Lecture 1 Introduction: - 4.

6 billion years ago - Sun was formed when gravity pulled material towards the centre (swelling motion) - Accretion, small grains buildup to form fist sized planets (planet tesema) - Asteroids and comets occasionally collide into the Earth The Earths Four Spheres: Geosphere: solid earth: core( 6000 C ;fluid but solid), mantle (2900km contributes to the largest component of the Earth), crust - Outer layer compressing the core - Mantle: Inner (soft, plastic, and weak) & Outer (cooler, solid) 80% of the Earth - Asthenosphere: area between the outer mantle and the crust reason why we have tectonic plate activity - Lithosphere (mantle and crust collectively): thinnest layer Hydrosphere: water sources, riverine, lacustrines (collective lakes), palustrine (collective wetland, marshes), ocean - Other sources of water come from frozen ice (i.e. Greenland, Arctic & Antarctic circles 1.8% fresh water) - Rivers, lakes (fresh water) account for <1% - Aquifer: regions of subterarian water supply- underground layer of water (sandwiched btw 2 impermeable layers OR an overlying permeable layer and underlying permeable material) - Confined Aquifer and Unconfined aquifer o Confined: clay or rock (impermeable) o Unconfined: permeable, also referred to as water-table Atmosphere: gaseous layer: N (largest) O (21%) CO2, Ar, He etc.. - Heterosphere: outermost sphere (composition: begins in the exosphere extends to ~80km) hetro= not UNIFORM! - Lightest elements found here! (He) - Homoshpere (extended from 80km to the Earths surface) - ozone found here O3 - Thermoshpere: (heat zone w/in the earth) NOT HOT (less volume of air) vibrational energy causes HIGH temperatures (e- excited!!) - Mesosphere (50-80km): coldest b/c particles serve as condensation nuclear COLDEST ONE - Stratophere temperature inversion (warms up)~ absorption of greenhouse gases - Troposhere: Tropopause: (transition zome btw stratosphere and troposphere) temperature with altitude (-6.4 for ever 1000m rise); higher you go, cooler it becomes Biosphere: realms of living organisms, nutrient cycles - Made of complex organisms: vertebrate, invertebrate, microorganisms, plant material - Nutrient recycling within the biosphere interaction, interdependence, interconnection among different systems

very dynamic and self- sustaining (reciprocal relationship: give&take) Carbon Cycle and Nitrogen Cycle Carbon Cycle: - Photosynthesis (plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere thus, loose Carbon). - When trees die, decomposes and Carbon is released (thru pressure & extreme heating) into the Earth. - We can gain carbon into the atmosphere from the combustion of coal, forest fires etc. - The lakes and ocean also absorbs a lot of carbon over the years. Nitrogen Fixation Cycle The process which gaseous form of nitrogen is absorbed by bacteria that dwell in the roots of trees. Convert the gaseous form of nitrogen into ammonia and nitrite ions. It becomes part of the tissue of plants. Produce NO2 and NH4

Nitrogen Denitrification Cycle: Process by which nitrite is converted back into nitrogen gas. Must occur for fixation to occur Provide N2

Earth as a System A system: is an assemblage or a combination of interacting component Suprasystem & subsystem: both components needed for the survival of the system Causes a chain of reaction and changes to other spheres ( interconnected) i.e. emission of greenhouse gases can cause acid deposition & this causes changes in the pH of water in turn, death to fishes Humans interact with the environment o Size of system o System interact in complex ways o Energy and material cycle are essential for the study of earth systems

Time & Rates of Change in the Earth Science James Hutton Sandstones Geomorphology- changes in the earth Scottish, physician Principals:

o Uniformitarianism/Gradualism: geologic changes occur over long period of time by a sequence of almost imperceptible event . Present is key to the past William Whewell Argued that geological change is sometimes rapid Catastrophism (paroxys): violent/ dramatic disasters contribute to changes in the Earth surface Threshold & Feedback Processes Threshold Effect Threshold: initial change slowly in response to small disturbance but after threshold is crossed, additional small changes cause RAPID dramatic changes. o Like the Tundra-reindeers Feedback: small disturbances in one area affects a another component of the earths system o Amplify original effect o Spreading o Example: High temperatures cause bacteria to flourish (2005, England) more food increased respiration increased CO2 Thus (France study 2003)- reduction of plant photosynthesis uptake of CO2 decreases Atmospheric CO2 increases

Energy Balance on the Earth Absorption & emission Photons= particles of light (Sun- Fusion (Hydrogen Helium)) Insolation o Measured on horizontal plate o Infrared- long wave radiation (reradiated energy) Refraction: disported, medium/ media, change in speed or direction o Rainbow effect/ highways (mirage) Reflection: solar radiation bounces directly back into space. o Angle of incident= angle of reflection o Albedo Power + texture of composition Forest= 50% of energy is reflected Desert= 35% Polar/ Greenlands= 80% Sky= 6-8% Reflection o radiation bounces directly back into space o angle of incident= angle of reflection Scattering: o Gases, pollen, dust, water droplets- disperse incoming sunlight o Inverse relationship between wavelength of energy and the amount of scattering

Shorter wavelength= more scattering Sky is blue- visible light (north) South- have both short/long wavelength- scattering by gases spreads light in both direction Longer wavelength= less scattering Absorption and emission o Molecules of matter o One form to another (photosynthesis) o Energy-isolation Radiation Balance: o Input + output of energy= net energy balance 1. Conduction: molecule to molecule, transfer by contact (pot and stove) 2. Convexion: movement of molecules from ONE location to ANOTHER (water vapor movement- equator to polor ends- HOT AIR BALLON, wind currents, hot air rises, cool air DROPS) 3. Advection: Horizontal movement of WIND FRICTION. land breeze/ sea breeze Thermo(heat)conveo(salt) o Land- opaque- cold faster o Sea- transparent- takes long time to warm up because of HIGH SUFRACE AREA What factors influence temperature conditions? o Location- Florida is on the same latitude as Russia o Wind system- Florida has different Wind system than Russia difference in Temperature (Russia-cold) (Wind affects temperature) o Land scapepavementsabsorb heatreradiated back into space o Curvature of earth-latitudinal o Cloud cover o Cold currents move towards the equator!!!

Cold Ocean Currents: Peru Benguelea W. Australia Canary Calforina Labrador E. Greenlands Oyashia