TOPICS

Twofold Strategy for limit the potential damage 1. Prevent the initiation of the fire or explosion. 2. Minimize the damage after a fire and explosion occurred. The specific topics includes in this chapter Inerting Use of flammability diagram(introdn given in chap 6) Static electricity Controlling of static electricity Ventilation (in chapter 3) Explosion proof equipments and instruments Sprinkler system

Flammability Diagram
1 Atmosphere 25C

LOC

Limiting O2 concentration: Vol. % O2 below which combustion cant occur

FLAMMABLE MIXTURES

HEL

LEL

Inerting Vacuum Purging

Most common procedure for Inerting reactors Steps 1. Draw a vacuum on the vessel until the desired value 2. Relieve the vacuum with an inert gas such as N2 and CO2 to atm pressure 3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 until the desired oxidant level is reached 4. Flammable material is charged 5. Automatic inert system is required to control the O2 concentration below LOC

Inerting Vacuum Purging

Initial State for the Vacuum Purging Process

Vacuum State for the Vacuum Purging Process

Inert-Filled State for the Vacuum Purging Process

The number of moles of oxidant for the low pressure PL and high pressure PH are computed using Dalton's law:

When the vacuum is relieved with pure nitrogen, the moles of oxidant are the same as in the vacuum state and the moles of nitrogen increase. The new (lower) oxidant concentration is

If the vacuum and inert relief process is repeated, the concentration after the second purge

The concentration after the j purge

The total moles of nitrogen added

Inerting Pressure Purging

Most common procedure for inerting reactors Steps 1. Add inert gas under pressure 2. Vent down to atmospheric pressure 3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 until the desired oxidant level is reached Oxidant Concentration after j cycles:

nL j y = yo(n ) j H
where nL is atmospheric moles (or) PL nH is pressure moles (or) PH

Inerting Pressure Purging

Initial State for the pressure Purging Process

Pressurized State for the Vacuum Purging Process

Relieved State for the Vacuum Purging Process

In this case, however, the initial concentration of oxidant in the vessel (yo) is computed after the vessel is pressurized (the first pressurized state).

Vacuum? Pressure? Which?

Pressure purging is faster because pressure differentials are greater (+PP) Vacuum purging uses less inert gas than pressure purging (+VP) Combining the two gains benefits of both especially if the initial cycle is a vacuum cycle (+ VP&PP)

Vacuum? Pressure? Which?

Other Methods of Inerting

Sweep Sweep-Through Purging
In one end, and out the other For equipment not rated for pressure, vacuum Requires large quantities of inert gas

Siphon Purging
Fill vessel with a compatible liquid Use Sweep-Through on small vapor space Add inert purge gas as vessel is drained Very efficient for large storage vessels

Siphon Purging

Liquid-Filled State for the Siphon Purging Process Initial State for the Siphon Purging Process

Siphon Purging
Liquid-Filled State for the Siphon Purging Process

Drained State for the Siphon Purging Process

Using the Flammability

Diagram
1 Atmos. 25C

FLAMMABLE MIXTURES

Using the flammability diagram

Taking vessel out of service

Using the flammability diagram

Taking vessel out of service (OSFC-Out of Service Fuel Concentration)

(or)

Using the flammability diagram

placing vessel into service (ISOC-In Service Oxygen Concentration)

(or)

Table 7.1 gives Experimental values of OFSC and ISOC

How it is formed?

How it is formed?
Static charge buildup when, Separating a poor conductor from a good conductor or another poor conductor

Static electricity
Industrial Example: Pumping nonconductive liquid through a pipe, mixing immiscible liquids, pneumatically conveying solids and leaking steam that contacts an ungrounded conductor. An electrostatic discharge occurs when two materials at different potentials or polarities come close enough together to generate charge transfer In explosive environment this sudden transfer of charges may be energetic enough to be an ignition source
Dangerous energy near flammable vapors Static buildup by walking across carpet 0.1 mJ 20 mJ

Charge Accumulation
Contact and frictional charging: When two materials, with one as insulator brought into contact, a charge separation occurs at the interface.

Charge Accumulation
Double layer charging: Charge separation occurs on a microscopic scale in a liquid(as it flows) at any interface. As the liquid flows, it carries a charge and it leaves a charge of opposite sign on the other surface, for example, a pipe wall.

Charge Accumulation
Induction charging: This phenomenon is applicable only to materials that are electrically conductive. A person with insulated shoes, may approach an overhead vessel that is positively charged (previously filled with positively charged solids). Electrons in the person's body (head, shoulders, and arms) migrate toward the positive charge of the vessel, thus accumulating an equal quantity of positive charges on the opposite side of the body. This leaves the lower part of the body positively charged by induction. When a metal object is touched, there is a transfer of the electrons, creating a spark.

Charge Accumulation
Charging by transport: When charged liquid droplets or solid particles settle on an isolated object, the object is charged. The transferred charge is a function of the object's capacitance and of the conductivities of the droplet, particle, and interface.

Electrostatic discharges
A charged object can be discharged to a ground or to an oppositely charged object when the field intensity exceeds 3 MV/m (or) when the surface reaches a maximum charge density of 2.7x10-5 C/m2 by
Spark Propagating brush Conical pile Brush discharge Lightning-like Corona discharge.

Electrostatic discharges
A spark discharge is a discharge between two metallic objects. Because both objects are conductive, the electrons move to exit at a single point of the charged object, and they enter the second object at a single point. This is therefore an energetic spark that can ignite a flammable dust or gas.

Electrostatic discharges
A propagating brush discharge is a discharge from a grounded conductor when it approaches a charged insulator that is backed by a conductor. These discharges are energetic, and they can ignite flammable gases and dusts.

Electrostatic discharges
A conical pile discharge is a form of a brush-type discharge that occurs at the conical surface of a pile of powder. The necessary conditions (1) a powder with a high resistivity (>10 10 ohm m) (2) a powder with coarse particles (>1 mm in diameter) (3) a powder with a high charge to mass ratio. (4) filling rates above about 0.5 kgls.

Electrostatic discharges
A brush discharge is a discharge between a relatively sharp-pointed conductor (radius of 0.1-100 mm) and either another conductor or a charged insulated surface. This discharge radiates from the conductor in a brush-like configuration. This discharge is less intense compared with the point-topoint spark discharge, and it is unlikely to ignite dusts. However, brush discharges can ignite flammable gases

Electrostatic discharges
Lightning-like discharges are discharges from a cloud in the air over the powder. It is known from experiments that lightninglike discharges do not occur in vessels with volumes less than 60 m3 or in silos with diameters less than 3 m There is currently no physical evidence that lightning-like discharges have resulted in industrial deflagrations.

Electrostatic discharges

A corona discharge is similar to a brush discharge. The electrode conductor has a sharp point. The discharge from such an electrode has sufficient energy to ignite only the most sensitive gases (for example, hydrogen)

Electrostatic discharges
Energy from Electrostatic discharges

The minimum ignition Energy vakue shown in table 6.4 and 6.8

Electrostatic discharges
Energy of Electrostatic ignition sources A spark is generated between two conductors when the distance between the conductors is small compared to the diameter of the conductors and when the electric field intensity between the conductors is approximately 3 MV/m. The actual energy (expressed in joules) associated with the discharge process is given by

Where Q accumulated charges (in coulombs) C-capacitance of the object (in farads) =Q/V
This is valid only for conductive system i.e Spark discharge

Electrostatic discharges
The static discharge energy is function of accumulated charge. In industrial setting, the accumulated charge is usually the result of either contact or friction charging for flowing solids/liquids through pipe. In each case e- is transported with the material. It is given by streaming current Is in amps electricity produced by transferring electrons from one surface to another by a flowing fluid or solid

Electrostatic discharges
the relaxation time () is the time required for a charge to dissipate by leakage.

All the values is given in table 7.2 for different materials

The stream current that is generated while transporting solids is function of the solid processing method and the flow rate

Electrostatic voltage drops

The streaming current builds up a charge and voltage in the feed line to the vessel and in the vessel itself. The voltage from the electrical ground in the metal line to the end of the glass pipe is calculated V =IsR The resistance R is computed using the conductivity of the fluid c (mho/cm), the length L and Area A R=L/ cA

Controlling Static Electricity

Special features Prevent by eliminating the buildup and accumulation of static charges. Prevent the ignition by Inerting General methods Prevent charges from accumulating to dangerous levels by reducing rate of charge generation Use bonding and grounding to prevent discharge The voltage between two conductive materials is reduced to zero by bonding the two materials.

Controlling Static Electricity

Bonding and grounding

By using dip leg or dip pipe: Reduces the electrical charge that accumulates when liquid is allowed to free fall.

VENTILATION
Open-Air Plants
Average wind velocities are often high enough to safely dilute volatile chemical leaks

Plants Inside Buildings

Local ventilation
Purge boxes Elephant trunks

Dilution ventilation ( 1 ft3/min/ft2 of floor area)

When many small points of possible leaks exist

Summary
Though they can often be reduced in magnitude or even sometimes designed out, many of the hazards that can lead to fires/explosions are unavoidable Eliminating at least one side of the Fire Triangle represents the best chance for avoiding fires and explosions

END of PRESENTATION