the more susceptible concretes. In laboratory tests. it is commonly observed that immersion of mortars or concretes in a magnesium sulphate solution is more destructive than immersion in an equal concentration of sodium sulphate solution, although the inherent diffusi-

FIELD AND LABORATORY STUDIES OF CONCRETE

TABLE II

119

EFFECT OFCEMENT TYPE,CEMENT CONTENT, ANDAIR ENTRAINMENT ON DETERIORATION IN SULPHATE SOIL (basin 1, 16 years) Av. C,A (%) 3.72 3.72 1.54 1.54 Deterioration (% per yr) 51~ bags ;:: A:: 7 bags ::: 0.6
0.4

Cement Type 11non-A/E 11A/E Vnon-A/E VA/E

No. ; 5 5

TABLE

III

EFFECT OFCEMENT REPLACEMENT BY FLY ASH ON DETERIORATION IN SULPHATE SOILOFAIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETES (basin 1,7 years) Deterioration (% per yr) Cement type : (LTS 12) ~~(LTS 21) >, ~ (LTS 51) ,, C3A (%) 11.2 ,, ,, 5.1 ,> ,, 2.2 ,, ,, Fly ash Wt( ~) 0 ; :: !: 2: 40 ;:; ;:; 0.6 2.9 ;:: 0.6 2.3 4 bags 7.4 4.0 4.6 2.0 2.0 51%bags 0.8 ;:; 1.1 1.1 7 bags 0.6 0.9 1.1 0,9 0.9

bility of magnesium sulphate is less than that of sodium sulphate. The greater deterioration resulting from exposure to magnesium sulphate solution under these conditions has been attributed to a more deleterious nature of the chemical reactions of cement with magnesium sulphate. The less deleterious reaction with the magnesium sulphate-bearing soil in basin 2 might be attributable to the development of a glass-like deposit on the surface of these specimens with subsequent reduction in evaporation rate and a corresponding reduction in the concentration of salts within the specimens. In future inspections of the specimens at this exposure site, specimens will be selected and analyzed for sulphate content to evaluate the validity of this hypothesis. Field exposure tests in sea-water are also being carried out, The Portland Cement Association has three exposure sites with concrete pilings in sea-water. One of these, in the freezing zone at Cape Cod, Massachusetts, has primarily demonstrated the value of air entrainment. Of the two warm water exposures, at St. Augustine, Florida, and near Los Angeles, California, the St. Augustine tests have proved more interesting. This exposure site is adjacent to a test installation of the Corps of Engineers. Our tests at St. Augustine involve some 66 reinforced

120 (i > \

PERFORMANCE

OF CONCRETE

$? 120 t

RATE

OF DETERIORATION % I YEAR
Basin I

FIGURE6. Comparison ofrates ofconcrete and in basin 2 soil (7% NaJS04, 3%MgS04).

deterioration

in basin lsoil(lO%Na#O1)

FIGURE 7. Concrete pilings exposed to sea-water at St. Augustine,

Fla.

FIELD

AND LABORATORY

STUDIES

OF CONCRETE

121

piles of thetype shown in Figure7 andinclude evaluation of 220f the original Long-Time Study cements at three different cement contents. At this exposure site, two types of deterioration have been observed: cracking of the concrete due to corrosion of reinforcing steel, which was only 1%in. under the surface of the concrete; and deterioration of the concrete due to sulphate attack. The results of these studies are summarized in F@re 8. In Figure 8a the ordinate shows the

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.
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-1

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i

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10 0
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5 8 C3A CONTENT,

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(b)

oo

L z~
C3A CONTENT, %

FIGURE 8.

Effect of C3A content on concrete cracking due to steel corrosion and concrete deterioration due to chemical attack. Concrete pilings in sea-water at St, Augustine, Fla.

122

PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE

average amount of cracking in the pilings at St. Augustine as a function of the C3A content of the cement. An average of about 36 linear ft of corrosion cracking was observed in the three concrete mixes made with cements having CSA contents between 2 and 5 per cent, whereas cements having CSA contents between 8 and 11 per cent averaged only about 13 linear ft of cracking. This threefold decrease in cracking as a result of corrosion of embedded steel with the higher CSA content cements is attributable to reaction of chlorides entering the concrete with the CSA constituent of the cement; this reaction retards the diffusion of chloride to the steel surface and thereby retards steel corrosion for this minimal (1% in, ) concrete cover. Figure 8b shows the sulphate deterioration of the concrete itself that has occurred during 25 years of exposure to sea-water. Only those pilings made with cements having a CSA content of 12.2 per cent show deterioration; the concretes with cements having calculated CSA contents of 11.2 per cent and less have shown satisfactory resistance to warm sea-water through 25 years of exposure, Observations such as these at St. Augustine, Florida, have indicated the need for additional studies of sea-water attack on concrete not complicated by the problem of steel corrosion, and also the need for more specific studies of factors in the corrosion of steel in concrete exposed to marine (sea-water) environments. Such additional studies were undertaken by the Association in 1959 at a new exposure site at Los Angeles Harbor shown in Figure 9. At this exposure site, approximately 750 beams have been installed. These new tests involve a wide range of cement compositions and cement contents. Different types of reinforcing and prestressing steels with different depths of cover are also included. In addition, different curing procedures, including steam curing, have been incorporated. These specimens are exposed above high tide and at mean tide, that is, covered by seawater twice a day. The results of these tests should be most interesting. In the laboratory, we have studied in some detail the nature of the chemical reactions between sulphate and the CSA constituent of cement and, more recently, the reactions between sulphate and the hydrated calcium silicates of cement. The latter include chemical studies of the substitution of sulphate in the calcium silicate hydrate product and electron microscope studies of the changes that occur in the structure of the tobermorite gel when such substitutions are made. We have studied a large number of laboratory test methods to determine the sulphate resistance of various portland cements in paste, mortar, and concrete and are trying to obtain a more quantitative understanding of the factors involved in the sulphate reactions and the resulting expansions or deteriorations of the concrete. In our future work, it is considered most important to pay close attention not only to the water-cement ratio of the concrete but to the actual permeability of the paste to sulphate ion, by measurement of both the uptake of sulphate and the expansion that occurs during the period of exposure, The permeabdity of paste

FIELD

AND LABORATORY

STUDIES

OF CONCRETE

123

FIGURE 9. Concrete beams exposed to sea-water at Los Angeles Harbor.

ion can be a complex function of cement composition and time, For example, if the cement has an inherently high and early susceptibility to attack because of its high tricalcium aluminate content, and if the cement also has a high tricalcium silicate content, the resulting high degree of early hydration could reduce the early permeability of the paste, and thereby show that triczdcium silicate was beneficial to sulphate resistance. If the cement had a relatively high sulphate resistance, however, because of its low C3A content, a relatively low level of tricalcium silicate might be beneficial. For long periods of hydration and exposure, the cement having a low COS content and a high CZS content might provide the lowest permeability to diffusion to sulphate ion, and thereby increase resistance to sulphate attack. A hydrated paste of CZS has a lower porosity than a hydrated paste of C& at the same initial water-cement ratio. A study of the influence of sulphate permeability or diffusibility should be included in future studies of sulphate resistance. In addition, future studies of sulphate resistance should include a detailed investigation of the effect of S00 content of cement in relation to CSA content. If much of the tricalcium aluminate in the cement could undergo transformation into ettringite at so early an age that the concrete would still be in a plastic and accommodative condition, it seems reasonable to assume that the subsequent damaging expansion reactions could perhaps be circumvented.
to sulphate

124 REFERENCES

PERFORMANCE OF CONCRETE

1. Twenty-Year Report on the Long-Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete. Advisory Committee, W. C. HANSEN, Chairman. Portland Cement Assoc. Res. Dept.: Bull. 175 (May 1965). 2. PAULKLIE!GER, Extensions to the Long-Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete. J. Portland Cement Assoc. Res. and Development Laboratories 5. no. 1.2 . (1963), . . Reprinted as PCA Res, Dept. Bull. 157. 3. F. R. MCMILLAN,T. E. STANTON, I. L. TYLER,and W. C. HANSEN. Long-Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete. chap. 5. Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils. A special pub. of the Am. Concrete Inst., published in co-operation with the Portland Cement Assoc. 64 pp. (Dec. 1949). Reprinted as PCA Res. Dept. Bull. 30. 4. L. S. BROWN. Long-Time Study of Cement Performance in Concrete. chap. 4. Microscopical Study of Clinkers. J. Am. Concrete Inst. 19, no, 9, p. 877 (1948). Reprinted in PCA Res. Dept. Bull. 26.

PCA.R3zD.Ser.1388

Bulletins Published by the Research Department Research and Development Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association
ZOO. Index of Research Department Bulletins 1.199. Annotated List with Author and Subject Index. Published by Portland Cement Association, Research and Development Laboratories, Skokie, Illinois (1968). 201. An Isothermal Conduction Calorimeter for Study of the Early Hydra. tion Reactions of Portland Cements, by G. E. MONFORE and BORJE OST. Re rinted from the Journal of the PCA Research and Development Labora. to ?$es, 8, No. 2, 13.20 (May 1966).

202. Outdoor Concrete Exposure

Test Plot at Skokie, by PHIL J. TATMAN and ROBERTLANDGREN. Re rinted from the Journal of the PCA Research and Development Labora. tor! es, 8, No. 2, 30.41 (May 1966). Discoloration of Concrete Flatworm, by N. R. GREENING and R. LANDGREN. Reprinted from the Journal of the PCA Research and Development Labomtories, 8, No, 3, 34-50 (September 1966). of Portland Cement Mortar to Chemical Attack A Prog.

203. Surface

204. Resistance

ress Report, by WILLIAM H. KUENNING. Reprinted from Highway Research Record, Number 113, 43.67 (1966).

205. Kinetics of the Thermal Decomposition of Calcium Hydroxide. R. SH. MIKHAIL, STEPHEN BRUNAUER,and L. E. COPELAND.

bv

Reprinted from Journat of ColloicZand Interface Science, 21, No. 4, 394.404 (April 1966).

206. A Review

of Studies of the Effects of Restraint on the Fire Resistance of Prestressed Concrete, by C. C, CARLSON, S. L. SELVAGGIO and A. H. GUSTAFERRO. Reprinted from a symposium on Fire Resistance of Prestressed Concrete, held in Braunschweig~ Germany, June 1965 by Federation International de la Pre. contrainte, Pubhshed by Bauverlag GmbH, Wiesbaden-Berlin. Conductivities of Portland Cement Paste, Aggregate by A. E. LENTZ and Down to Very Low Temperatures, and

207. Thermal
Concrete

G. E.

MONFORE.
Reprinted from the Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories, 8, No. 3, 27-33 (September 1966)

208. Scaled
ISSEN.

Models

in Fire

Research

on Concrete

Structures,

by LIONEL
Labora-

Reprinted from the Journal of the PCA Research tories, 6, No. 3, 10-26 (September 1966).

and Development

209. Paste
Alite,

Hydration of Beta-Dicalcium Silicate, Tricalcium Silicate, and by D, L. KANTRO, C. 1% WEISE, and STEPHEN BRUNAUER, Reprinted from S~mposium on Structure of Portland Cement Paste and Concrete, Highway Research Board, Special Report No. 90, 309-327 (1966).

210, Elastic Pastes:

Moduli of Hardened Portland Cement and Tricalcium Silicate Effect of Porosity, by RICHARD A. HELMUTH, and DANICA H. TURK. Reprinted from Symposium on Structure of Portland Cement Paste and Concrete, Hfghway Research Board, Special Report No. 90, 135-144(1966).

211. Reactions of Tobermorite Gel with Aluminates, Ferrites, and Sulfates, by L, E. COPELAND, E. BODOR, T. N. CHANG, and C. H. WEISE.
Reprinted from the Journal of the PCA Research to?ies, 9, No. 1, 61-74 (January 1967). and Development Labora-

212. Fire Endurance of Simply-Supported Prestressed Concrete Slabs, and S. L. SELVACGIO. by A. H. GUSTAFERRO Reprinted from Jou??zal of the Prcstressed Concrete Institute, 12, No. 1, 37-52
(February 1967).

213. Some Agent

Causes for Variation in Required Amount of Air-Entraining in Portland Cement Mortars, by NATHAN R. GREENING. Re rinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories,
9, %0. 2, 22-36 (May 1967).

214. Analysis of Portland Cement by Atomic Absorption, by R. F. CROW, W. G. HIME, and J. D. CONNOLLY. Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories,
9, No. 2, 60-77 (May 1967).

215, l!he Reversible and Irreversible Drying Shrinkage of Hardened Portland Cement and Tricalcium Silicate Pastes, by RICHARD A. HELMUTH

and DANICA H. TURK

Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories, 9, No. 2, 8-21 (May 1967).

216. Fire Endurance of Concrete Floors with Embedded Electrical floor Ducts, by M. S. ABRAMS and A. H. GUSTAFERRO.

Under-

Published by Portland Cement Association, Research and Development Laboratories, Skokie, Illinois, October, 1867.

217. Long-Time

Study of Cement Performance in Concrete Chapt er 8. Illinois Test Plot, by C. C. OLESON and GEORGE VEREtECK.
Published by Portland Cement Association, tories, Skokie, lIlinois, December, 1967. Research and Development Labora-

Slag Studies of Blended Cements Portland Blast-Furnace 218. Laboratory Cements, by PAUL KLIEGERand ALBERT W. ISBERNER. Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories, 9,
No. 3, 2-22 (September 1967).

219. Estimating Post-Fire Strength and Exposure stressing Steel by a Metallographic Method,
B.

Temperature of Preby M. S. ABRAMS and

Laboratories, 9,

ERLIN. Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Devebpment No, 3, 23-33 (September 1967).

in Fire Tests of Concrete Floors and Roofs, 220. Restraint and C. C. CARLSON, Reprinted from FIm TEeT METHODa RESTRAINT AND SMOKE
Technical Pubticatian No. 422, 21-39 (1867).

S.

L. SELVAGGIO

1966, ASTM SPeciat

Studies of the Reactivity of Sand-Gravel Aggre221. Field and Laboratory gates, by DAVID W. HADLEY. Reprinted from Journat of the PCA Research and Devetapment Laboratories,
10, No, 1, 17-33 (January 1968).

222. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Studies of the Water in Hardened Cement Paste, by PAUL SELIGMANN. Reprinted from Jaurnal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories,
10, No. 1, 52-65 (January 1968).

223. Fire Endurance of Concrete Slabs as Influenced by Thickness, Aggre. gate Type, and Moisture, by M. S. ABRAMS and A. H. GUSTAFERRO. Laboratories, Reprfnted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development
10, No. 2, 9-24 (May 1908).

224. The

Electrical

Resistivity

of Concrete,

Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research 10, No. 2, 35-48 (May 196S).

by G. E. MONFORE. and Development Laboratories,

225. Apparatus for Measuring Creep of Concrete at High Temperatures, by (%RLOS R. CRUZ. Reprinted from Journal of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories,
10, No. 3, 36-42 (September 1968).

226. A Review of Fiber Reinforcement of Portland Cement Paste, Mortar, and Concrete, by G. E. MONFORE. Reprinted from Journuz of the PCA Research and Development Laboratories,
10, No. 3, 43-49 (September

1968).

227. Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete, by G. J. VERBECK. Reprinted from Performance of Concrete, A Symposium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson, held in Toronto, Canada, April 1967, by the Divieion of Building Reeearch, National Reeearch Council of Canada, and the American
Concrete Inetitute. Publiehed by the University of Toronto Preee.

Printed in U.S.A.

Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sttlphate Resis+an&e of Concrete

I
I

KEYWORDS: Air content; air-entrained ccmcretes; air-entraining cements; C8A; cement content; concretes; deterioration; field tests; fly ash; longtime study; marine atmospheres; Portland cements; portland cement (Type H); sea water; sulfate resistance; sulfate-resisting cement (Type V); sulfate soils. SYNOPSIS: Studies of thestdfate resistance of concrete by the PCA as part of the LougTime Study of Cement Performance in Concrete are reviewed. Studies involving field exposure in sulfate soils show the importance of the tricalcium aluminate content of the cement, and the cement content and air content of the concrete. The observed sulfate resistances are compared with C3A contents estimated hy four different methods, Studies of concrete in warm sea water show that concretes made with cements hicving calculated C3A contents of 11.2~0 or less have performed without concrete deterioration through 25 years of exposure. It is indicated that high C8A contents may provide some benefit against corrosion of steel where concrete cover is minimal. The general nature of current laboratory studies is briefly discuwed. REFERENCE: G. J. Verbeck, Performance of Concrete-A Symposium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson, held in Toronto, Canada, April 1967, by the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, and the American Concrete Institute, Published by the University of Toronto Press; PCA Research Department Bulletin 227,

Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sulphate Resistance of Concrete

KEYWORDS: Air content; air-entrained concretes; air-entraining cements CaA; cement content; concretes; deterioration; field tests; fly ash; long-time study; marine atmospheres; portlancf cements; portland cement (Type II); sea water; sulfate resistance; sulfate-resisting cement (Type V); sulfate soils, SYNOPSIS: Studies of thesulfate resistance of concrete by the PCA as part of the LongTime Study of Cement Performance in Concrete are reviewed. Studies involving field exposure in sulfate soih show the importance of the tricalcium aluminate content of the cement, and the cement content and air content of the concrete. The observed sulfate resistances are compared with C3A contents estimated by four different methods, Studies of concrete in warm sea water show that concretes made with cements having calculated C3A contents of 11.270 or less have performed without concrete deterioration through 25 years of exposure. It is indicated that high C3A contents may provide some benefit against corrosion of steel where concrete cover is minimal. The general nature of current laboratory studies is briefly discussed. REFERENCE: G. J. VerbeCk, performance of Concrete-A Sym osium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson, held in Toronto, Canada, April 196 !, by the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, and the American Concrete Institute. Published by the University of Toronto Press; PCA Research Department Bulletin 227.

Field and Laboratory Studies of the Sttlphate Resistance of Concrete

KEYWORDS: Air content; air-entrained concretev air-entraining cement$ C3A; cement content; concretes; deterioration; field tests; fly ash; longtime study; marine atmospheres; portland cements; portland cement (Type H); sea water; sulfate resistance; sulfate-resisting cement (Type V); sulfate soils. SYNOPSIS: Studies of the sulfate resistance of concrete by the PCA as part of the LongTime Study of Cement Performance in Concrete are reviewed, Studies involving field exposure in sulfate soils show the importance of the tricalcium aluminate content of the cement, and the cement content and air content of the concrete. The observed sulfate resistances are compared with C3A contents estimated by four different methods. Studies of concrete in warm sea water show that concretes made with cements having calculated C3A contents of 11.2~0 or less have performed without concrete deterioration through 25 years of exposure. It is indicated that high C3A contents may provide some benefit against corrosion of steel where concrete cover is minimal. The general nature of current laboratory studies is briefly discussed. REFERENCE: G, J. Verbeck, Performance of Concrete A Symposium in Honour of Thorbergur Thorvaldson, held in Toronto, Canada, April 1967, by the Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, and the American Concrete Institute. Published by the University of Toronto Press; PCA Research Department Bulletin 227.