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Bridge Design Manual - 2002

Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN

7.1 SCOPE This section contains provisions for the analysis and design of bridge decks and deck systems of concrete, metal, and wood or combinations thereof subjected to gravity loads. For monolithic concrete bridge decks satisfying specific conditions, an empirical design, requiring no analysis, is permitted. Continuity in the deck and its supporting components is encouraged. Composite action between the deck and its supporting components is required where technically feasible. Implicit in this section is a design philosophy that prefers jointless, continuous bridge decks and deck systems to improve the weather and corrosion-resisting effects of the whole bridge, reduce inspection efforts and maintenance costs, and increase structural effectiveness and redundancy. 7.2 NOTATIONS Acv Avf bv c de dt dv fc fy h Is ks l L1 Pc S t Vh Vn Vu = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = area of concrete engaged in shear transfer (mm2) area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (mm2) width of the interface (mm) cohesion factor (MPa) the distance between the centroid of the steel in the tension side of the beam to the center of the compression blocks in the deck (mm) thickness of the arch barrel at crown thickness of the arch barrel at abutment 28-day compressive strength of the weaker concrete MPa) yield strength of reinforcement (MPa) height (m) moment of inertia of equivalent strip (mm4) the strip stiffness length (m) modified span length taken equal to the lesser of actual span length or 18m permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane; if force is tensile, Pc = 0.0 (N) spacing of supporting components (mm) thickness of wall (mm) horizontal shear per unit length of the girder (N) nominal shear resistance (N) the factored vertical shear (N)

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W1 X Xu w w v

= = = = = = =

modified edge to edge with of bridge taken to be equal to the lesser of the actual width or 18 000 for multilane loading and 9 000 for single lane loading (mm), as appropriate. distance from load point to support, mm the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall (see Figure 7.3)(mm) friction factor 1,0 for normal density concrete wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns (DIM) reduction factor the angle of the arch barrel at abutment from horizontal (see Figure 12-6)

7.3 GENERAL These Design Specifications do not deal with more exclusive bridge types in the country, such as continuous composite bridges, cable stayed bridges, suspension bridges, etc. These types of bridges should be designed according to Chapter 3: Load Requirements. Any method of analysis, which satisfies the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and utilizes stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials, shall be used, including, but not limited to: classical force and displacement methods finite difference method finite element method (FEM) folded plate method finite strip method Concrete bridges with a design span exceeding 8 m shall be provided with camber, unless it is shown unnecessary. 7.3.1 INTERFACE SHEAR TRANSFER - SHEAR FRICTION Interface shear transfer shall be considered across a given plane at: An existing or potential crack, An interface between dissimilar materials, or An interface between two concrete casts at different times. The nominal shear resistance, Vn , of the interface plane shall be taken as: Vn = c * Acv + [Avf * fy + Pc] The nominal shear resistance used in the design shall not exceed: Vn 0.2 * fc Acv or (7.2) (7.1)

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Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

Vn < 5.5 Acv where: Vn Acv Avf fy c Pc fc = = = = = = = nominal shear resistance (N) area of concrete engaged in shear transfer (mm2) area of shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane (mm2) yield strength of reinforcement (MPa) cohesion factor specified in Table 7-1 (MPa) friction factor specified in Table 7-1 permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane; if force is tensile, Pc = 0.0 (N) = specified 28-day compressive strength of the weaker concrete (MPa)

(7.3)

Reinforcement for interface shear between concrete of slab and beams or girders may consist of single bars, multiple leg stirrups, or the vertical legs of welded wire fabric. The crosssectional area, Avf, of the reinforcement per unit length of the beam or girder should not be less than either that required by Equation 7.1 or: Avf 0.35 bv fy where: bv = width of the interface (mm) The minimum reinforcement requirement of Avf shall be waived if Vn/Acv is less than 0.7 MPa. For beams and girders, the longitudinal spacing of the rows of reinforcing bars shall not exceed 600 mm. Net tension force across shear plane, where it exists, shall be resisted by reinforcement additional to that required for shear. Shear friction reinforcement shall be anchored to develop the specified yield strength on both sides of the shear plane by embedment, hooks, or welding. The bars shall be anchored in either the beam or girder and the slab. A discontinuity is assumed to occur along the shear plane. Relative displacement is considered to be resisted by cohesion and friction, maintained by the shear friction reinforcement crossing the crack. Because the interface is rough, shear displacement will cause a widening of the discontinuity. This opening will cause tension in the reinforcement crossing the discontinuity balanced by compressive stresses on the concrete discontinuity surfaces. The resistance of the face to shear is assumed to be a function of both cohesion and friction. Equations 7.2 and 7.3 provide an upper limit on Vn. (7.4)

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Horizontal shear forces develop along the interface between concrete girders and the deck. As an alternative to the classical elastic strength of materials approach, the value of these forces per unit length of the girders at the strength limit state can be taken as:

Vu Vh = (7.5) dc
where: Vh = horizontal shear per unit length of the girder (N) Vu = the factored vertical shear (N) de =the distance between the centroid of the steel in the tension side of the beam to the center of the compression blocks in the deck (mm) For simplicity, the depth, de, can be taken as the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the deck. Equation 7.5 is a reasonable approximation for either elastic or inelastic behavior and cracked or uncracked sections, it can be derived as follows using the free body diagram shown in Figure 7-1. Mu2 = Mu1 + Vudl Cu2 Mu2/de Mu1/de + Vudl/de Cu1 = Mu1/de (7.6) (7.7) (7.8) (7.9)

Figure 7-1 Free Body Diagrams

Vh = Cu2 Cu1

(7.10)

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Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

= Vu dl/de for a unit length segment: Vh = Vu/de

(7.11)

(7.12)

By substituting the area of the interface between the girder and the deck in Equation 7.1, the nominal shear resistance of the interface per unit length of the girder shall be taken as: Vn = cbv + [Avf fy + Pc] where: bv = the width of the interface between the girder and the deck (mm) If the width of the contact surface exceeds 1225 mm, a minimum of four bars should be used for each row, and consideration should be given to locating one bar in each outstanding portion of the flange. Cohesion and Friction The values in Table 7-1 shall be taken for cohesion factor, c, and friction factor, . 7.3.2 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT Minimum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars Cast-in-Place Concrete For cast-in-place concrete, the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than: 1.5 times the nominal diameter of the bars, 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or 38 mm. c 1.0 MPa 0.70 MPa 0.52 MPa 0.17 MPa 1.4 1.0 0.6 0.7 (7.13)

For concrete placed monolithically For concrete placed against clean, hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened to an amplitude of 6 mm For concrete placed against hardened concrete clean and free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened For concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars where all steel in contact with concrete is clean and free of paint for normal density concrete = 1,0

Table 7-1 Values for Cohesion Factor, c, and Friction Factor,

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Precast Concrete For precast concrete manufactured under plant control conditions, the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than: The nominal diameter of the bars, 1.3 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or 25 mm. Multi-Layers Except in decks where parallel reinforcing is placed in two or more layers, with clear distance between layers not exceeding 150 mm, the bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly above those in the bottom layer, and the clear distance between layers shall not be less than 25 mm or the nominal diameter of the bars. Splices The clear distance limitations between bars as specified above shall also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent splices or bars. Bundled Bars The number of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall not exceed four in any one bundle, except that in flexural members, the number of bars larger than 36 shall not exceed two in any one bundle. Bundled bars shall be enclosed within stirrups or ties. Bundled bars should be tied, wired, or otherwise firmly fixed during the casting of the concrete. 7.4 SLABS 7.4.1 SLAB DESIGN Minimum Depth and Cover Unless approved by ERA, the depth of a concrete deck, excluding any provision for grinding, grooving, and sacrificial surface, should not be less than 175 mm. Minimum cover shall be in accordance with the provisions of section 9.2: Reinforcement. For slabs of a depth less than 1/20 of the design span, consideration should be given to prestressing in the direction of that span in order to control cracking. Construction tolerances become a concern for thin decks.

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Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

Minimum cover requirements are based on traditional concrete mixes and on the absence of protective coating on either the concrete or the steel inside. A combination of special mix design, protective coatings, dry or moderate climate, and the absence of corrosion chemicals may justify a reduction of these requirements, provided that ERA approves. Skewed Decks If the skew angle of the deck does not exceed 25, the primary reinforcement shall be placed in the direction of the skew; otherwise, it shall be placed perpendicular to the main supporting components. The sharp edge corners, with a skew angle exceeding 25, shall be reinforced for uplift if the slab is not sufficiently anchored to an edge-beam or similar. The intent of this provision is to prevent extensive cracking of the deck, which may result from the absence of appreciable reinforcement acting in the direction of principal flexural stresses due to a heavily skewed reinforcement, as shown in Figure 7-2 below. The somewhat arbitrary 25 limit could affect the area of steel as much as 10 percent.

Figure 7-2 Reinforcement Layout

Edge Support Unless otherwise specified, at lines of discontinuity, the edge of the deck shall either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component. The beam or component shall be integrated in or made composite with the deck. The edge beams shall be designed as beams whose width shall be taken as the effective width of the deck specified below. Where the primary direction of the deck is transverse, and/or the deck is composite with a structurally continuous concrete barrier, no additional edge beam need be provided. Width of Equivalent Strips at Edges of Slabs For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced deck strip width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening or similar protrudence acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be assumed to support one line of wheels and, where appropriate, a tributary portion of the design lane load.

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Longitudinal Edges Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or without an edge beam, in lieu of a more refined analysis shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier, plus 0.3 m, plus onehalf of the strip width, Overhang for beams = 1140+0.833*X where X= distance from load point to support, mm for slabs = 250 + 0.42L1* W1; (7.15) (7.14)

where L1=modified span length taken equal to the lesser of actual span length or 18m W1= modified edge to edge width of bridge taken to be equal to the lesser of the actual width or 18 000 for multilane loading and 9 000 for single lane loading (mm), as appropriate. The effective width shall not exceed either the full strip width or 1.8 m. For the purpose of design, the notional edge beam shall be taken as a reduced deck strip width specified herein, plus any additional integral local thickening or similar protrudence acting as a stiffener to the deck. Edge beams shall be assumed to support one line of wheels and, where appropriate, a tributary portion of the design lane load. Distribution of Wheel Loads If the spacing of supporting components in the secondary direction is less than 1.5 times the spacing in the primary direction, the deck shall be modeled as a system of intersecting strips. The distribution shall be determined as the ratio between the stiffness of the strip and the sum of stiffnesses of the intersecting strips. In the absence of more precise calculations, the strip stiffness, ks, shall be estimated as:

Ks

E * Is S3

(7.16)

where: Is = moment of inertia of the equivalent strip (mm4) S = spacing of supporting components (mm)

7.4.2 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SLABS The overhanging portion of the deck shall be designed for railing impact loads and in accordance with the provisions of sections 3.10 and 3.17. Punching shear effects at the outside toe of a railing post or barrier due to vehicle collision loads shall be investigated. If

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Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

an edge-beam according to the Standard Detail Drawings-2002, Chapter 7: Bridge Drainage, drawing B-35 is provided, railing impact loads need not to be considered. Any combination of increasing the depth of the slab, employing special reinforcement extending the slab width beyond the railing, and enlarging base plates under railing posts shall be utilized to prevent failure due to punching shear. An edge-beam with dimensions 0.4x0.4 m has proven to resist railing impact load due to its stiffness and resistance to torsion. Punching shear is resisted through longitudinal distribution of the force effect. 7.5 GIRDERS (CONCRETE, STEEL, COMPOSITE BRIDGES) 7.5.1 RC GIRDERS Beam-Slab Bridges: The live load on each beam shall be the reaction of the loaded lanes based on the lever rule unless specified otherwise herein. The provisions of Chapter 3: Load Requirements specify that multiple presence factors shall not be used with the approximate load assignment methods other than statical moment or lever arm methods, as these factors are already incorporated in the distribution factors. Diaphragms shall be omitted where tests or structural analysis show them to be unnecessary. Diaphragms should be designed by the strut-and-tie method, where applicable (i.e. at single column piers). The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be determined by either the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab does not extend beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be extended into the exterior face of the outside web and anchored by a standard 90 hook. If the slab extends beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement shall be extended into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web not less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook. 7.5.2 RC BOX GIRDERS AND OTHER HOLLOW RECTANGULAR COMPRESSION MEMBERS The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow rectangular cross-section shall be taken as:

Xu w = t

(7.17)

where: Xu = the clear length of the constant thickness portion of a wall, according to Figure 7.3 below (mm) t = thickness of wall (mm) w = wall slenderness ratio for hollow columns

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A wall slenderness greater than 35 shall be used only when the behavior and resistance of the wall is documented by analytic and experimental evidence acceptable to ERA. Limitations on the use of the Rectangular Stress Block Method: Except for the approximate method for adjusting factored resistance below, the equivalent rectangular stress block method shall not be employed in the design of hollow rectangular compression members with a wall slenderness ratio greater than or equal to 15.

Figure 7-3 Definition of the Parameter Xu Where the wall slenderness ratio is less than 15, the rectangular stress block method shall be used based on a compressive strain of 0.003. A Refined Method for Adjusting Maximum Usable Strain Limit where the wall slenderness ratio is 15 or greater, the maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to the lesser of the computed local buckling strain of the widest flange of crosssection, or 0.003. The local buckling strain of the widest flange of the cross-section shall be computed assuming simply supported boundary conditions on all four edges of the flange. Non-linear material behavior shall be considered by incorporating the tangent material moduli of the concrete and reinforcing steel in computations of the local buckling strain. Discontinuous, non-post-tensioned reinforcement in segmentally constructed hollow rectangular compression members shall be neglected in computations of member strength. Approximate Method for Adjusting Factored Resistance: The provisions of this Chapter and the rectangular stress block method shall be used in lieu of the provisions above and the refined method above where the wall slenderness is less than or equal to 35. The factored resistance of a hollow column, determined using a maximum usable gain of 0.003, and the resistance factors specified in subchapter 9.4: Limit States, shall be further reduced by a factor w, taken as:

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Chapter 7 Superstructure Design

- if w 15, then w = 1.0 - if 15< w 25, then w = 1- 0.025 (w -15) - If 25< w 35, then w = 0.75 For a box girder, the shear stress due to shear and the shear stress due to torsion will add together on one side of the box girder. Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members: The area of longitudinal reinforcement in the cross-section shall not be less than 1.0 % of the gross area of concrete, unless calculations prove that less reinforcement is needed. Two layers of reinforcement shall be provided in each wall of the cross-section, one layer near each face of the wall. The areas of reinforcement in the two layers shall be approximately equal. Spacing of Reinforcement: The center-to-center lateral spacing of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall not be greater than the lesser of 1.5 times the wall thickness or 300 mm. The center-to-center longitudinal spacing of lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than the lesser of 1.25 times the wall thickness, or 300 mm. Bottom Slab Reinforcement in Cast-in-Place Box Girders shall be a uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.4 % of the flange area and be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the girder span, either in single or double layers. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed 450 mm. A uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.5 % of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 450 mm. All transverse reinforcement in the bottom slab shall be extended to the exterior face of the outside web in each group and shall be anchored by a standard 90 hook. This shall apply to both reinforced and prestressed boxes. 7.5.3 COMPOSITE BRIDGES For a concrete deck on a steel superstructure, a full interaction shall be obtained by means of shear connector studs of welded bolts with heads. The concrete shall cover the whole top flange. Longitudinal reinforcement shall be at least 1% of the gross concrete area, unless otherwise proved in calculations. Shear connector studs shall be made from cold-drawn bars, Grades 1015, 1018 or 1020, either semi- or fully filled, conforming to AASHTO M169 (ASTM A108) Standard Specification for Steel Bars, Carbon, Cold finished, Standard Quality. They shall have a minimum yield and tensile strength of 345 MPa and 400 MPa, respectively. Minimum flange thickness of steel girder/beam with welded studs shall be 20 mm.

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If flux-retaining caps are used, the steel for the caps shall be of a low carbon grade suitable for welding and shall conform to ASTM A109M - Standard Specification for Steel, Carbon, Cold-rolled Strip Weld metal shall conform to the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code Dl.5. Welds in main structures shall be at least 4 mm fillet, unless one of the connected members exceeds 25 mm, where 5 mm fillet welds shall be used. Fillet welds in other structures shall be 3 mm nominal thickness. 7.6 TRUSSES (STEEL) Effective depths of the truss shall be assumed as the distance between the centers of gravity of bolted or welded chords or the distance between centers of pins. Through-truss spans and deck truss spans shall have top and bottom lateral bracing, which meet the slenderness requirements. In half-through-trusses the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a permanent load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly. Diaphragms shall be provided at the connections to floorbeams and other connections or points of application of concentrated loads. Internal diaphragms may also be provided to maintain member alignment. This does not apply if structural analysis shows it to be unnecessary. Welds shall conform to the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code Dl.5. 7.7 ARCH BRIDGES AND STONE MASONRY PIERS For Stone Masonry Arch Bridges the thickness of the arch barrel at crown (dt) and abutment (dv) shall not be less than: dt = 0,2 (1+v2) ; where = 1.3 (1 h/l + (h/l)2 h= height l= length of the arch; dv = dt * tan v ; (7.19) (7.18)

where v = is the angle of the arch barrel at abutment from horizontal (see Figure 12-6)

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If nothing else is proved to give higher tension, all arch bridges shall be designed with full live load placed at one half of the arch and providing that the compression line shall be within the core limit at 3 points: both the abutments and the crown. It is allowed to assume a uniform distribution of live loads perpendicular to the alignment if the arch is uniform over all the lanes. Only slender concrete arch bridges need to be designed with transversal loads in Chapter 3: Load Requirements, such as Windload, Centrifugal forces, etc. Before testing of material has been made, the following values shall be used: Material Stone masonry Granite Stone masonry Sandstone Stone masonry Clinker Unreinforced Concrete E (MPa) 2 - 4 *104 1 - 2.5*104 0.5 - 1*104 2.5 - 3.2*104 fc (MPa) 50 100 35 70 15 - 25 15 - 25 fc all core (MPa) 0.1*fc but 5 0.1*fc but 4 0.1*fc but 2 0.14*fc but 3.5 fc all edge (MPa) 0.14*fc but 7 0.14*fc but 6 0.14*fc but 3 0.2*fc but 4.5

Table 7-2 Material Properties of Different Arch Bridge Stones (Ref. 4). Piers made of stone masonry shall have a minimum thickness (b) of 1/35 of the height (h). If the thickness b h/12 then the fc all = 0.14 * fc ; where fc is given in Table 7-1. For thicknesses between 1/35 and 1/12 of the height the following formula shall apply: fc all = 0.14 * fc * (12*b/h)2 Where: h= b = thickness height (7.20)

For strength limit stage design the following load factors shall apply: lane load 1.5 ; truck load 2.5 and then the compression force (fc all) shall in no point exceed 0.57* fc (Ref. 5) Fc all 0.57*fc (7.21)

Regarding recommended calculation methods and design, see section 12.9: Arch Bridges.

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REFERENCES 1. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, 2nd edition, 1998. Washington: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 2. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 1: Highway Structures: Approval Procedures and General Design, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London. 3. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges - Vol. 2: Special Structures: Inspection and Maintenance, 1998. The Stationary Office Ltd., London. 4. Eurocode 1 "Basis of Design and Actions on Structures - Part 3 Traffic Loads on Bridges", European Prestandard ENV 1991-3, March 1995. 5. Eurocode 2 "Design of Concrete Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1992. 6. Eurocode 3 "Design of Steel Structures", European Prestandard ENV 1993. 7. Brobygging I. Jernbeton, sten og trae (Bridge Design part I Reinforced Concrete, stone and tree) in Danish, Prof Anker Engelund, Copenhagen 1934. 8. Moe, Suenson, Engelund and Ostenfeld.

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