Fault Calculation Steps

Fault Calculations and Selection of Protective Equipment
Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. University of South Florida Tampa Senior Member, IEEE r.fehr@ieee.org Wednesday, March 22, 2006 8:00AM 3:00PM Seminole Electric Cooperative, Inc. 16313 North Dale Mabry Hwy. Tampa, Florida
Symmetrical Components
IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 2
Most power systems are designed as balanced systems. Due to the symmetry of the problem, a single-phase equivalent approach can be taken to simplify the calculation process. When the voltage and current behavior is calculated for one of the phases, the behaviors on the other two can be determined using principles of symmetry.
But when the system phasors are not balanced, the single-phase equivalent approach cannot be taken. This means that either 1. a three-phase solution must be found, or 2. the unbalanced phasors must be resolved into balanced components so the single-phase equivalent method can be used.
Charles Fortescues Theory of Symmetrical Components, first published in 1918, proves that any set of unbalanced voltage or current phasors belonging to a three-phase system can be resolved into three sets of components, each of which is balanced.
IC
IA
IB
Physical Example of Vector Components
Calculation of Moment
d
Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance M=Fd

d
Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance MFd

d FH
FV F
Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance M = FV d

d FH
FV = F cos FH = F sin
FV F
FH + FV = F
FH = tan F V
1
Application of Symmetrical Components to a Three-Phase Power System
IC
IA
IB
IC
IA
IB
A-B-C Sequencing
IB
IA
IC
A-C-B Sequencing
Fortescues theory shows that three sets of balanced components are required to represent any unbalanced set of three-phase phasors.
I C1
I A1 I B1
Positive Sequence Components
I B2
I A2
I C2
Negative Sequence Components
I A0

I B0
I C0
Zero Sequence Components
The constraint equations for the symmetrical components require the sum of the three components for each unbalanced phasor to equal the unbalanced phasor itself. IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2 IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2 IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC2
The a operator
1 3 = 1 /120 a + j 2 2
a2 = 1 /240 a3 = 1 /360
Recall the j operator j2 = 1 /180 = 1 j3 = 1 /270 = j j4 = 1 /360 = 1
Using the a operator and the symmetry of the sequence components, we can develop a single-phase equivalent circuit to greatly simplify the analysis of the unbalanced system. We will start by expressing the sequence components in terms of a single phases components. We will use Phase A as the phase for developing the single-phase equivalent.
I C1 = a I 1
I A1 = I 1 I B1 = a 2 I 1
Positive Sequence Components
I B2 = a I 2
I A2 = I 2
I C2 = a 2 I 2
Negative Sequence Components
I A0 = I 0
I B0 = I 0
I C0 = I 0
Zero Sequence Components
Recall the original constraint equations:
IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2 IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2 IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC2

Rewrite them using the a operator to take advantage of the symmetry:
IA = I0 + I1 + I2 IB = I0 + a2 I1 + a I2 IC = I0 + a I1 + a2 I2
Unbalanced Phasors and their Symmetrical Components
I0 a I1 a2 I 2 IB I0
IC
IA I0
I2 I1
a I2
a2 I 1
I A 1 1 I = 1 a 2 B IC 1 a
1 a 2 a
I 0 I 1 I 2
1
1 1 1 a 2 1 a
1 I A 1 1 I = 1 a 2 a B a2 IC 1 a I 0 1 1 I = 1 a 2 1 I 2 1 a
1 1 1 1 a 2 a a2 1 a 1 I A I a B a2 IC
1
1 a a2
I 0 I 1 I 2
I 0 1 1 I = 1 a 2 1 I 2 1 a
1 I A I a B a2 IC
I 0 1 1 I = 1 1 a 1 3 2 I 1 a 2
I0 =
1 a2 a
I A I B IC
1 I1 = IA + a IB + a 2 IC 3 1 I2 = IA + a 2 IB + a IC 3
1 (I A + I B + IC ) 3
( (
) )
Summary of Symmetrical Components Transformation Equations
IA = I0 + I1 + I2 IB = I0 + a2 I1 + a I2 IC = I0 + a I1 + a2 I2
1 (I A + I B + IC ) I0 = 3 1 IA + a IB + a 2 IC I1 = 3 1 IA + a 2 IB + a IC I2 = 3
) )
Workshop #1 Symmetrical Components
Ia = 0.95 /328 Ib = 1.03 /236 Ic = 0.98 /92 I0 = 0.7 /300 I1 = 1.2 /10 I2 = 0.3 /167
Find I0, I1, and I2
Find Ia, Ib, and Ic
Workshop #1 Symmetrical Components Ia = 0.95 /328 Ib = 1.03 /236 Ic = 0.98 /92 I0 = 0.1418 /297 I1 = 0.9634 /339 I2 = 0.1622 /191
a I1 a I2 I0 Ib
2
Find I0, I1, and I2

a2 I2 I0 a I Ic
1
I1 I2 Ia I0
Workshop #1 Symmetrical Components I0 = 0.7 /300 I1 = 1.2 /10 I2 = 0.3 /167 Ia = 1.2827 /345 Ib = 2.0209 /271 Ic = 0.5749 /112
a2 I 1 a I2
Find Ia, Ib, and Ic

a2 I2 a I1 I0 Ic
I2 I1 Ia I0
I0
Electrical Characteristics of the Sequence Currents
I x
L O A D
I t
Middle Wire Top Wire Bottom Wire
t
t=T
I0 I0
I0
L O A D
I0 I0 3 I0 I0
L O A D
I0 I0 3 I0
VN = (3 I0) ZN VN = I0 (3 ZN)
I0
L O A D
The Delta-Wye Transformer
The Delta-Wye Transformer

IB Ib
Ib IA
Ic
Ia Ib
IC
Ia
Ic
Ic
Ia
Assume Ia = 1 /0o, Ib = 1 /240o, and Ic = 1/120o.
IA = Ia Ib = 1 /0o 1 /240o IB = Ib Ic = 1 /240o 1
3 /30o 3 3 /270o
Ic IC Ia Ib IB
IA
/120o = /0o =
IC = Ic Ia = 1
/120o
/150o
Workshop #2 Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

IB IA Ib Ic
IC
Ia
Given that Ia = 1/0o, Ib = 1/240o, and Ic = 1/120o, find IA, IB, and IC.
Workshop #2 Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

IB IA Ia Ic IC
IC Ic Ia IB
Ib Ib Ib Ia Ic Ia Ic
IA = Ia Ic = 1/0o 1/120o = 3 /330o IB = Ib Ia = 1/240o 1/0o = 3 /210o
Ia = 1/0o Ib = 1/240o Ic = 1/120o
IC = Ic Ib = 1/120o 1/240o = 3 /90o
IA Ib IEEE Fault Calculation Seminar a March 2006 a Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. a 44
Sequence Networks
One-Line Diagram
Utility G
Xn
T1 1 M1 M2
T2
T3 2 M3
Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Utility G
Xn
Positive-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 1 M1 M2
T2
Utility M1 M2 G M3
T3 2 M3

Utility G
Xn
T1 1 M1 M2
T2
Utility G
T1
M1
M2
T2
M3
T3 2 M3

Utility G
Xn
T1 1 M1 M2
T2
Utility G
T1
M1
M2
T2
T3 2 M3
1 T3 M3
Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Utility G
Xn
Negative Positive-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 1 M1 M2
T2
Utility G
T1
M1
M2
T2
T3 2 M3
1 T3 M3

Utility G
Xn
Negative-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 1
T2
Utility G
T1
M1
M2
T2
M1
M2
1
T3 2 M3
T3
M3
Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Utility G
Xn
Zero Negative-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 1
T2
Utility G +3Xn M1 M2 T2
T1
M1
M2
1
T3 2 M3
T3
M3
Adjust Topology

Utility G
Xn
Zero-Sequence Reference Bus
T1 1
T2
Utility
G + 3 Xn
Xn
T1
M1
M2
T2
M1
M2
1
T3 2 M3
T3
M3

Utility G
Xn
T1 1
T2
Utility
G + 3 Xn
Xn
T1
M1
M2
T2
M1
M2
1
T3 2
Connection Gr. Wye Wye Delta Alteration None Open Ckt. Open Ckt. AND Short to Ref. Bus
T3
M3
M3

Utility G
Xn
T1 1
T2
Utility
G + 3 Xn
Xn
T1
M1
M2
T2
M1
M2
1
T3 2 M3
2
T3
M3
Workshop #3 Sequence Networks

Utility G
Xn
T1
Xn
T2
1 M1
Draw the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks for the one-line diagram on the left.
T3 2 M2

Utility
T1
M1
T2
1 T3 M2

Negative-Sequence Reference Bus Utility G
T1
M1
T2
1 T3 M2
2

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus Utility G
+3Xn Xn
T1
+3Xn
M1
T2
1 T3 M2
2
Thevenin Reduction of Sequence Networks

Bus 1 Thevenin Equivalent

Utility G
[(T1+Utility) M1 M2 (T2+G)]
(T3+M3)
T1
M1
M2
T2
1 T3 M3

M3 {T3+ [(T1+Utility) M1 M2 (T2+G)]}

+ Pre-fault Voltage X1 Fault Location
Thevenin Equivalent

Negative-Sequence Reference Bus Utility G
Bus 1 Thevenin Equivalent [(T1+Utility) M1 M2 (T2+G)]
T1
M1
M2
T2
(T3+M3)
1 T3 M3

M3 {T3+ [(T1+Utility) M1 M2 (T2+G)]}

_ X2 Fault Location
Thevenin Equivalent

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus Utility G + 3 Xn
Xn
T1
T1 1 T3 2 M3 M1 M2 T2
T3 + T1
0 X0 Fault Location
Thevenin Equivalent
Types of Fault Calculations
First-Cycle or Momentary First-cycle fault calculations are done to determine the withstand strength requirement of the system components at the location of the fault. It is the maximum amplitude of the fault current ever expected (worst case). It requires use of the subtransient reactances of rotating machines, and includes induction motors.
Contact-Parting or Clearing Contact-parting fault calculations are done to determine the interrupting rating of the protective devices at the location of the fault. It is a reduced amplitude of the fault current anticipated at clearing time (worst case). It requires use of the transient reactances of rotating machines, and excludes induction motors.
Short-Circuit Fault Calculations
Three-Phase Fault
Line-to-Ground Fault
Double Line-to-Ground Fault
Line-to-Line Fault
Workshop #4 Short-Circuit Fault Calculations

The Thevenin-equivalent sequence reactances at a given bus are: X1 = 0.032 p.u. X2 = 0.029 p.u. X0 = 0.024 p.u. Find the fault currents at that bus for a (1) three-phase, (2) line-to-ground, (3) double line-to-ground, and (4) lineto-line fault. The base current is 1.5 kA.
Workshop #4 Short-Circuit Fault Calculations Three-Phase Fault
IA = 31.25 /-90o p.u. = 46.9 /-90o kA IB = 31.25 /150o p.u. = 46.9 /150o kA IC = 31.25 /30o p.u. = 46.9 /30o kA
Workshop #4 Short-Circuit Fault Calculations Line-to-Ground Fault
IA = 35.29 /-90o p.u. = 52.9 /-90o kA IB = 0 IC = 0
Workshop #4 Short-Circuit Fault Calculations Double Line-to-Ground Fault

I0 = 12.124 /90o p.u. I1 = 22.157 /-90o p.u. I2 = 10.033 /90o p.u. IA = 0 IB = 33.29 /147o p.u. = 49.9 /147o kA IC = 33.29 /33o p.u. = 49.9 /33o kA
Workshop #4 Short-Circuit Fault Calculations Line-to-Line Fault

I0 = 0 I1 = 16.39 /-90o p.u. I2 = 16.39 /90o p.u. IA = 0 IB = 28.4 /180o p.u. = 42.6 /180o kA IC = 28.4 /0o p.u. = 42.6 /0o kA
Open-Circuit Fault Calculations
One-Line-Open Fault
Two-Lines-Open Fault
X/R Ratio at Fault Location
The X/R ratio at the point of the fault determines the rate of fault current decay. The larger the X/R ratio, the more slowly the fault current decays.
Small X/R
Large X/R
Determination of the X/R ratio requires the construction of a positive sequence resistance network. The X (positive-sequence reactance) and R must be determined separately at the fault location. Then the resistance is divided into the reactance to give the X/R ratio. A SINGLE IMPEDANCE DIAGRAM COMBINING R AND X CANNOT BE USED! It will undercalculate the actual X/R ratio.
Selection of Protective Equipment
Protective devices are always sized for the highest possible fault current at the location where the device will be installed this is NOT always a three-phase fault!! RMS symmetrical fault current is used to determine all protective device ratings. With the exception of power circuit breakers, protective devices are sized based on a multiplying factor to account for X/R ratios that exceed the manufacturers assumptions.
Power Circuit Breakers Power circuit breakers are specified by a Close-andLatch rating. RMS Close-and-Latch rating = 1.6 RMS symmetrical fault current Crest Close-and-Latch rating = 2.7 RMS symmetrical fault current Example: If the maximum fault current is 23.5 kA, kA the required RMS close-and-latch rating is 1.6 23.5 = 37.6 kARMS
Fused Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers
MFLV fused bkr =

Example:
2 e 2 /( X / R ) + 1 for X / R > 4.9 1.25
Maximum fault current = 27.5 kA X/R at fault location = 7.8
MFLV fused bkr =
2 e 2 / 7.8 + 1 = 1.101 1.25
So, the fused low-voltage circuit breaker must be rated at least 27.5 1.101 = 30.3 kA
Molded-Case Circuit Breakers
MFmoldedcase bkr =
Example:
2 e /( X / R ) + 1 for X / R > 6.6 2.29
Maximum fault current = 45 kA X/R at fault location = 9.2
MFmoldedcase bkr =
2 e / 9 .2 + 1 = 1.056 2.29
So, the molded-case circuit breaker must be rated at least 45 1.056 = 47.5 kA
Medium-Voltage Expulsion Fuses
MFMV fuse =
Example:
2 e 2 / ( X / R ) + 1 for X / R > 15 1.52
MFMV fuse =
2 e 2 / 21.4 + 1 = 1.038 1.52
So, the medium-voltage expulsion fuse must be rated at least 45.8 1.038 = 47.6 kA
Low-Voltage Expulsion Fuses
MFLV fuse =
Example:
2 e 2 / ( X / R ) + 1 for X / R > 4.9 1.25
MFLV fuse =
2 e 2 / 11.8 + 1 = 1.180 1.25
So, the low-voltage expulsion fuse must be rated at least 38.2 1.180 = 45.1 kA
Current-Limiting Fuses
MFcurrent limiting fuse =

Example:
2 e 2 / ( X / R ) + 1 for X / R > 10 1.44
MFcurrent limiting fuse =
2 e 2 / 16.2 + 1 = 1.066 1.44
So, the current-limiting fuse must be rated at least 58.4 1.066 = 62.3 kA
Workshop #5 Protective Device Specification 1. Find both the RMS Close-and-Latch rating and the Crest Close-and-Latch rating required for a power circuit breaker to be installed on a bus where the maximum fault current is 32.9 kA. 2. Find the required interrupting rating for a moldedcase circuit breaker installed on a bus with a maximum fault current of 46.5 kA and an X/R ratio of 14.
Workshop #5 Protective Device Specification 3. Find the required interrupting rating for a mediumvoltage fuse installed on a bus with a maximum fault current of 46.5 kA and an X/R ratio of 18. 4. Find the required interrupting rating for a lowvoltage fuse installed on a bus with a maximum fault current of 64.8 kA and an X/R ratio of 12. 5. Find the required interrupting rating for a currentlimiting fuse installed on a bus with a maximum fault current of 27.3 kA and an X/R ratio of 8.
Workshop #5 Protective Device Specification 1. Close-and-LatchRMS = 32.9 kA 1.6 = 52.6 kA Close-and-LatchCrest = 32.9 kA 2.7 = 88.8 kA
2. MFmoldedcase bkr =
2 e /14 + 1 = 1.111 2.29
46.5 kA 1.111 = 51.7 kA
Workshop #5 Protective Device Specification 3. MFMV fuse =
2 e 2/ 18 + 1 = 1.021 1.52
46.5 kA 1.021 = 47.5 kA
4. MFLV fuse =
2 e 2 / 12 + 1 = 1.182 1.25
64.8 kA 1.182 = 76.6 kA

Workshop #5 Protective Device Specification
5. MFcurrent limiting fuse =
2 e 2/ (X/R) + 1 for X/R > 10 1.44
Since X/R 10, no multiplying factor is used. Required Interrupting Rating = 27.3 kA

Dont forget the power engineering resources mentioned in this course:
http://web.tampabay.rr.com/usfpower/fehr.htm
which includes a link to
Alex McEacherns Power Quality Teaching Toy

Ralph Fehr, Ph.D., P.E. University of South Florida Tampa Senior Member, IEEE r.fehr@ieee.org
Thank you!
Seminole Electric Cooperative, Inc. 16313 North Dale Mabry Hwy. Tampa, Florida

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Fault Calculations and Selection of Protective Equipment

Physical Example of Vector Components

Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance M=Fd

Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance MFd

Moment = Force Perpendicular Distance M = FV d

Application of Symmetrical Components to a Three-Phase Power System

Zero Sequence Components

Recall the j operator j2 = 1 /180 = 1 j3 = 1 /270 = j j4 = 1 /360 = 1

Positive Sequence Components

Negative Sequence Components

Zero Sequence Components

Recall the original constraint equations:

IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2 IB = IB0 + IB1 + IB2 IC = IC0 + IC1 + IC2

Unbalanced Phasors and their Symmetrical Components

Summary of Symmetrical Components Transformation Equations

Workshop #1 Symmetrical Components

Find I0, I1, and I2

Find Ia, Ib, and Ic

Find I0, I1, and I2

Find Ia, Ib, and Ic

Electrical Characteristics of the Sequence Currents

Middle Wire Top Wire Bottom Wire

The Delta-Wye Transformer

The Delta-Wye Transformer

Assume Ia = 1 /0o, Ib = 1 /240o, and Ic = 1/120o.

IA = Ia Ib = 1 /0o 1 /240o IB = Ib Ic = 1 /240o 1

Workshop #2 Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

Workshop #2 Non-Standard Delta-Wye Transformer

IA = Ia Ic = 1/0o 1/120o = 3 /330o IB = Ib Ia = 1/240o 1/0o = 3 /210o

Ia = 1/0o Ib = 1/240o Ic = 1/120o

IC = Ic Ib = 1/120o 1/240o = 3 /90o

Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Negative Positive-Sequence Reference Bus

Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Negative-Sequence Reference Bus

Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero Negative-Sequence Reference Bus

Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero-Sequence Reference Bus

Workshop #3 Sequence Networks

Workshop #3 Sequence Networks

Workshop #3 Sequence Networks

Workshop #3 Sequence Networks

Thevenin Reduction of Sequence Networks

Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Bus 1 Thevenin Equivalent

Bus 2 Thevenin Equivalent

Positive-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Bus 1 Thevenin Equivalent [(T1+Utility) M1 M2 (T2+G)]

Bus 2 Thevenin Equivalent

Negative-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Zero-Sequence Reactance Diagram

Bus 1 Thevenin Equivalent