Lecture 30

Engineering Properties: Minerals and Rocks

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Mineral and Rock Qualities Minerals and Rocks are used as material for construction and as sites for construction 1) Load-bearing capacity 2) Hardness and toughness 3) Durability to weathering 4) Non-swelling or hydrophobic properties

Minerals
Clay minerals

Metamorphic minerals
Garnet Epidote Chlorite

Kaolinite Montmorillonite Vermiculite

Sillimanite Glucophane Biotite/Muscovite

Calcite
Hydrous Mica Quartz Chlorite Feldspar Pyroxene

ROCKS

IGNEOUS -most abundant -primary rocks -source is magma or lava

SEDIMENTARY -thin veener above the Sial and Sima in Oceanic and Continental Crusts -secondary rocks

METAMORPHIC -proportion is similar to that of Igneous rocks -change of forms of Ig. And Sed. Due to Temprature, Pressure and Chemical Fluids

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Basic Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks 1.1 Basic Physical Properties : - Porosity - Density ++ Bulk density , dry density , etc. - Specific Gravity (SG) - Permeability (K) - Water Content - Sonic Velocity Index - Slake Durability Index - Swelling Pressure Index

1.2 Mechanical Properties of Rocks

Strength of Rocks :

+ Compressive Strength . Uniaxial compressive strength . Confined compressive strength

+ Tensile Strength + Shear Strength + Flextural Strength

Static Mechanical Properties + Uniaxial compressive strength + Tensile strength + Shear strength

Strength of Rocks

Strength of Rocks

Strength of Rocks

Deformation and Failure of Rocks

Deformation and Failure of Rocks:
Four stages of deformation recognised: Elastic; Elastico-viscous; Plastic, and Rupture. All are dependent on the elasticity, viscosity and rigidity of the rock, as well as temperature, time, pore water, anisotropy and stress history. Elastic deformation disappears when responsible stress ceases. Strain is a linear function of stress thus obeying Hookes law, and the constant relationship between them is referred to as Youngs modulus (E).

Deformation and Failure of Rocks

The elastic limit, where elastic deformation changes to plastic deformation is termed the Yield Point. Further stress induces plastic flow and the rock is permanently strained. The first part of the plastic flow domain preserves significant elastic stress and is known as the elastico-viscous region. This is the field ofcreepdeformation. Solids are termed brittleor ductiledepending on the amount of plastic deformation they exhibit. Brittle materials display no plastic deformation. The point where the applied stress exceeds the strength of the material is the ultimate strength and rupture results. Youngs modulus (E) is the most important elastic constant derived from the slope of the stress-strain curve. Most crystalline rocks have S-shaped stress-strain curves that display hysteresis on unloading. E varies with the magnitude of the applied stress and transient creep. Rocks are non ideal solids and exhibit hysteresis during unloading.

Compressive Strength
Compressive Strength: Compressive strength is defined as maximum force per unit area which a rock can withstand. Co = P/A Co = Compressive Strength P = Load at failure A = Area of cross-section The compressive or crushing strength of rock depends on mode of formation, composition, texture, structure, moisture content and extent of weathering.

Compressive Strength
Rock Granite Basalt Dolerite Marble Gneiss Quartzite Compressive strength (kg/cm2) 1000-2500 1500-3500 1500-3500 700-2000 500-2500 1500-3000

Sandstone Limestone

200-2000 200-2000

Compressive Strength For rocks or rock-alike materials (e.g., concrete) with the uniaxial compressive strength greater than 100 psi (700 kPa), the strength is completely controlled by the discontinuities or weakness planes. In natural rocks, weakness planes include: 1) bedding 2) foliation (cleavage, schistosity, structure) 3) flow banding in lave rocks 4) joint, faults, and shear zones

gneissic

Tensile Strength
Transverse/Tensile Strength: Transverse strength is defined as the capacity of the rocks to withstand bending loads and expressed as Modulus of Rupture. R = 3wl/2bd2 R = Modulus of Rupture w = Weight at which sample breaks l = Length of specimen b = width of specimen d = Thickness of specimen Transverse strength is generally 1/10 to 1/20 of compressive strength.

Shear Strength
Shear Strength: Shear strength is defined as the capacity of the rocks to withstand sliding forces from tom and bottom (ex. when rock is used as a column)

Shear strength in rocks ranges between 70140 kg/cm2

Hardness and Toughness

Hardness: Refers to "scratchability" or resistance to being scratched. Abrasion Resistance: Measurement of the resistance of rock to WEAR (for highway materials , concrete , metal testing). Attrition Resistance: Resistance of one surface to the motion of another surface rubbing over it. Toughness: Ability of the rock to withstand pounding

Engineering Properties of Rocks: Measurable Quantities

Since there are vast ranges in the properties of rocks, Engineers rely on a number of basic measurements to describe rocks quantitatively. These are known as Index Properties. Index Properties of Rocks:
Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of solids & voids Density- a mineralogical constituents parameter Sonic Velocity- evaluates the degree of fissuring Permeability- the relative interconnection of pores Durability- tendency for eventual breakdown of components or structures with degradation of rock quality strength- existing competency of the rock fabric binding components.

Engineering Properties of Rocks: Measurable Quantities

Porosity: Proportion of void space given by- n =p/ t , where p is
the pore volume and t is the total volume. Typical values for sandstones are around 15%. In Igneous and Metamorphic rocks, a large proportion of the pore space (usually < 1-2%) occurs as planar fissures. With weathering this increases to > 20%. Porosity is therefore an accurate index of rock quality.

Density: Rocks exhibit a greater range in density than soils.

Knowledge of the rock density is important to engineering practice. A concrete aggregate with higher than average density can mean a smaller volume of concrete required for a gravity retaining wall or dam. Expressed as weight per unit volume.

Engineering Properties of Rocks: Measurable Quantities

Sonic Velocity: Use longitudinal velocity Vl measured on
rock core. Velocity depends on elastic properties and density, but in practice a network of fissures has an overriding effect. Can be used to estimate the degree of fissuring of a rock specimen by plotting against porosity (%).

Permeability: As well as the degree of interconnection between

pores / fissures, its variation with change in normal stress assesses the degree of fissuring of a rock. Dense rocks like granite, basalt, schist and crystalline limestone possess very low permeabilities as lab specimens, but field tests can show significant permeability due to open joints and fractures.

Engineering Properties of Rocks: Measurable Quantities

Durability:
Exfoliation, hydration, slaking, solution, oxidation & abrasion all lower rock quality. A six step ranking of the index is applied (very high-very low).

What controls Engineering Properties of Rocks?

Controlling factors include:
Mineralogical composition and texture; Planes of weakness; Degree of mineral alteration; Temperature and Pressure conditions of rock formation; Pore water content, and Length of time and rate of changing stress that a rock experiences.

What controls Engineering Properties of Rocks?

Mineralogical Composition and Texture.
Very few rocks are homogeneous, continuous, isotropic (non directional) and elastic. Generally, the smaller the grain size, the stronger the rock. Without considering their origin (igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic, etc. ) rock textures are limited to a few basic varieties: 1) Inter-locking crystals 2) Clastic pieces cemented by crystalline materials 3) Clastic pieces with infilling of matrix 4) Glassy materials.

Texture influences the rock strength directly through the degree of interlocking of the component grains.
For both clastic and inter-locking crystals textured rocks, fractures occur either through the grains and crystals or around them

What controls Engineering Properties of Rocks?

For clastic grains with finer non-cemented matrix, failure is through the weaker matrix, because this kind of rock is held together by overburden, so that it is easy to be broken by wetting-drying, freezing-thawing, cooling, heating --- it has poor weathering resistance Sandstone on the surface may be extremely weathering resistant to both mechanical and chemical weathering due to water seeping, mineral deposition, and calcite. These processes increase the strength of sandstones. This phenomenon is referred as case hardening. Rock defects such as microfractures, grain boundaries, mineral cleavages, twinning planes and planar discontinuities influence the ultimate rock strength and may act as surfaces of weakness where failure occurs.
When cleavage has high or low angles with the principal stress direction, the mode of failure is mainly influenced by the cleavage. Anisotropy is common because of preferred orientations of minerals and directional stress history. Rocks are seldom continuous owing to pores and fissures (i.e. Sedimentary rocks).

What controls Engineering Properties of Rocks?

Temperature and Pressure
All rock types undergo a decrease in strength with increasing temperature, and an increase in strength with increasing confining pressure. At high confining pressures, rocks are more difficult to fracture as incipient fractures are closed.

Pore Solutions
The presence of moisture in rocks adversely affects their engineering strength. Reduction in strength with increasing H2O content is due to lowering of the tensile strength, which is a function of the molecular cohesive strength of the material.

Time-dependent Behavior
Most strong rocks , like granite show little time-dependent strain or creep.

Classification of Rocks: Engineering Purposes

Class A Rock Very high strength Compressive strength (kg/cm2) > 2240

B C D E

High strength Medium strength Low strength Very low strength

1120-2240 560-1120 280-560 < 280

Classification of Rocks: Engineering Purposes

Bieniawskis Geomechanics system uses a rock mass rating (RMR) which increases with rock quality (from 0-100). It is based on five parameters namely, rock strength; drill core quality; groundwater conditions; joint and fracture spacing, and joint characteristics. Increments from all five are summed to determine RMR. Bieniawski recommended that the sum of these ratings be adjusted to account for favorable or unfavorable joint orientations. No points are subtracted for very favorable joint orientations, but 12 points for unfavorable joint orientations in tunnels, and 25 points in foundations.

Classification of Rocks: Engineering Purposes

Deere and Miller (1966) Classification of intact rock:
Deere and Miller based their classification on unconfined (uniaxial) compressive strength ( 1) and Youngs Modulus (E) or more specifically, the tangent modulus at 50% of the ultimate strength ratioed to the unconfined compressive strength (E/ 1 ). Rocks are subdivided into five strength categories on a geometric progression basis; very high high medium low -very low. Three ratio intervals are employed for the modulus ratio; high medium low. Rocks are therefore classed as BH (high strength- high ratio); CM (medium strength medium ratio), etc.

Good Engineering Material

Granite:

hard, competent, durable => suitable for foundation

Limestone: comparatively soft=> best for flooring Marble: soft and attractive=> flooring/sculpturing Sandstone: sculpturing, wall etc. Quartzite: hard, competent and durable