1Understanding General Systems Theory

This theory was developed by biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1936. He felt the need for a theory to guide research in several disciplines because he saw striking parallels among them. His hunch was that if multiple disciplines focused their research & theory development efforts, they would be able to identify laws & principles which would apply to many systems. This would allow scholars & scientists to make sense of system charactieristics such as wholeness, differentiation, order, equifinality, progression & others. With a common framework, scientists could better communicate their findings with each other & build upon each other's work. He believed that over time, what was discovered would come to be applicable to life in general. More than 50 years later, the work in understanding systems has evolved to the point that we incorporate many of the concepts into our everyday language. We speak of a health care system, a family system, body systems, information systems, banking systems, political systems, etc. One of the reasons we do this is because the amount of knowledge & information available has increased tremendously during this time period. We cannot know all there is to know. We seek some way of ordering what we encounter to avoid being overloaded with information. We focus in on small areas of knowledge rather than trying to comprehend the whole. Whether we like it or not, nurses are enmeshed in many systems. It is to our benefit to gain some basic understanding of how systems work. We can more effectively care for patients, families and communities when we do understand. We can more effectively bring about desired changes in our workplace if we are able to step back & consider how best to accomplish this within our workplace system. What is a system? Rapaport defines a system as an "entity which can maintain some organization in the face of change from within or without." Ryan defines a system as "a set of objects or elements in interaction to achieve a specific goal." What examples of systems can you think of? What is the function of a system? The function of any system is to convert or process energy, information, or materials into a product or outcome for use within the system, or outside of the system (the environment) or both. Indeed, if a system is to survive, it must save some of the outcome or product to maintain the system.

Levels of Complexity Wren believes there are 9 levels of complexity for systems. These are described in the following table.

Level of Complexity

Example

Characteristics

Level 1

Structural Framework

The organizational chart Dynamic, moving, predictable, must be controlled externally Dynamic, predictable, capable of self-regulation within certain limits. Open, dynamic, programmed for selfmaintenance under changing external conditions Open, dynamic, genetically determined, capable of self-regulation through wide range of changing external & internal conditions. Open, dynamic, genetically determined system that adjusts to its environment by making internal adjustments & by forming simple social groups. Open, dynamic, self-regulating, adaptive through wide circumstances because of ability to think abstractly & communicate symbolically More complex than an individual, more open to environmental influence, more adaptive to circumstance because of collective experience & wider reservoir of skills. Most freely adaptable to circumstance because it rises above & extends beyond the boundaries of both individuals & social systems.

Level 2

Clockwork

Level 3

Cybernetic device such as thermostat

Level 4

The cell

Level 5

The plant system

Level 6

The animal system

Level 7

Humans

Level 8

The social system

Level 9

The transcendental

All systems have common elements. These are:

input output throughput or process feedback control environment goal

Defining the key terms & concepts

Term

Definition

Examples

Input

The energy & raw material transformed by the system

Information, money, energy, time, individual effort, & raw material of some kind Thinking, planning, decision-making, constructing, sorting, sharing information, meeting in groups, discussing, melting, shaping, hammering, etc.

Throughput

The processes used by the system to convert raw materials or energy from the environment into products that are usable by either the system itself or the environment. The product or service which results from the system's throughput or processing of technical, social, financial & human input. Information about some aspect of data or energy processing that can be used to evaluate & monitor the system & to guide it to more effective performance.

Output

Software programs, documents, decisions, laws, rules, money, assistance, cars, clothing, bills, etc.

Feedback

How many cars were produced? How many had to be recalled to correct errors? How many mistakes were made? Why were mistakes made? HealthCareReportCard.com is an example of how hospitals are doing with certain diagnoses. Accreditation reports are an example as are patient satisfaction surveys, sales reports,

and test results. The finance department, the information system, the managerial system, the renal system, the political system, the workflow system (such as the conveyor belt), etc.

Subsystem

A system which is a part of a larger system. They can work parallel to each other or in a series with each other.

Static system

neither system elements nor the system itself changes much over time in relation to the environment

A rock

Dynamic system

the system constantly changes the environment & is changed by the environment

A healthy young adult grows more independent, interdependent, & selfsufficient & self-directed in response to stimuli from peers, family, school, work, & recreational activities. A rock is an example of the most closed system. We may encounter families that are isolated from the community & resistant to any outside influence.

Closed systems

fixed, automatic relationships among system components & no give or take with the environment

Open systems

interacts with the environment trading energy & raw materials for goods & services produced by the system. They are self-regulating, & capable of growth, development & adaptation. the line or point where a system or subsystem can be differentiated from its environment or from other subsystems. Can be rigid or permeable or some point in between. Systems or subsystems will engage in boundary tending. the overall purpose for existence or the desired outcomes. The reason for being. Currently, many organizations put their goals into a mission statement. The tendency for a system to develop order & energy over time.

Hospitals, families, people, body systems, banks, manufacturing plants, governmental bodies, associations, businesses, etc.

Boundary

The nursing unit, the occupational therapy department, the elementary school, a person, an agency or business, a fence or wall, roles, ect

Goal

To educate students, to support people during illness & restore them to health, to make money, to create social order, etc.

Entropy

Rules are made, policies & protocols are written, approved & communicated to staff; laws are enacted & violators are held accountable; a marathon runner in training gradually is able to run

farther. The disorganization after a hurricane, a rigid, frightened family produces a child who is unable to think independently or leave home, a new business has no forms or protocols for handling consumer complaints. Pilots use instrument panels & devices to constantly evaluate & make course corrections; teachers grade papers & give students grades on exams; parents measure their children's height & weight & may adjust the child's diet; health care agencies use TQM or Quality Assurance programs; employee health nurses review records to see who needs immunization updates. A nursing assistant assigned to empty catheter bags on a unit could begin in the middle of the hall, on the right side, on the left side, at the front or back of the hall & still end up with all the bags emptied. A traveller could take the interstate or back country roads & still arrive at their destination. The traveller could go by train, plane, bus or car & still arrive at desired location.

Negentropy

The tendency of a system to lose energy & dissolve into chaos

Control or cybernation

the activities & processes used to evaluate input, throughput & output in order to make corrections

Equifinality

objectives can be achieved with varying inputs & in different ways.

Application Example
Most everyone has a grasp of how a thermostat in their home works. We set the desired temperature for heat. The thermostat monitors the temperature in the room. When the temperature falls below the desired level, the thermostat sends a signal to our heater, and tells it to turn on. Heat is generated by our furnace or heater. When the temperature reaches the desired level, the thermostat sends a signal to the heater to turn off. Now let's go through this example & connect it to the basic concepts. Input - The gas or electricity which comes from our power company Output - Heat Throughput - thermostat monitors the temperature, thermostat sends a signal to our heater to turn on, thermostat sends a signal to the heater to turn off, the gas is burned, the fan

turns on & blows warm air into the room. Feedback - when the temperature falls below the desired level, the thermostat sends a signal to our heater; When the temperature reaches the desired level, the thermostat sends a signal to the heater to turn off. Another example, this time using a family system: We could look at a family's finances to illustrate these 4 concepts. Input - the money a family receives from wages, gifts, inheritance, tax refunds, etc. Throughput - depositing the money in checking & savings accounts, writing checks, spending cash, transferring money electronically, recording deposits in the bankbook, balancing the checkbook, developing a budget. These are all processes or what family members do related to money. Output - the goods & services purchased with the family's money such as the utilities, the mortgage, insurance, automobiles, food, etc. Feedback - the bank statements showing checking & savings account balances, the bills which arrive for goods & services, the comparison between the budgeted amounts & the actual amounts spent.

An example of a system with the classic elements:

Now, let's see what you've learned. Diagram the input, throughput, and output of the nursing care of a patient (in general. You don't need to focus on a particular diagnosis).

Input

Processes or Throughput

Output

Basic Principles of a Systems Approach

1. A system is greater than the sum of its parts.Requires investigation of the whole situation rather than one (1) or two (2) aspects of a problem. Mistakes can't be blamed on one person, rather a systems analyst would investigate how the mistake occurred within a subsystem & look for opportunities to make corrections in the processes used. 2. The portion of the world studied (system) must exhibit some predictability. 3. Though each sub-system is a self-contained unit, it is part of a wider and higher order. 4. The central objective of a system can be identified by the fact that other objectives will be sacrificed in order to attain the central objective. 5. Every system, living or mechanical, is an information system. Must analyze how suitable the symbols used are for information transmission. 6. An open system and its environment are highly interrelated. 7. A highly complex system may have to be broken into subsystems so each can be analyzed and understood before being reassembled into a whole. 8, A system consists of a set of objectives and their relationships. 9. A system is a dynamic network of interconnecting elements. A change in only one of the elements must produce change in all the others. 10. When subsystems are arranged in a series, the output of one is the input for another; therefore, process alterations in one requires alterations in other subsystems. 11. All systems tend toward equilibrium, which is a balance of various forces within and outside of a system. 12. The boundary of a system can be redrawn at will by a system analyst. 13. To be viable, a system must be strongly goal-directed, governed by feedback, and have

the ability to adapt to changing circumstances.

Webpage created by Joyce Begley 2/99 Reference: Gillies, Dee Ann (1982). Nursing management a systems approach. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 56-74.