R.K.

HEAT TRANSFER

HEAT TRANSFER Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy or heat between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species to achieve heat transfer. Mechanisms The fundamental modes of heat transfer are: Conduction or diffusion The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact. Convection The transfer of energy between an object and its environment, due to fluid motion. Radiation The transfer of energy to or from a body by means of the emission or absorption of electromagnetic radiation. Advection The transfer of energy from one location to another as a side effect of physically moving an object containing that energy. Advection By transferring matter, heat or energy is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example is thermal hydraulics. This can be described by the formula where Q is heat flux (W/m), is density (kg/m), cp is heat capacity at constant pressure (J/(kg*K)), T is the change in temperature (K), v is velocity (m/s).

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

1. Conduction Heat conduction is occurred by two mechanisms are i) By molecular interaction whereby the energy exchanges takes place by the kinetic motion or direct impact of molecules. By the draft of free electrons as in the case of metallic solids. The metallic alloys have a different concentration of free electrons, and their ability to conduct heat is directly proportional to the concentration of free electrons in them. The free electron concentration of non-metals is very low. Hence materials that are good conductors (pour meal, viz., copper, silver etc.) are good conductors of heat. Pure conduction is found only in solids.

ii)

Fourier law of heat conduction: It states that the rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area measured normal to the direction of heat flow, and to the temperature gradient in that direction. Q= or q = is difference of length) (were, A is Area, is change of temperature and

K is the constant of proportionality also called coefficient of thermal conductivity General differential equation of heat conduction

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

The energy balanced is obtained from the first law of thermodynamics asNet heat conducted into element dxdydz per unit time (Hc) + Internal heat generated per unit time(Hg) =Increase in internal energy per unit time.(I) Hc=[ (Kx + (Ky + (Kz ]dxdydz

This is obtained by using Fouriers law of heat conduction. Now, let q be the internal heat generation per unit time and per unit volume, the rate of energy generation in theer element then Hg=qdxdydz The change in internal energy for the element over a period of time dt is given as I= Cp dxdydz Putting the values of Hc, Hg and I in the balance equation we get[ (Kx + (Ky + (Kz ]+q= Cp Now, assuming Kx=Ky=Kz=K (if constant) Therefore, general three-dimensional heat conduction equation becomes + + + = Cp = ............................(B)

The quantity

is known as Thermal Diffusivity, and is denoted by .

Thermal diffusivity gives the information that how fast heat will be propagated or it will be diffused through the material. It has got unit m2/s
3

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

DIFFERENT FORMS OF HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION Case I: Uniform thermal conductivity When the thermal conductivity of the material is independent of position and temperature, equation (B) takes the form + or, of T Case-II: Steady state conditions If the temperature at any point in the material does not change with time, i.e. Then the equation (B) reduce to + or,
2 2

+ = Cp

=
2

T+ =

where

T=

is called the laplacian (operator)

+ =0

T + =0

The above equation is also known as Poisson Equation Case-III: No heat sources In the absence of any heat generation or release of energy within the body, equation (B) become + + = ...........(i) The equation (i) is also known as Diffusion equation. [Where is called Thermal Diffusivity of material (m /sec): It is the ratio between the thermal conductivity and the heat capacity per unit volume of an object. Mathematically,
4
2

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

, where k is thermal conductivity,

is density and cp is specific heat

Note that the thermal conductivity (k) represented how well a material conducts heat, and the heat capacity ( represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume. The larger the diffusivity means faster the propagation of heat into the medium. A small value of thermal diffusivity means that heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a small amount of heat will be conducted further.] If the process is in steady state, then the heat conduction equation becomes + or,
2

=0

T =0 ..........(i)

Equation (ii) is also known as Laplace equation. Case IV: One dimensional heat conduction If the temperature varies only in the x-direction, then the term
2

T reduces to

= in all above case. For a steady state case with no heat generation, heat conduction equation is

Heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Consider a small cylindrical element having sides dr, dz and r d As shown in fig. The rate of heat flow in r direction is: Qr=-k rd dz The rate of heat flow out of the element in r direction at r+dr is: Qr+dr =Qr+ dr Then, the net heat entering the element in r direction is: Qr-Qr+dr= dr = =k =k dr=k ( )

Similarly,

rd ]

rd =

rd =

And, =

= d d =

d ]= d

Therefore, balancing the energy as equationk* =q Or, k* + d + ++ ( + ( d )+ =q + )

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Or, * Or, +

++ ( +

)+ = +

= +

Heat conduction equation takes the form + )+ + + =

For one dimension case (considering heat conduction in r direction only): + Or, ( = + )= +

Heat conduction equation in spherical coordinate in spherical co-ordinate system Consider a small spherical element having sides dr, rd and rsin d As shown in fig

The rate of heat flow in r direction is: Qr=-k rd d The rate of heat flow out of the element in r direction at r+dr is:
7

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Qr+dr =Qr+ Then, the net heat entering the element in r direction is: Qr-Qr+dr= =k(r2 +2r d d d d dr=k r2 d d

dr

=k( + Similarly, Q- Q+d= = And, = = ( rsin d = ) * +

[ ( d

rsin d ] rd = )

Therefore, balancing the energy as equationk* ( =q + ) d + + * +

Or, k* Or, *

++ ++ *

++ (

)=q+ )= +

++ (

For one dimension case (considering heat conduction in r direction only): + = +

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

ONE DIMENTION STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION Temperature field in the system is described in terms of only one space coordinate. 1. Heat conduction through plane walls

Considering a plane wall of a material of uniform thermal conductivity K as shown above. The wall is extended to infinite in y and z directions. The general heat conduction equation is + + + = =0( for steady state)

For above case =

=0 (for one dimensional)

And also =0 (since no heat generation) The conduction equation transform to =0 or =0 or, c1.........(1) or, T=xc1+c2....................(2) Solving above equation and taking boundary condition as
9

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

T=T1 at x=0...............(a) And T=T2 at x=L......................(b) Putting the boundary condition of (a) into the equation (2) we get c2=T1 and also from equation (1) we get c1= = So the equation (2) become, T= ( From Fouriers law, Q=-KA Therefore, Q=-KA( )= KA( )= ...........................(1) )x +T1

Where Q= quantity of heat, which must be supplied to the left face of the wall to maintain a temperature difference (T1-T2) across it. Thermal resistance for plane wall is given as Rpln,Th = 2. Redial heat conduction through cylindrical system Consider a long cylinder of inside radius r1, outside r0 and length L as shown below

The inside and outside surfaces are kept at constant temperature Ti and To respectively. The general heat conduction equation in cylindrical co-ordinates is
10

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

)+

+ =

Assuming that heat flows only in a radial direction, the above equation under steady state (without heat generation) takes the form + Or, Or, Or, =c1 =c1 or,T=C1lnr+C2.............................................(1) )=0 =0 [as or, r =0 =0 or =0 ]

Boundary conditions are T=Ti at r=ri......................................................(a) T=To at r=ro....................................................(b) Using condition (a) into the equation (1) we get, Ti=C1lnri+C2....................................(2) Also using condition (b) into the equation (1) we get, To=C1lnro+C2......................(3) Subtracting the equation (2) and (3) we get, Ti -To =C1lnri+ C1lnro= C1 (lnri+lnro) Or, C1= Putting the value of c1 in the equation (2) we get Ti= Or, C2=Ti lnri= lnri+C2

Substituting the value of C in the equation (1) , we get T= lnr+

Heat flow, Q=-k

Therefore, the thermal resistance for the hollow cylinder is Rcyl,th=

11

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Log mean area: It can be used to transfer a cylinder into an equivalent slab. It is assumed that the heat transfer through the cylinder and the slab are equal. Am = log mean area of cylinder= Where Ai and Ao are the inside and outside surface area of the cylinder. If <2 then Am is given as

Am= Thermal resistance is given as Rcyl,th= = =

The thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder is of exactly the same as that for a slab except that the logarithmic mean area is used for the cylinder. 3. Redial heat conduction through spherical system Let us consider a hollow sphere as shown in fig below whose inside and outside surfaces are held at a temperatures Ti and To respectively.

If the temperature variation is only in the radial direction, then for steady state condition with no heat generation, the heat conduction equation is

[ Or, Or, r2 =c1or, (r2 )=0 [ or, T=-r-2+1c1+c2=

= ] = (r2 ) ]

+c2...........................(1)

12

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Boundary conditions are T=Ti at r=ri......................................................(a) T=To at r=ro....................................................(b) Using condition (a) into the equation (1) we get, Ti= - C1 +C2....................................(2) Also using condition (b) into the equation (1) we get, To= - C1 +C2......................(3) Subtracting the equation (2) and (3) we get, Ti -To = - C1 ( - ) Or, C1= Putting the value of C1 in the equation (2) we get C2=Ti Substituting the value of C in the equation (1), we get T= = +Ti = ( = Ti ) = = Therefore, the thermal resistance for the hollow sphere is Rsph,th= )=

Therefore, Heat flow, Q = - k

Geometric mean area: It can be used to transfer a sphere into an equivalent slab. It is assumed that the heat transfer through the sphere and the slab are equal. Ag = Geometric mean area of cylinder= =

Where Ai and Ao are the inside and outside surface area of the cylinder. Thermal resistance is given as Rsph,th= = =

13

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

The thermal resistance of a hollow sphere is of exactly the same as that for a slab except that the logarithmic mean area is used for the sphere. Example-1 Determine the heat transfer through the composite is shown in fig. Take the conductivities of A, B, C, D and E as 50, 10, 6.67, 20 and 30W/mk respectively and assume one dimensional heat transfer. Solution: The various wall resistances, as shown in figure are Ra= = =1 10-3 K/W

Rb = Rc= Rd = Re=

=2 =3 =2 =1.67

-2

K/W K/W K/W K/W

-2 -3 -3

14

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

If the equivalent resistance for Rb and Rc isRbc Then = or, 12 Therefore,

-3

= K/W

Ra + Rbc + Rd + Re = (1+12+2.5+1.67) 10-3=17.17

So, Q =

= 4.07 104 W= 40.7 KW

Example-2 A 10cm O.D. steam at 1373 KPa(1.373MN/m2) is lagged to 20 cm diameter with magnesia (k=0.07 W/mK) and further lagged with laminated asbestos of thermal conductivity 0.08 W/mK to 25 cm diameter. The whole pipe is further protected by layer of canvas. If the temperature under the canvas is 20c, find the mass of steam condensed in 12 hours on 150 meter length of pipe. Neglect thermal conductivity effect of the pipe material. Solution: At 137 kpa, T, the saturation temperature of stem=467.14K=194.14C hfg= Latent heat of steam =1963.15 kJ/Kg Q= =

= 12916.5W

=12.916 KJ/s = 12.916 46497.6 kJ/h So, mass of steam condensed per hour = = 23.685 Kg Mass of steam condensed in 12hours = 284.22 Kg Example-5 The temperature distribution across a large concrete slab 50 cm thick heated from one side as measured by thermocouples approximates to the following relation T=60-50x+12x2+20x3-15x4 Where T is in C and x is in meters. Considering an area of 5 m2, compute (i) the heat entering and leaving the slain unit time. (ii) the heat energy stored in unit time (iii) the rate of temperature change at both side of the slab (iv) the point where the rate of heating or cooling is maximum Take the following data for concrete: K=1.2 w/mK, Sllotion: Here T=60-50x+12x2+20x3-15x4
15

1.77 10-3 m2/h

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

= - 50+24x+60x2+60x3 and (i) = - 24+120x-180x2 Q= - kA( ) = - KA(- 50+24x+60x2+60x3) Heat entering the slab = Qo=-Ka( )x=0 =-(1.2 (-50)=300W Heat leaving the slab = QL=-KA( )x=0.5 =(- 1.2 (-50+12+15-7.5)=183 W Example-6 A wall of a furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120 mm thick converted with layer of magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperature at inside surface silica brick wall and outside surface of magnesite brick wall are 725C and 100C respectively. The contact thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035C /W per unit wall area. If thermal conductivity of silica and magmesite brick are 1.7W/mC and 5.8 W/mC. Calculate (a) The rate of heat loss per unit of area of walls. (b) Temperature drop at the interface. Solution: Given data Lo=0.12 m Lb=0.24 m Kd= 1.7 W/mC Kb= 5.8 W/mC The thermal resistance between silica bricks and magnesite brick=0.0035C/W Temperature of the inside surface of silica brick wall t1=725C Temperature at the outside surface of the magnesite brick wall t4=110C (a) The rate of heat loss per unit area of wall. q= = = =

=5324.67 W/

16

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

(b) The temperature drop at the interface (

As the same heat flows through each layer of composite wallq= =

or, 5324.67= or, =349.15C

Similarly, T3=330.33 C The temperature drop at the interface = 349.15 - 330.33=18.82C Example-8 A plane wall is made by fire clay brick. The wall thickness L=300mm. The temperature of wall surface T1=1550C and T2=50C. Thermal conductivity of brick K=0.96(1+0.0008T) W/mC. Calculate and represent graphically the temperature distribution through wall. Solution: Given data: T1=115C T2=50 C
17

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

K=0.96(1+0.0008T) W/mC The Fouriers equationQ=-KA Or, Q=-K0(1+ Or, [( [1+ ( [1+ ] -k0 )+ ( )] ) )].........................(1) ) Or, L =Or, L =Or, L =-

Or, Q=- [1+ ] Further if t is the temperature of the surface at a distance x from the left surface then= -ko[(t - )+ ( [ =-ko[(t [( )+ ( ...............................(2) from (1) in to (2) we get, )] =-ko[(t )] =[(t )2 (1+ )+ ( )+ ( )2 } ] )2 (1+ )2 {(1+ = 2562C

Putting the value of )+ ( )+ (

Or, [( Or, t= [(1+ Or, t= )2 } ]-

)2 {(1+ [(1+

Example: A wall is made of plastered material of 25 cm thickness and followed by concrete of 5 cm thickness. Thermal conductivity of plastered material is 0.69 W/m and that of concrete is 0.93 W/mK the temperature of exposed plastered surface is 30C and that of concrete is 5C. Find out the heat loss through the wall of area 50m2. Solution: Given data: A=50m2, tp=30C, Lp=25cm, Lc=5cm,Kp=0.69W/mk kc=0.93W/mk. The rate of heat loss of wall: Q= = =3 kW

18

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

Example: For a hot solid cylinder of radius ro with uniform rate of heat generation q per unit volume conducting heat radially and losing heat from its surface to the ambient (at the temperature T) by convection with heat transfer co-efficient h then prove that = Where T=temperature of the cylinder at a distance at a distance r from as axis. and =axis temperature Solution: Qr (heat conduction in at radius r)=-k2 r Qg(heat generation in the element)=(2 )q (heat generated out at radius )= + ( For steady state conduction of heat flow= + ( )dr Or, Or, (2 ( )dr (-k2 r )dr

)dr

)q =

Or, (2r)q = (-k2r ) Or, Or, Or, r Or, = (r )= = = +C1 .............................(1) (r )

Or, t= lnr+ ....................(2) Boundary conditions are: When r =0, =0...................................(a) When r= , t= ..............................(b) Using the boundary condition (a) in to the equation (1) we get, C1=0 Using the boundary condition (b) and C1=0 in to the equation (1) we get, C2=tw+ Thus the equation (2) become, t=tw+ ......................(i)

As t=tmax when r=0, so

19

R.K.M

HEAT TRANSFER

tmax=tw +

...........................(ii) = = =1-

From (i) and (ii) we get, = Or, Putting the value of , we get =

20