. Conversion 'zero derivation' the base is converted into a different word class.

s. Conversion can be from adjectives and verbs. E.g. adjectives hopeful (base) presidential hopefuls. Compounding a compound lexeme is derived from two or more simpler lexemes. (chairman) Characteristics of adjectives a) attributive function an ugly paintingb) predicative function The painting is ugly.c) intensifier very They are very happy. d) comparative and superlative forms 2. Central determiners the articles the/a/an demonstrative det this, that, these, those possesive det my, his wh-det which, whose negative det no universal det every, each dual det either, neither general det some, any quantitative det enough 3. Postdeterminers a) ordinals first, fourth, last, other.. b) quantifiers seven many, much, a few, a little, a lot of..

PRONOUNS are used when there is no noun, they will the position of a noun. a) Personal pronoun I won't tell you how it ended. b) Reflexive pronoun I taught myself. c) Possesive pronoun mine, yours, his.. d) Demonstrative pronoun this, that, these, those.. e) Reciprocal pronoun They know each other pretty well. f) Indefinite promoun everybody, somebody, anyone, nothing, all, some, many, either, neither, one g) Relative pronouns who, whom, which, whose, that I had more friends that were boys. h) Interrogative pronouns who, whom, which, whose, what What did he say? SUBJECT typically a noun phrase. It occurs with all types of verbs. Subject pronouns are in the nominative case. The subject preceeds the ver band it determines the nimber of the verb. Passive the subject of a transitive. Verb is moved after the ver band preceeded by by. OBJECT typically a noun phrase. It usually follows the verb and it only occurs with transitive verbs. An object pronoun is in the accusative case. The object of a transitive verb can become the subject of a passive clause. E.g. Everyone deserted me. I was deserted by everyone. Object can be direct and indirect. E.g. John poured David (Oi) some whiskey. (Od) Three patterns contain direct objects the monotransitive, ditransitive and complex transitive.

ADVERBIALS can have different positions, initial, medial or final. They are relatively peripheral element (can be ommitted). They have a wide variety of meanings place, time, manner, cause, reason, emphasis etc. a) Optional adverbials can be added to clauses with any type of a verb. They are usually adverb phrases, prepositional phrases or noun phrases.1. Adverb phrase He spoke to me about it briefly 2. Prepositional phrase In a few minutes, we'll know the result.3. Noun phrase They have travelled a very long way.b) Obligatory adverbials complete the meaning of a verb. There are two patterns: copular and complex transitive.1. Copular pattern SVA Your toast is on the table.2. Complex transitive pattern SVOA Take your hand out of your pockets. VERBS intransitive, monotransitive, ditransitive, complex transitive, copular (linking). 1. Intransitive verbs S + V More people came. 2. Monotransitive verbs S + V + IO + DO hat lecture bored me. 3. Ditransitive verbs S + V + IO + DO Fred gave the girl (IO) a present (DO). Also, the indirect object can often be omitted Fred gave (the girl) a present. Either object can be omitted (ask, pay, teach, tell, show) He taught us physics. / He taught us. / He taught physics. 4. Complex transitive verbs a) S + V + DO + OC People called him Johnny. b) S + V + DO + A He put his hand on her shoulder. 5. Copular (linking) verbs a) S + V + SC Carrie felt a little less bold. b) S + V + A My office is in the next building. Current copular verb Sc is current attribute. (The girl seemed very restless). E.g. be, appear, feel, look, seem.

Finite show distinctions of tense and can include modal auxiliaries. It is a phrase in which the first and only word is a finite-verb,and it can be simple and complex.The finite verb phrase is simple when ti constists of only 1 word,and complex when it consists of 2 and more.The auxiliaries follow a strict order in the complex VP:modal+infinitive (must go),perfect+ed participle (has examined),progressive+ing participle (was talking),passive+ed participle (was visited)( (a) + (c): must be going(b) + (d): has been examined(a) + (d): may be visited Non-finite don't show tense and cannot occur with a modal aux. And thus have fewer forms. The infinitive,ing participle and ed participle are non-finite forms of verb phrases. Any phrase in which one of these verb forms is the first and only word is a non-finite verb phrase.FVP-He smokes. NFVP-To smoke like that must be dangerous The most important type of concord is concord of 3rd person number between subject and verb.( The change in male attitudes is most obvious in.. / The changes in male attitudes are most obvious in.. ) The number of a NP depends on the number of its head. The rule of the S-V concord is that in finite clauses,the verb phrase in a clause agrees with the subject in terms of number and person.There is also a tendency to follow notional concord-to let the notion of sg/pl in the subject determine the form of the verb,rather than the grammatical form of the subject.There is the principle of proximity-agreement of the verb with noun or pronoun which follows it.

There are two major subcategories of phrasal verbsintransitive and transitive. Most common intrans. Phrasal verbs are activity verbs that are used as directive. They often occur as imperatives. In declarative clauses common intransitive verbs have human subjects.They constist of a verb+adverbial particle. All prepositional verbs take a prepositional object. There are 2 major structural patterns for prep.verbs-with a single prep.object and direct object+prep.object (verb+prep).the structure of a prep. verb can be considered a single-word lexical verb that is followed by a prep.phrase. Generally,the particle of a prep.verb must precede the object but the particle of a phrasal verb can precede or follow the object. Premodification is in general to be interpreted in terms of postmod. And its greater explicitness.Explicitness lies in the power of specifying-postmod is more capable of showing agreement with the head. Items put in premodification position are given a linguistic status of permanent and those in postmodification are given a temporary status. Premodifier is limited in terms of type and length. Postmodifier is not limited in terms of lenght and is more detailed. Premodification position permanent. (or characteristic features) A timid man a man who is timid. Postmodification position temporary reference. (reference only to a specific time). The man who is ready the ready man. (a particular situation).

Adjectives as heads of noun phrase They do not inflect for number or genitivr, they require the. Plural and generic reference.Type: a) the innocent group of people by specifying some quality. The innocent are often deceived by the unscrupulous. The young in spirit enjoy life. Type: b) The Dutch adjectives denoting nationalities. The industrious Dutch are admired by their neighbours. Type: c) the mystical singular concord. The latest (thing/news) is that he is going to run for re-election. The best is yet to come. The genitive and the of- construction (usually shows ownership, measurement, association, some structural relationship between a nound and noun phrase). - The island's inhabitants OR the inhabitants of the island (of introduces a noun in a relationship of posession to the preceeding noun, usually the way of indicating oisession for inanimates (refers to a place, thing or an idea)). of- genitive: These are father's trousers. * These are the trousers of father.

a) possesive genitive who posseses an object? Mrs Johnson's coat. b) genitive of attribute The victim's outrageous courage. c) partitive genitive larger whole of which something is a part. The heart's two ventricles. d) subjective genitive The parent's consent. e) objective genitive The prisoner's release. f) genitive of origin England's cheeses. g) descriptive genitive (or possesive article the) Children's shoes. h) genitive of time This week's issue od science magazine.

Restrictive the head can only be identified (linguistically) through that modification. That tall girl (in the corner) is Angela Hunt.The flowers in your garden are nice. Non-restrictive the head is independently identified. Not essential, additional. Come and meet my famous mother. Angela Hunt, who is over there in the corner, wants to meet you.

SUBJECT: a) agentive participant Margaret is mowing the grass.b) external causer The avalanche destroyed several houses.c) instrument The computer has solved this problem.d) affected role with intransitive verbs. Jack fell down. (accidentally) e) recipient with have, own, possess, benefit (from). Mr. Smith has a radio.f) experiencer subject perceptual verbs, e.g. see, hear. taste, smell, feel can have both agentive or experiencer subject. I'll taste the soup. (agentive) / I can taste the pepper in my soup. (experiencer)g) positioner subject with verbs such as sit, stand, live, stay, remain, carry, hold. I have lived in Zagreb most of my life. / The hijacker was holding a revolver.h) locative role LA is foggy. i) temporal role Yesterday was a holiday. j) eventive subject The Norman invasion took place in 1066. * PROP it, subject 'prop' word has little or no semantic content.a) time It's ten o'clock precisely.b) atmospheric conditions Is it raining? c) distance It's not far to York.

OBJECT: a) affected James sold his digital watch yesterday. b) locative walk, swim, jump, cross John swam the river. c) resultant (effected) object They designed a new car.d) cognate object semantically and morphologically related to the verb Chris will sing a song for us. She lived a good life. e) eventive object semantic extension of the verb They are arguing. They are having an argument. f) indirect object two semantic roles connected to Oi.g) recipient We piad them the money.h) affected object indirect I gave them a nudge. ('I nudged them'). We gave the baby a bath. ('We bathed the baby'). COMPLEMENT it can be a noun phrase, an adjective phrase or occassionally a prepositional phrase. Subject complement relates to the subject. He is becoming quite mature. He's a conscious student.Object complement follows the direct object. It relates to the direct object. (Doris considered Robert quite mature.) It requires the subjective form of pronouns in formal use. (The only one they didn't notice was me/I).