Civil Engineering Department

College of Engineering
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

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Transportation Engineering I CIV 367
Lecture 3B_ Traffic Studies
Kwasi Agyeman Boakye ( kwasi.agyeman.boakye@gmail.com)

Accident Studies
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Is it really accident or road crash? Accident: An occurrence involving one or more transport vehicle in a collision that results in property damage, injury or death. Crash implies the collision could have been prevented or its effect minimized by modifying driver behaviour, vehicle design, roadway geometry or the travelling environment. Nonetheless accident is more often used. Accidents can be categorized into Casualty Accidents or Damage Only Accidents. Under casualty accidents we may have; Fatal Accident: It is one that involves a person who dies as a result of an injury sustained in the accident (usually within 30days). Serious Accident: It involves a person who is detained in hospital as an in-patient, or who suffers any of these; fracture, concussion, internal injuries, severe cuts etc that require medical attention. Slight Accident: It involves a person who is only slightly injured, eg. Sprain, bruise, cut etc which is not considered severe and may require only roadside attention. Damage Only Accidents are those that do not involve people sustaining injuries or casualties.
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Factors Involved in Transport Crashes

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The Driver Driver performance is a major contributor to many crash situations. Driver error may occur through inattention to the roadway and surrounding traffic, failure to yield the right of way and or traffic laws. And, these error may come as a result of unfamiliarity with roadway conditions, traveling at high speeds, drowsiness, drinking, using a mobile phone etc. The Vehicle Mechanical conditions of vehicles may contribute to transport accidents. Faulty brakes in heavy trucks have caused crushes. Other reasons are failure of the electrical system, worn tires and location of the centre of gravity. The Roadway The condition and quality of the roadway, which includes the pavement, shoulders, curves, super elevations, intersections, and the traffic control system , can be a factor in a crash. The Environment The physical and climatic environment can be a factor. Weather is the most troubling since transport systems function best when the weather is sunny and mild and the weather is clear. Geography can also be an environmental factor. Mountain ranges, flood river plains, swollen rivers, and mud slides on the pavement have caused crashes.
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Accident Investigation and Reduction

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Accident Reduction can be achieved through the following; Engineering: Using low-cost engineering proposals for improvement. Education: Using publicity and the education/training of various groups of road users. Enforcement: Proper and continuous enforcement of traffic laws.

These measures are implemented through Accident Reduction Programmes which are grouped as; Single Site Approach Mass Action Approach Route Action Approach Area Action Approach
To attempt using any of the approaches, four major investigative steps ought to be followed, namely; 1. Data collection, storage and retrieval 2. Identification of hazardous locations for further study 3. Diagnosis of the accident problem 4 4. Final selection of sites to be included in remedial implementation programme

Programme Approach to Accident Reduction

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Single Site Approach Involves the identification of blackspot locations on the basis of the number of accidents clustered at single locations within a given period of time (usually 3 years). Blackspot locations are typically individual intersections, short lengths (300 500m) of roadway or small areas (100 200m square). For remedial measures to be taken at a blackspot the reactional level should be already established and achieved. Reactional Level is the total number of accidents required for subsequent investigation. A large accident reduction (33%) and a high 1st year economic rate of return(ERR)(50%) should be expected from remedying blackspots. Mass Action Approach Involves searching for sites that are clearly associated with a particular predominant type of accident for which there is a well-proven engineering remedy. Upon identification the sites can be treated in a mass, by for instance resurfacing or surface dressing of skid sites. They are particularly applicable to Education and Enforcement measures. It is expected to achieve an average accident reduction of 15% at treated locations and 1st year ERR greater than 40%.
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Programme Approach to Accident Reduction

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Route Action Approach In this approach blacksites ; sites with more accidents along a particular road than the norm for that type of road and level of traffic usage, are identified from an analysis of traffic data collected over a recent period (usually 1 3 years). Usually the search process involves dividing the road into section lengths of 0.5 1.5km. Area Action Approach Where accidents are sparsely scattered and do not fall within the category of treatment provided by the others previously mentioned, this approach is used, especially in urban areas. Studies is done on the accident distribution in the area by comparing data between years 1, 2 or 3 and discrete areas identified. This could be accidents per unit area or population. Area action programmes may result in interventions that reduce traffic movement on local access roads within the identified areas. They are expected to achieve an accident reduction of 10% and a 1st year ERR of 10 25 % within each area addressed.

Accident Investigation Step 1

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Data Collection, Storage and Retrieval Involves manual filing of each completed accident report form in the offices of the appropriate policy agency. Filed usually by date, name or number of route, location. Included in the file is a basic accident description, road features, environmental features, vehicle features, driver features etc. The data is often computerised and manipulated into accident ranking lists, tables, graphs and automatic plots. Collision Diagrams present pictorial information on individual crashes at a location. The type of collisions often recorded include Rear End, Head On, Side Swipe, Left Turn, Right Angle and Out of Control. They have an advantage of giving information on the location of the crash, which statistical summaries do not. In Ghana, accidents reported to the police are recorded on an Accident Report Form. The Building and Road Research Institute (BRRI) collect these forms from the police and enter it into a computerised accident database. They use (MAAPfive), a software, to analyse the data and produce summary statistics.

Collision Diagram
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Accident Statistics in Ghana

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Accident Investigation Step 2

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Identification of hazardous locations for further study

This stage is concerned with sifting of the accident data to obtain a preliminary ranked list of sites that are most likely to be susceptible to engineering treatment. This may be done through several means; Simple Numeric Criteria : This is based on the location with the highest accident figures. The reactional level might be 12 accidents per defined spot that occurred within the last 3years, and any sites with more than that number require further investigations. Further ranking may be done from most dangerous to least dangerous. Exposure Rates: Due to the likelihood of the Simple Numeric Criteria favouring routes most trafficked , exposure rates become a very useful measure. This could be done by measuring either the rate per million of entering vehicles (RMEVs) or rate per 100 million vehicle miles (RMVM). RMVM= A x 100,000,000 RMEV= A x 1,000,000 VMT . V RMVM = crash per 100 million vehicle miles of RMEV = crash rate per million entering travel. vehicles A = number of crashes, total or by type at the A = number of crashes, total or by type study location, during a given period VMT= occurring in a single year at the location vehicle miles of travel during the period and V= ADT x 365 Often used on stretch of highways with similar 10 This is often used at intersections geometric and traffic characteristics

Accident Investigation Step 2

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Severity: This method involves listing each crash occurring at a site under one of the following classes: fatal (F), personal injury (PI) and property damage (PD). Several weighing scales are used but a typical one is Fatality = 12, Personal Injury = 3 Proper damage = 1. For example, if 1 fatal crash, 3 personal injury crashes, and 5 property damage crashes occurred during a year at a particular site, the severity number of the site is obtained as follows; Severity Number = (12 X 1) + (3 X 3) + ( 1 X 5) = 26 The disadvantage in using this method is the large difference between the severity scales for fatal and property damage crashes. This may be overemphasized. For example, a site with one fatal crash will be considered much more dangerous than a site with 9 property damage crashes.

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Accident Investigation Step 3

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Diagnosis of the Accident Problem

This stage involves the detailed analysis of the accident situation at each site. This is to diagnose the main causes of each accident and develop a remedial proposal that will obviate the common dominant cause. As part of the engineering analysis, collision and condition diagrams are often prepared for each site to assist in the determination of the dominant accident causes, particularly if physical features are believed to be influencing the accident situation. A condition diagram is a scaled drawing or photograph illustrating the physical and environmental conditions at and about the accident site e.g the geometric features affecting the site, and the locations of all signs and markings, pedestrian crossings, traffic signals, bus stops, parking spaces, sight obstructions, driveways, and fronting landuse. Diagrams are supplemented with field visits which may simply involve taking skid-resistance measurements, or it may require the use of a detailed check-list to determine the adequacy of various physical design features. In some situations it may require a comprehensive on-the-spot conflict study. Traffic Conflict is an observable situation in which two or more road users approach each other in space and time to such an extent that a collision is imminent if their movements remain unchanged.
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Accident Investigation Step 4

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Final Selection
Solutions provided should go to either; - Remove conflict causing the problem - Improve the situation - Reduce speed, thus reducing the accident risk and accident severity It is the usual norm to proffer two or more remedial solutions of different cost for a given site. As such a chosen solution must be economically justified.Various economic methods are used to resolve these and other issues of choice. One of them used is the first year of economic rate of return (FYRR). FYRR = Accident Savings x 100 Capital Cost For major remedial schemes with a significant maintenance and renewal cost elements (such as the installation of traffic signals) it will be better to use an economic assessment method such as Net Present Value. Even after economic the economic analysis it is necessary that approval and support be sought from the implementation agency, the police and the public.
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Accident Investigation Step 4

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Example Scheme: Installation of 5 chevrons signs at a bend in order to reduce loss of control accidents. Accident Record: Average of 5 casualty accidents per year ( 4 single vehicle loss of control and 1 pedestrian/vehicle) Estimated Accident Savings in First Year: 15% reduction in treatable accidents (0.6 accidents prevented) Cost value per accident saved = $10,000 Capital cost of per sign = $ 20 FYRR(%) = 0.6 x 10,000 = 600% 20x5

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Examples of Accident Causes and Countermeasures

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Examples of Accident Pattern, Probable Cause and Countermeasures Pattern Probable Cause General Countermeasure Left-turn head-on collision Large volume of left-turn Create one-way street Widen road Provide left-turn signal phase Prohibit left turns Restricted sight distance Remove obstacles Provide adequate channelization Provide special phase for left turn Provide left turn slots Too short Amber phase Increase amber phase Provide all red phase Rear-end collisions at unsignalized intersections Driver not aware of intersection Install/improve warning signs Slippery surface Overlay pavement Provide adequate drainage groove pavement Large number of turning vehicles Create left or right turn lanes Prohibit turns Increase curb radii Inadequate roadway lighting Improve roadway lighting Pedestrian-vehicle collisions Restricted sight distance Inadequate protection for pedestrian School crossing area Unadequate phasing signal

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Parking
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It is roughly estimated that out of 8,760 hours in a year, the car runs on an average for 400 hours, leaving 8,360 hours when it is parked. Every car owner would wish to park the car as closely as possible to his destination so as to minimise walking. This results in a great demand for parking space in the CBD and other areas where activities are concentrated. Parking has in effect led to; Congestion: One of the serious ill-effects of parking is the loss of street space and the attendant traffic congestion. The capacity of the street is reduced, the journey speed drops down and the journey time and delay increase. Accidents: The manoeuvres associated with parking and unparking are known to cause road accidents. Careless opening of the doors of parked vehicles, moving out of a parked position and bringing a car to the parking location from the main stream of traffic are some of the common causes of parking accidents. Obstruction to fire-fighting operations: Parked cars obstruct the movement of fire-fighting vehicles and greatly impede their operations. They block access to fire hydrants and access to buildings. Environment: Stopping and starting of vehicles result in noise and fumes. Cars parked16into every little available space debase the visual aesthetics.

Parking Facilities and Terms

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Parking facilities can be divided into two main groups; on street and off-street. On-Street Parking Facilities: These are also known as Kerb facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the kerb on one or both sides of the street. These bays can be categorised into either restricted or unrestricted parking. Where it is unrestricted the duration of parking is unlimited and parking is free. And where it is restricted parking is limited to specific times of the day for a maximum duration. Parking at restricted facilities may or may not be free. Off-Street Parking Facilities: These facilities may be privately or publicly owned. They include surface lots and garages. Self- parking garages require that drivers park their own cars; attendant-parking garages maintain personnel to park the vehicles.

Parking Terms
Space hour: is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1hr. Parking Volume is the number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length of time, usually a day. Parking duration is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking bay.
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Parking Terms
KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time The parking load is the area under the accumulation curve between two specific times. It is usually given as the number of space-hours used during the specified time period. Parking Index is also called occupancy or efficiency. It is the ratio of number of parking space occupied in a time duration to the total space available. It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized. Parking Index = Parking load X 100 Parking Capacity Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space. It is obtained by dividing the parking volume for a specified period by the number of parking spaces. T = number of different vehicles parked number of parking spaces
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Methodology of Parking Study

KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The main steps are as follows; (1) inventory of existing parking facilities (2) collection of data on parking accumulation, parking turnover and parking duration, (3) identification of parking generators, and (4) collection of information on parking demand. 1. Inventory Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any Type of ownership (private or public) Parking fees, if any, and method of collection Restriction on use (open or closed to the public) Other restrictions, if any (such as loading and unloading zones, bus stops, or taxi ranks Probable degree of permanency (can the facility be regarded as permanent or is it just temporary facility?)

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Methodology of Parking Study

KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

2. Collection of Parking Data Accumulation. Accumulation data are obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on different days of the week. The checks are usually carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis between 6:00am and midnight. The information obtained is used to determine hourly variations of parking and peak periods of parking demand. Turnover and Duration. Information on turnover and duration is usually obtained by collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block. This is done by recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space in the sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study period. The length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible duration. 3. Identification of Parking Generators The phase involves identifying parking generators (for example, shopping centers or transit terminals) and locating these on a map of the study area.

4. Parking Demand Information on parking demand is obtained by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities listed during the inventory. Information sought should include (1) trip origin, (2) purpose 20 of trip, and (3) drivers destination after parking.

Analysis of Parking Data

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Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding and interpreting the data so that the relevant information required for decision making can be obtained. The relevant information includes the following:
Number and duration for vehicles legally parked Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked Space-hours of demand for parking Supply of parking facilities

The space-hours of demand for parking are obtained from the expression

where D = space vehicle-hours demand for a specific period of time N = number of classes of parking duration ranges ti = midparking duration of the ith vehicle ni = number of vehicles parked for the ith duration range
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Analysis of Parking Data

KAAF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

The space-hours of supply are obtained from the expression

S = practical number of space-hours of supply for a specific period of time N = number of parking spaces available ti = total length of time in hours when the ith space can be legally parked on during the specific period f = efficiency factor

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Question
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The owners of Rawlings Park, Accra have observed that 20% of those wishing to park are turned back every day during the open hours of 8 am to 6pm because of lack of parking spaces. An analysis of data collected at the garage indicates that 60% of those who park are commuters, with an average parking duration of 9hrs and the remaining are shoppers, whose average parking duration is 2hrs. If 20% of those who cannot park are commuters and the rest are shoppers, and a total of 200 vehicles currently park daily in the garage, determine the number of additional spaces required to meet the excess demand. Assume parking efficiency is 0.90. Ans. Calculate the space-hours of demand using

The demand for those being served include; Commuters = 0.6x 200x9 = 1080 space-hr Shoppers = 0.4x200x2 = 160 space-hr
If those unserved parking are 20%, then those served are 80%. And if 80% represent 200 vehicles parking then 20% will represent; =20x200 = 50 vehicles turned back. 80 The demand of the 50 vehicles turned back; Commuters = 0.2x50x9 = 90 space-hr Shoppers = 0.8x50x2 = 80 space-hr Total Demand ( Served and Unserved) = 1080+160+90+80 = 1410 space-hrs Total Served = 1080+160= 1240 space hrs

Number of space hours required = ServedUnserved=1410 1240 = 170 space -hrs

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Question
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Number of parking spaces required for a parking demand of 170 space-hrs;

Where f = 0.9 and ti = 10 hours since vehicles are going to be parked from 8am to 6pm, available space will be; 0.9x10xN=170 N = 18.89 This can be rounded as 19 additional spaces will be required.

Assignment. From the previous question, the owners of the Rawlings Park decided to introduce the 19 additional spaces which now allows the unserved vehicles now to be served. Determine; i. The parking turnover. ii. The parking index.

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Parking Dimensions
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Usually a standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5 x 2.5 and that for a truck is 3.75 x 7.5 for parking. For residential plot area from 101 to 300 sq.m only community parking space is required. For residential plot area from 500 to 1000 sq.m, minimum one-fourth of the open area should be reserved for parking. For offices, at least one space for every 70 sq.m should be kept aside for parking facility of vehicles. One parking space is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant where as theatres and cinema halls need keep only 1 parking space for 20 seats. Thus the parking requirements are different for different land use zones. In Ghana, Town and Country Planning has planning standards for vehicle parking which is often used. For different classes of residential facilities there are a number of vehicle parking space required. Also for each given land use there has been provided one parking space for a defined unit area providing a particular service.

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On Street Parking
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Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward movement involved while unparking the vehicle. Hence it is the most safest parking from the accident perspective. But it consumes the maximum kerb length and therefore only a minimum number of vehicles can be parked for a given kerb length. Since it consumes least width of the road it produces the least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road. 30 Degrees parking: Here more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking. Also there is better maneuverability. It causes minimum delay to traffic. 45 and 60 Degrees parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence compared to parallel and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of parking. Right Angle Parking: Here the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road. Hence it consumes maximum width. Kerb length required is very little. Hence there are chances of severe accidents. Also it causes obstruction to the road trac. But it can accommodate maximum number of vehicles.

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Off Street Parking

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There will be some area exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some distance away from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to as off-street parking. They may be operated by either public agencies or private rms.

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