Examining Certain Open Questions in Number Theory

and Solving Other Interesting Problems in Mathematics and Science

E F A B C

D E F A D

C D A B E

B C B C F

A F E D A

Albert H. deAprix !r. "#$$

Table o% Contents

&re%a'e(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((()

&art *+ ,athemati's De'oding the &rime &atterns on -lam.s /piral /0uare(((.....((((...(((.1 2alidating Hardy.s and 3ittle4ood.s Con5e'ture F(((((..((((..(((.$6 7enerating &ythagorean Triples -sing Only /ide a(((((..(((...(((("6 The &attern to &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples((((((((..((((...((.)" Addendum to &attern o% &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples....(((..((((...((6" 7oldba'h.s Con5e'ture((((((((((((((((((..(((((..(66 The T4in &rime Con5e'ture+ &ro8en at 3ast.((((..(((((..(((...(...1" Beyond T4in &rimes+ &ro8ing de&oligna'.s Con5e'ture Con'erning the *n%initude o% "9 &rime &airs &art A+ 9 : " 7aps(((((((((((((..(((((..((((..;< &art B+ 9 = " 7aps(((>4or9 in progress?((((((((((..((.xx A /pe'ial Note Con'erning &aired@&rime &roo%s(((((((((..((((..;A

&art **+ /'ien'e Beno.s &aradoxes+ Dis'o8ering ,otion.s /ignature At a Dimensionless *nstant o% Time(((((((((((..((((.......C" Dhy 2enus *s a Failed Home %or 3i%e and its /igni%i'an'e ......(((..((((..A$

3 Author.s Biographi'al ,aterials Author.s Eesume(((((((((((((((((((((((((..($#C

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2011 As an analyst, policymaker, and educator in my varied professional life, I have always carried with me a fascination for problems on the cutting (or unsolved) edges of science and mathematics. I have pondered why we cannot solve certain problems, even though we have had decades or centuries to do so. ave they been that daunting, or is it more a case of not recogni!ing the most fruitful path for constructing their solution. I think back to the "tolemaic system for predicting planetary motions across the more stable pattern of the background stars in the evening skies# the ancient $reeks and those who adopted their science tried to e%plain the retrograde motion of the superior (or outer) planets employing a comple% system of epicycles that predicted, with some accuracy, the future locations of the planets in an &arth' centered universe. (laudius "tolemy)s system worked, but it was not ideal. *here was no way to eliminate or account for all error in the system. &ven the (opernican system could not, at first, e%plain planetary motions more accurately, as its sun'centered system had the planets revolving around the sun in circular orbits. It re+uired ,ohannes -epler)s insight that the planets followed elliptical orbits to develop a more accurate plotting of planetary pathways, and his work had to be preceded by *ycho .rahe)s meticulous observations for those elliptical orbits to become evident. /nfortunately for scientific progress, Aristarchus had an insight very similar to that of 0icholas (opernicus, eighteen centuries earlier, suggesting that the earth revolved around the sun, but his idea garnered little support among the ellenistic $reeks. *hat problem in planetary mechanics suggests that the solution of any challenge may re+uire both careful observation and the discovery of the analytical key to understanding the problem before it can be solved. -epler needed .rahe)s earlier work before he could discern the correct geometric construction for the planetary orbits, and that would need 1ir Isaac 0ewton)s and Albert &instein)s later studies of gravitation to more precisely account for observed orbital deviations from -epler)s theoretical construct. 1imilarly, mathematical problems oftentimes re+uire the development of a special analytical tool before they can be solved, even if they do not rank with the importance of planetary motions. 2ithout the correct tool, a given problem may seem unsolvable, or only partially solvable. I have, over the period of a few years, been e%perimenting with a few simple mathematical concepts to see what new insights might be achieved through their use. *hose concepts are not actually new, but their potential has been overlooked as other pathways towards problem solution have been pursued. *he use of a modified base'3 system, with which I began e%perimenting in 4553'56, in the later resolution of the apparent prime patterns in /lam)s 1piral 1+uare involved the application of the recognition that all primes e%cept for 2 and 3 can be reduced to two mathematical e%pressions# 1x F $ and 1x F <, where x is any whole number. All primes e%cept for those first two can be calculated using one or the other of those two e%pressions, though many composites will also arise from their use. (hanging the representation of the spiral s+uare)s elements from base'47 to a modified base'3 provided the key to recognition of why /lam)s patterns are real. *hat problem)s solution also re+uired re8ection of the spiral s+uare concept in favor of an infinite series of embedded s+uares. I have decided to assemble the work I have undertaken in an e'book and post it on the internet for anyone who might find it of interest. I leave it to my readers to determine what truly has value. *he new field of electronic publishing, in this manner, becomes a revival of 9enaissance times when scientific and mathematical investigators shared their work by letter with those in whom they had confidence. I offer mine to all who share my curiosity in mathematics and science. I will be adding sections ' an e%pected total of 4: or 43 articles ' to my e'book as I complete them, so this will be an on'going, evolving work. As any internet posting can be changed with minimal effort in contrast with traditional publication routes, I see no reason to refrain from making changes if I uncover something new of value to share or discern a need for correction or enhancement in anything that I have already published. *herein lays the pleasure, the challenge, and the value of working in an open, electronic world.

&art *+ ,athemati's

De'oding the &rime &atterns on -lam.s /piral /0uare

c. 2009

1eemingly insoluble problems, or at least those that initially appear to defy solution, are not always as difficult to resolve as they might seem. At times, finding the correct pathway to their solution is merely a matter of visuali!ation, as is the case with the decoding of the prime number pattern in spiral s+uares. *he late 1tanislaw /lam (4575';6) sketched a spiral s+uare of consecutive integers, like that in <igure I, during a boring presentation at a 4533 scientific conference. =ysteriously, the primes in his s+uare seemed to prefer certain odd'number diagonals over others. Figure * -lam.s /piral /0uare
477 3: 33 1; 3; 35 >7 ;$ >2 ;) 55 36 ); 3; 35 67 64 62 6) >6 5; 33 33 $; 4; $A 27 24 66 >: A; 32 3: 43 < 3 ; 22 6: >3 53 1$ 36 4: 6 4 ; ") 63 >> 5: 37 33 46 ) " 5 26 6; >; 56 <A 32 $) 42 $$ 47 2: 6; ;A 53 :; )$ 37 "A 2; 2> 23 65 ;7 52 :> :3 :: :6 <) :2 :4 :7 ;4 54 57 CA ;; ;> ;3 ;: ;6 C) ;2

"rimes displayed in red &%amples of seemingly favored diagonals

/lam was an e%ceptionally talented mathematician who had emigrated from his native "oland to the /nited 1tates in 453;. &ventually 8oining the =anhattan "ro8ect, he was 8ointly credited with the *eller'/lam design for thermonuclear weapons. e also originated the concept of nuclear pulse propulsion and devised the Monte Carlo method for solving mathematical problems using statistical sampling. /lam)s mathematical interests spanned number, set, and ergodic theories as well as algebraic topology.

&rime@3oading De%ied Explanation

/pon discerning that the primes in his spiral s+uare appeared to favor certain diagonals over others, /lam went back to ?os Alamos, where that government laboratory)s computer plotted out a much greater spiral array that still evidenced an ine%plicable difference in prime'loading across the odd'number diagonals. *hat prime'loading on the spiral s+uare)s diagonals may be defined as differences in prime densities. @ensity is calculated as the number of elements per unit of measurement# the greater the average number of primes found per given unit of measurement, the higher will be the density and therefore the prime'loading. As regards /lam)s 1piral, if there is a real and not 8ust an imaginary prime' loading on certain diagonals, it should be possible to prove why that difference in density e%ists.

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/lam)s discovery was intriguing enough to grace the cover of Scientific American in =arch, 4536. /ntil now, that ostensible prime'loading difference has eluded e%planationA no proof has been advanced that confirms that variations in the loading are real, not illusory. "rimes, of course, do not follow a pattern that can be unfailingly reproduced through the use of any known algebraic e%pression, but that does not preclude the e%istence of certain broad patterns to their progression.

A /olution Emerges
*he solution to the mystery underlying /lam)s 1piral 1+uare lay in discovering the best approach to visuali!ing the problem. /lam plotted his s+uare in base'47. 1ubse+uent attempts to prove differential prime'loading on the spiral s+uare)s diagonals have also been couched in base'47. owever, base'47 does not lend itself to spotting the correct approach to this and other pattern problems involving primesA base'3 offers a visually more powerful tool. *able I illustrates how all primes e%cept for the integers two and three fall in 8ust two of that table)s si% modular columns ' specifically A and &. *he base'47 integers in those columns can be converted into modified base'3 numbers that could arbitrarily employ the letters A through < as their final digits for convenience and ease of recognition. *hat modified system would not include !ero as a placeholder because /lam)s 1piral started with a one and not a !ero. &%cluding the integer two, all members of columns ., @, and < in *able I are composites, being whole'number multiples of two. All members of the set defined by membership in column ( are odd multiples of three, therefore making all of them, e%cept for three, composites. *hat leaves columns A and & as the repositories for all of the remaining primes and, in this modified base'3 arrangement, all of those integers, once converted into base' 3 integers, would end in either an A or an & (such as :3 B A.&, which would be recorded as an & in this analysis) simplified representation). *here will, of course, also be composites in (olumns A and & of Table * Con8erting Base@$# to Base@1 ,odularly
A 4 ; $) $A 2: )$ ); 6) 65 :: 1$ 1; ;) ;A ;: 54 A; B " ; 46 27 23 32 3; 66 :7 :3 32 3; >6 ;7 ;3 52 5; C ) 5 4: 24 2> 33 35 6: :4 :> 33 35 >: ;4 ;> 53 55 D 6 47 43 22 2; 36 67 63 :2 :; 36 >7 >3 ;2 ;; 56 477 E < $$ $; ") "A 3: 6$ 6; <) <A 3: ;$ >> C) CA 5: $#$ F 3 42 4; 26 37 33 62 6; :6 37 33 >2 >; ;6 57 53 472

"rimes displayed in red

*able I. <igure II utili!es those converted integers to construct a spiral s+uare in base'3, but it displays only the last digit in the base'3 progressionA that is the key to the successful visuali!ation. =athematicians have known that all primes other than two and three can be represented by the e%pressions 3n C 4 and 3n C : where n is an integerA the members of the set comprising (olumn A are represented by the former of those two e%pressions while those comprising (olumn & are represented by

;
the latter. *hey have not, though, applied that knowledge to a visual representation of /lam)s 1piral 1+uare. Figure ** -lam.s /piral Con8erted ,odularly
A . ( @ & < A . ( @ & < < E < A . ( @ & < A . ( & @ E < A . ( @ E < A @ @ ( @ A . ( @ E < A . E ( . ( < E < A . C . C < . A . & @ E < A @ C @ A A < A @ ( @ A . & @ & . < & < ( . C . C < & < ( & @ & . A < E @ A < A @ @ ( @ A < E @ ( . A . & ( . C . A < E @ ( . C < . A < & @ C . A < & @ A A < & @ C . A < & @ ( .

&lements of the principal diagonal are highlighted in red 1ample diagonal patterns are highlighted in blue

*he diagonals of the spiral s+uare depicted in <igure I alternate between odd and even integers. 2hat is here termed, for reference purposes, the principal diagonal, running from 3: through 4 to ;4, divides /lam)s spiral into two halves, the upper right (/9) and the lower left (??). It actually does not matter which way /lam)s 1piral is orientedA the direction that the diagonals are deemed to run will not matter even though the patterns that will be discussed here would appear a bit different if the spiral s+uare were rotated 57o. /lam)s orientation will be retained, but it will be apparent to the careful observer that orientation would not change the e%planation for the patterns observed in prime'loading on certain diagonals. *he construction of /lam)s 1piral holds the key to understanding why primes not only appear to favor certain diagonals but do, indeed, appear on some diagonals with greater fre+uency than on others. /lam)s 1piral 1+uare can be conceived as a series of embedded s+uares formed about the initial, starting point (in this case 4 in base'47 or A in base'3). =oving outward, each layer has eight more elements than the layer underneath it beginning with eight elements, or integers, in the first s+uare that surrounds the starting point. =oving outwards from that initial s+uare, the number of elements in the layers thus follows the progression ;, 43, 26, 32, 67D <igure III illustrates how those eight elements are added to each layerA

5
numbers from an inner s+uare can be paired with those in the ne%t s+uare heading outward, and doing so will leave eight unpaired elements in the outer one of the two ad8acent s+uares. &mbedding a smaller s+uare immediately inside a larger s+uare re+uires each side of the outer s+uare to be two elements longer than each side of the inner s+uare. Figure *** -lam.s /piral Embedded /0uares
$#$ $#" $#) $#6 $#< $#< $#1 $#; $#C $#A $$# $## 3: 33 3> 3; 35 >7 >4 >2 >3 $$$ AA 36 ); )C )A 6# 6$ 6" 6) >6 $$" AC 33 )1 4> 4; 45 27 24 66 >: $$) A; 32 )< 43 < 1 ; 22 6< >3 $$6 A1 34 )6 4: 6 $ C 23 61 >> $$< A< 37 )) 46 ) " A 26 6; >; $$1 A6 :5 )" 43 $" $$ 47 2: 6C >5 $$; A) :; )$ )# "A "C "; "1 6A ;7 $$C A" :> :3 :: :6 :3 <" :4 :7 ;4 $$A A$ A# CA CC C; C1 C< C6 C) C" $"#

&mbedded s+uares represented in alternating red and gray.

.ecause si% (the base system in <igure II) and eight (the number of elements consecutively added to each embedded s+uare of the spiral moving outwards) have a least common multiple of 26, that ?(= becomes critical to understanding how the prime density on the diagonals is real and not imaginary. *o understand how that happens, it becomes necessary to determine how the gaps between every three elements on a given diagonal come to always be multiples of si%. 2hile the spiral s+uare could be oriented in any one of four positions, /lam)s original alignment will be used. *he gaps between every third element will be e%plained moving upward to the right from the principal diagonal, but that choice is strictly arbitraryA the same e%planation would result, albeit with different numbers, employing any one of the three other possible orientations. 1tarting with 4 at the center of the spiral s+uare, moving outward along its diagonal finds the se+uence 4, 3, 43, 34, :>, 54D <ollowing the spiral pathway outward from the first element on the diagonal to the ne%t three, the first 8ump, from 4 to 3 is two spaces, which is accomplished by moving one element to the right from 4 to 2 and then up one element to 3. *he ne%t move would follow that first embedded s+uare around to 5 and then 8ump one to the right to 47, which is the first element on the second embedded s+uare, before moving upward to 43. *he same net effect, however, could be accomplished by making a complete circuit of the first embedded s+uare from 3 back around to 3, then 8umping one element to the right to 42 on the second s+uare, then moving up one more to 43. *hat switches the 8ump from s+uare one to s+uare two from 47'2>

47
to 43'37A the move upward from 37 to 34 remains the same, but switch has the valuable result of creating two steps following the circuit of the inner s+uare that matches the two steps from 4'2 to 2'3. *he total number of steps does not change, but doing it that second way has the advantage of aiding visuali!ation of how multiples of eight come into play. &ach embedded s+uare has a multiple of eight elements, the number of which can be calculated by multiplying the number of the s+uare (numbering s+uare 2'5 as one, 47'2: as twoD) by eight. =oving outward three elements along an upper right diagonal will mean moving outward three embedded s+uares. =oving from 4 to 34 adds eight for s+uare one and 43 for s+uare two, or 26 total. *he three 8umps from 4 to s+uare one, from s+uare one to s+uare two, and from s+uare two to s+uare three adds si% more to the total. =oving outward along a diagonal will thereby add multiples of si% every three elements along that diagonal, as *able II illustrates for three e%amples. *hree consecutive embedded s+uares will have a multiple of 3%; elements, as any three consecutive integers added together will constitute a multiple of three, which will result in a multiple of the ?(= of si% and eight. 1i% will always be added to that figure to account for the three successive 8umps to the ne%t outermost s+uares. Table ** Cal'ulating the Number o% Elements /piraling Out4ard Three Conse'uti8e /0uares From $ to )$ First /0uare 7E /e'ond /0uare ; Third /0uare 43 Total 26 C 2 C 2 C 2 C 3 From ) to <; ; C 2 43 C 2 26 C 2 6; C 3 From $) to A$ 43 C 2 26 C 2 32 C 2 >2 C 3

E 4 is not part of a s+uare, hence the 7 value *he same numbers result from moving from any element on the upper right portion of any embedded s+uare outward. It must be remembered, though, that elements on the principle diagonal running from : to the upper left (:, 4>, 3>D) are part of the upper half of an embedded s+uare and are part of the diagonals that move towards the upper right. *he lower right'hand corners of the embedded s+uares (5, 2:, 65D), which are s+uares of consecutive odd integers, constitute parts of the lower left portions of their embedded s+uares and therefore count in calculating diagonals that run towards the lower left portion of /lam)s 1piral 1+uare. *he center of the principle diagonal (4) can be used in calculating diagonals in either direction.. *able III lists those patterns that are created on the odd diagonals. *hey repeat on every third diagonal in either the /9 or ?? halves of the s+uare, due to the same principles that cause the patterns to repeat on the odd'number diagonals. Table *** Base@1 &atterns on -lam.s Odd Diagonals 3o4er 3e%t
A(A or AA( ((& or (&( A&&

-pper Eight
A(A or (AA &&A &(( or (&(

44 &rimes Do Fa8or Certain Diagonals

*he repetition of these patterns along and between the diagonals e%plains why some diagonals have greater prime'loading than others. If the average density of primes across modular sets A through < is defined as %, then the base'3 numbers defined as sets A and & would each have average prime densities of 3%. <or practical purposes, the other four sets would have prime densities of !ero (ignoring the e%istence of two and three). *hat then enables appro%imations of prime densities to be established for the three odd' diagonal patterns set forth in *able IF. *he odd diagonals thus have different average prime densities, and that would hold true no matter how far out the diagonals one was to check. *he densities are relative to each other over the infinite distance across which the diagonals can be e%tended and densities would gradually thin out from the central starting point 8ust as the density of primes thins out as one moves through the infinite progression of integers. Table *2 Odd@Diagonal &rime Densities
&attern ((&, (&(, &(( A(A, AA(, (AA &&A, A&& Density single (x) double ("x) triple ()x)

aving different prime'loading densities does not preclude certain diagonal segments from possessing brief spans of greater density. Average density does not control the e%act location of primes, but it will result in certain diagonals having greater affinities for primes than others. "rimes therefore do favor certain diagonals in /lam)s 1piral. *he matter does not stop thereA base'3 provides only a rough outline of how the densities differ. &ven clearer pictures of differing densities can be obtained using base'37 and base'247 for starters. ,ust as base'2 would put all but one prime on the odd diagonals, utili!ing successively larger factorials of the primes through the nth prime G2%3%:%>%44D%(nth)H would provide even greater definition for the prime' loading densities. .ut as there are an infinite number of primes, no absolute values for the diagonals will ever be attainable. <or practical purposes, the results using base'37 could be crafted with a little e%tra effort, but base'247, base'2347, and base'37737 rapidly become too comple% to make the effort worthwhile once the principle is understood. /lam)s 1piral 1+uare does have different prime'loadings on its diagonals. It is real, not 8ust apparent, and it is due to the structure of /lam)s 1piral 1+uare and how it interfaces with where primes appear in the structure of the number system. <urther investigation of the spiral s+uare)s structure would reveal a wealth of less'distinct patterns, including patterns which can be found on the hori!ontal rows and the vertical columns of the s+uare. As with the prime'loading on the spiral s+uare)s diagonals, those patterns are more easily discerned and e%plained employing the modified base'3 arrangement used in the foregoing analysis than they are in base'47A knowing how the spiral s+uare)s structure creates them may make the search for those density patterns more fruitful.

42 Histori'al Ee%eren'es
$ardner, =. I=athematical 9ecreations# *he 9emarkable ?ore of the "rime 0umber.J American. (=arch, 4536) v.247, pp.427';. 1cientific

"eterson, Ivars. I"rime 1pirals.J 1cience 0ews. =ay 3, 2772. http#KKsciencenews.orgKviewKauthoredKid 36KnameKIvarsL"eterson 1tein, =. and /lam, 1.=. IAn Mbservation on the @istribution of "rimes. American =athematical =onthly. (453>) v.>6, pp.63'6. 1tein, =.?.A /lam, 1.=.A and 2ells, =... IA Fisual @isplay of 1ome "roperties of the @istribution of "rimes.J American =athematical =onthly. (4536) v.>4, pp.:43'27.

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Techniques
There are times when analytical techniques developed to aid in the solution of one problem can be applied to the solution of another. The use of a modified base-6 in the resolution of the question about prime-loading in Stanislaw lam!s spiral square opened up possibilities with other problems in number theory. "ne of the first that the author considered is #ardy-$ittlewood!s Con%ecture &. The following article was written in '()) based upon research conducted on that topic in early '()). The author undertoo* the solution of this problem even though it was similar to the spiral square because there are differences between it and the square+ had he solved them in the reverse order, #ardy-$ittlewood would have validated the con%ecture that primes do favor certain diagonals in the spiral square, but the reverse is only partially resolved because #ardy-$ittlewood trinomials do not necessarily generate straight rays from their outset. The validation of Con%ecture & therefore required a little e-tra wor*, but that wor* was based upon the recognition that the modified base-6 employed by the author in the solution of lam!s patterns would also provide the e-planation for the #ardy-$ittlewood prime density con%ecture.

46

2alidating Hardy.s and 3ittle4ood.s Con5e'ture F

c. 2011 ardy)s and ?ittlewood)s (on8ecture < may be considered a pre+uel to /lam)s 1piral 1+uare. Although primes cannot be represented by any known mathematical e%pression that either generates all primes and nothing but primes or, failing that, nothing but primes, +uite a lot of information has nevertheless been gathered about them. *he author)s previous article concerning apparent patterns to primes, @ecoding the "rime "atterns on /lam)s 1piral 1+uare (deApri%, 2775) demonstrates that primes can be arranged mathematically and visually in patterns without violating that bedrock principle of number theory. 0umber theorists have, for e%ample, developed formulae for calculating the number of primes and the number of twin primes through given points along the line of natural numbers. In 4523, $. . ardy and ,ohn ?ittlewood determined that, among other aspects of their con8ectures, certain polynomial e%pressions possess a greater richness, or density, of primes than other e%pressions and that the variations in those prime densities can be calculated relative to random probability. *heir work on that topic is known as the ardy'?ittlewood (on8ecture <. If proven, that con8ecture would provide one route for validating the apparent preferences primes seem to have for certain diagonals, hori!ontal lines, and vertical lines in 1tanislaw /lam)s 1piral 1+uare, which that eminent mathematician first created in 4533, forty years after ardy and ?ittlewood e%pressed formulaically what /lam would e%press visually. It is an interesting +uirk in mathematical history how a pattern created during a boring lecture provided a tool for analy!ing and validating an earlier con8ecture. *he author of this paper revealed why certain diagonals have greater prime densities than others in the 1piral 1+uare in his 2775 article on decoding those apparent patterns. *his paper will now blend the author)s recent work with ardy)s and ?ittlewood)s con8ecture to demonstrate why those early 27th (entury mathematicians were correct in their theory regarding polynomials. ardy and ?ittlewood believed that polynomial e%pressions could represent a wide variety of prime densities. Although the +uestion is now moot, if such polynomials can be shown to have real differences in their prime densities and those differences can be e%plained, then /lam)s structure must also have real differences in its prime densities. *he polynomials in ardy'?ittlewood take the trinomial form# ax" F bx F ' where a, b, and c are integers and a is positive. 2here b is negative, it ultimately represents a diagonal on the spiral s+uare while a positive value creates either a vertical or a hori!ontal line on the s+uare. *he author validated the reality of varying prime densities in the 1piral 1+uare by first converting its base'47 numbers to a modified base'3A doing so provided the visual clues that led to the solution of the density +uestion. *able I illustrates how that conversion took place, but only the last digit for the base'3 numbers is shown, simplifying the visual modularity of the analytical tool. Table * Con8erting Base@$# to ,odi%ied Base@1 Numbers
A 4 > 43 45 2: B 2 ; 46 27 23 C 3 5 4: 24 2> D 6 47 43 22 2; E : 44 4> 23 25 F 3 42 4; 26 37

4:
<rom a +uick visual inspection, the columns for base'3 numbers ending in ., /, and & possess only one prime# ". (olumn C has only one prime# ). All of the other numbers in those four columns are composites. *he remaining primes in their infinitude are confined to the columns for A and 0. *hat has an important practical conse+uence in the validation of ardy)s and ?ittlewood)s (on8ecture <.

2alidating the &olynomial &rime Density Con5e'ture

If the density of primes in the set of natural numbers, or any sufficiently large span of consecutive natural numbers, is 4, then the average prime densities for A and 0 within that span will approach 3. *hose densities will never be e%actly 3 because 2 and 3 fall within different sets ( . and C), but for large enough spans, 3 is a good appro%imation for A and 0. *o demonstrate why ardy)s and ?ittlewood)s con8ecture is correct, one needs to show how and why different densities must e%ist. 1omething within the structure of those polynomial e%pressions must re+uire those variations in prime densities. *hat will be where this in+uiry begins. As ardy'?ittlewood was e%pressed in general terms that some polynomials had greater relative densities than others, the author can limit his discussion to one class of polynomials, which will be trinomials. If differences are found within trinomials, the con8ecture is validated because there will be relative differences between some polynomials. Mne trinomial with an ostensibly high prime density is 6x" @ "x F 6$. As *able II illustrates, it has a propensity for generating primes. Table ** *nitial 2alues %or 6x" @ "x F 6$

x 7 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47

6x" @"x F 6$ 6$ 6) <) ;$ A; $)$ $;) "") "C$ )6; 6"$

*n'rease O8er &re8ious 2alue ' 2 47 4; 23 36 62 :7 :; 33 >6

"rimes in second column highlighted in red

*hat eventually defines a diagonal in /lam)s 1piral 1+uare, but at first it appears to 8ump around, as depicted in <igure I. *hat means that while there may be considerable similarities between the ardy' ?ittlewood (on8ecture < trinomials and /lam)s 1piral 1+uare, there are visible differences. <igure I illustrates that point for the trinomial already noted as prime'rich, 6x" @ "x F 6$. *he progression ultimately follows a diagonal track, heading off to the upper right of the spiral s+uare, but it does not begin that way, which it cannot because the initial value is 64 and the second value is an increase of only two at that point, going to 63. Net, trinomials) prime'loading under ardy'?ittlewood can be e%plained in the same manner as that for the spiral s+uare)s diagonal prime densities. In *able II, the initial value for the trinomial increases at a predictable rate as the value of % is steadily increased by one at each step. 2here x : #, the e%pression is simply e+ual to 64. <or x : $, 6x" @ "x will be two, or 6 @ ", representing a F b from the trinomial. *he value of the e%pression now begins to

43
accelerate, adding eight to the previous increase to generate the ne%t increase in the trinomial)s value. *he modified base'3 employed by the author increases by si% for each cycle of the base while multiples of eight are inherent in the generation of the trinomial)s resulting values when the value of % is successively raised by one.

Figure * &lotting *nitial 2alues o% 6x" @ "x F 6$ on -lam.s /piral /0uare

326 323 322 324 327 345 34; 34> 343 34: 346 343 342 344 347 375 37; 37> 2:> 2:3 2:: 2:6 2:3 2:2 2:4 2:7 265 26; 26> 263 26: 266 263 262 264 373 2:; 45> 453 45: 456 453 452 454 457 4;5 4;; 4;> 4;3 4;: 4;6 4;2 267 37: 2:5 45; 46: 466 463 462 464 467 435 43; 43> 433 43: 436 433 4;2 235 376 237 455 463 474 477 234 277 46> 472 232 274 46; 233 272 465 236 273 4:7 23: 276 4:4 233 27: 4:2 23> 273 23; 27> 235 27; 2>7 275 2>4 247 4:3 4:6 4:: 4:3 473 476 47: 473 47> 47; 475 447 3: 33 3> 3; 35 >7 ;$ >2 >3 55 36 3> 3; 35 67 6$ 62 6) >6 5; 33 33 4> 4; 45 27 24 66 >: A; 32 3: 43 : 3 > 22 6: >3 53 34 36 4: 6 $ ; 23 63 >> 5: 37 33 46 3 2 5 26 6> >; 56 :5 32 43 42 44 47 2: 6; >5 53 :; 34 37 25 2; 2> 23 65 ;7 52 :> :3 :: :6 <) :2 :4 :7 ;4 54 432 4;4 23; 373 57 $)$ 4;7 23> 372 ;5 437 4>5 233 374 ;; 425 4>; 23: 377 ;> 42; 4>> 236 255 ;3 42> 4>3 233 25; ;: 423 4>: 232 25> ;6 42: 4>6 234 253 ;3 426 $;) 237 25: ;2 423 4>2 225 256

444 442 443 446 44: 443 44> 44; 445 427 424 422 4>4 22; 253 4:5 437 434 432 433 436 43: 433 43> 43; 435 4>7 22> 252 246 24: 243 24> 24; 245 227 224 222 "") 226 22: 223 254 2>> 2>; 2>5 2;7 "C$ 2;2 2;3 2;6 2;: 2;3 2;> 2;; 2;5 257 Initial Falues for .inomial @isplayed in Eed

4:> 4:; 243 2>3

2>2 244 242 2>3 2>6 2>:

*he analysis may now proceed in the same manner employed to analy!e the modularity of /lam)s 1piral 1+uare in the author)s paper on that sub8ect (deApri%, 2775). (ontinuing with the trinomial 6x" @ "x F 6$, the values obtained by substituting consecutive natural numbers for x in the e%pression yield an interesting result, very reminiscent to that discovered for diagonals in /lam)s 1piral 1+uare. *able III displays how those values for the trinomial follow an &'A'& pattern when converted to the author)s analytical tool that springs from a modified base'3. *able IF details how that modularity works for 6x" @ "x F 6$A if the initial value for x is set at n, consecutive natural'number values for x will be n F $, n F ", and n F ). *he columns in *able IF detail the relationships between the initial ( n) through fourth consecutive values for x (n F )) beginning with the first three whole'number values of x for the trinomial. In each of those three progressions, eight (consecutive multiples of which, in this case, are added at each step as the value of x is increased by one) and si% mesh together modularly to make every third value of the

4>
trinomial a member of the base'3 set defined by one of the si% symbols designating the last digit of each number (as with either A or &). In the case of 6x" @ "x F6, two is added to the difference between the trinomial)s value at each increase in x of one because that is the initial difference between x : # and x : $A increases accumulate which means that two is part of each succeeding increase and must be dealt with when e%ploring how the modularities mesh. .ecause eight is added to the increase between consecutive values of the trinomial over the preceding increase, a multiple of si% is also achieved after three consecutive steps of adding one to the whole'number value of x. Table *** Con8erting the *nitial 2alues o% 6x" @"x F 6$ to ,odi%ied Base@1
2alue 64 63 :3 >4 5> 434 4>3 223 2;4 Base@1 0 A 0 0 A 0 0 A 0

Table *2 Cal'ulating Di%%eren'es bet4een 2alues %or 6x" @ "x F 6 Dhere n *s *n'reased by Three From 6$ to ;$ >n : # %or 6$? For *n'reasing 2alues o% x from n to n C 4 from n C 4 to n C 2 from n C 2 to n C 3 Total 7(;) C 2 4(;) C 2 2(;) C 2 3(;) C 3 37 From 6) to A; >n : $ %or 6)? 4(;) C 2 2(;) C 2 3(;) C 2 3(;) C 3 :6 From <) to $)$ >n : " %or <)? 2(;) C 2 3(;) C 2 6(;) C 2 5(;) C 2 ;6

<our other trinomials are detailed in *able FA in each case, the trinomial)s values pair up modularly with modified base'3 ending digits (A through <). *he first of those trinomials, 6x" F "x F 6$ changes b from a negative to a positive value ( @" to ") in comparison with the trinomial e%amined above, ultimately changing it from a diagonal ray in /lam)s 1piral 1+uare. Although bs value has been changed to a positive one, its progression in base'3 is also an &'A'& Galthough 6x" F "x F 6$ starts off as &'&'A, that is 8ust a different starting point for the same two &s and an A patternA a similar phenomenon is found on opposite sides of the main diagonal in the 1piral 1+uare for some progressions (deApri%, 2775)H. 2ith all but two primes included within their progressions, A and & have greater prime'loadings than the progressions of the other modified base'3 ending digits and that trinomial, like its @ "x cousin will have greater prime'loadings than progressions featuring only ., (, @, or < progressions and should have greater densities than those progressions that mi% the two prime'rich progressions with any of the four prime'poor ones.

4;
*able F)s second and third trinomials have negative b values, like 6x" @ "x F 6$, but a changes from four to two in the second of those two cases while c is even for both *he change in a from four to two changes the rate of increase in the increases of the trinomial)s successive values from eight to four. *he change in c from odd to even has the very profound effect of changing all of the trinomial)s values from odd to even, which in these two instances have no primes. *he base'3 representations of each of the two trinomials) values will follow patterns like the previous (odd'value) trinomials, but no Table 2 Comparing &rime 3oadings %or /e8eral Other /ele'ted &olynomials BinomialG 2alue %or B A. 6x" F "x F 6$ 7 4 2 3 6 : B. 6x" @ "x F 6# 7 4 2 3 6 : C. "x" @ "x F )1 7 4 2 3 6 : D. "x" @ x F "< 7 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47 44 Expression.s 2alue %or 7i8en B 6$ 6; 1$ C) $$) $<$ 67 62 :2 >7 53 437 33 33 67 6; 37 >3 2: 23 )$ 67 <) >7 54 443 46: 4>; 24: 2:3
"rimes highlighted in red

Base@1 Eepresentation & & A & & A @ < @ @ < @ < < @ < < @ A . A @ & @ A . A @ & @

primes can or will be generated. *hose e%amples, and the changes within them, demonstrate that at least some trinomials create progressions in their values that vary in their prime densities. *hat is a ma8or step in validating that trinomials have different prime densities. As the ardy'?ittlewood (on8ecture regarding

45
prime densities specifies that there will be different densities, it is not necessary to prove it in each and every possible caseA it need only be shown that different densities arise and e%plain why they arise and how their structure leads them to have those different prime'loadings. *he ensuing section takes on those tasks.

The ,e'hani's o% Trinomial 2alues

*he following brief review of polynomial (in this case, trinomial) value mechanics helps with the visuali!ation of the modularity of such e%pressions. 9eturning to the introduction, trinomials in the ardy' ?ittlewood con8ecture take the form# ax" F bx F ' where a, b, c, and x are integers and a is positive. @ecimal or fractional values for a, b, c or x would generate values, but would usually not result in trinomial values useful to the study of primes because those values would likewise be decimal or fractionalA comple% balancing would be necessary for the generation of primes. In the ardy'?ittlewood trinomials, c represents the e%pression)s initial value, where x = 0. 2here x = 1, a + b will e+ual the initial increase over (or, in cases where b is negative and greater in absolute value than a, decrease below) c. 9eferring back to *able II, increases beyond the first step, governed as it is by a + b, increase at each step by 2a. *hus the value for the trinomial in *able II increases by 2 at the first step and subse+uently by 47, 4;, 23, and 36, with eight being added to the increase over x : $ at each successive step. In this case, 2a = 8. *he same pattern can also be found with the trinomials in *able F, with the rate of increase in each trinomial)s value rising by 2a at each step for values of x = $. Table 2* Ho4 &olynomial 2alues *n'rease as x *s *n'reased by Conse'uti8e *ntegers
A. <x" @ )x F )1 x 7 4 2 3 6 : B. <x" F)x F )1 x 7 4 2 3 6 : <x" F )x F )1 :(7) C 3(7) C 33 :(4) C 3(4) C 33 :(6) C 3(2) C 33 :(5) C 3(3) C 33 :(43) C 3(6) C 33 :(2:) C 3(:) C 33 2alue 33 66 32 57 42; 4>3 *n'rease O8er &re8ious x @ ; O 4; O 2; O 3; O 6; $# $# $# $# Eate o% *n'rease <x" @ )x F )1 :(7) ' 3(7) C 33 :(4) ' 3(4) C33 :(6) ' 3(2) C 33 :(5) ' 3(3) C 33 :(43) ' 3(6) C 33 :(2:) ' 3(:) C 33 2alue 33 3; :7 >2 476 463 *n'rease O8er &re8ious x @ 2 O 42 O 22 O 32 O 62 $# $# $# $# Eate o% *n'rease

27
=eanwhile, a F b also plays a role in the increase in value of trinomial e%pressions as x is increased. "art A in *able FII illustrates how consecutive s+uares increase in value. *he rate of change is ". *hat generates the "a rate of change in trinomials, as x" may likewise be conceived of as $x". If a = $, that value for a is simply substituted for $. "art . shows that there is no rate of change for increases in the value of x. It increases by $ at each step. As shown above, both a and b contribute to the increase in value by being multiplied for successive steps beyond x : $ for each trinomial. Table 2** 7enesis o% the "a Eate o% Change

&art A *n'rease in 2alues o% x" *n'rease in x" 2alues as x *n'reases by Conse'uti8e *ntegers ' 4 O 2 3 6 : 6 5 43 2: 3 O : O > O 5 O &art B *n'reases in 2alues o% x *n'rease in x 2alues as x *n'reases by Conse'uti8e *ntegers ' 4 O 2 3 6 : 4 O 4 O 4 O 4 O # # # # # Eate o% Change o% *n'rease in x " " " " " Eate o% Change o% *n'rease in x"

x 7 4

x" 7 4

x 7 4

*ables FI and FII seem to show that "a constitutes the ma8or portion in the increases in value of trinomial e%pressions. owever, seeming to show something and irrefutably demonstrating it are two different propositions. *he two tables provide anecdotal evidence, not irrefutable proofA they only represent illustrative cases. *he parameters of the role of "a as x is increased by successive whole numbers become evident through the derivation of an e+uation based upon the elements of the trinomial e%pression. *hat derivation begins with a simple identity statement#

24
>x @ $?>x? : >x @ $?>x? " " *he e%pression >x @ $?>x? , more commonly written as >x?>x F $) , is used to calculate the cumulative " " addition of all consecutive natural numbers from $ through n inclusive. (onventionally, x represents n, but nothing is violated by employing >x @ $? to represent n as long as x then represents the natural number $ greater than >x @ $?A it is 8ust a different way of writing the e%pression which calculates the value of the cumulative addition, but the importance of writing the e%pression as >x @ $?>x? will be evident shortly. " Mne side of the identity statement above will be replaced with an e%pression that will represent cumulative addition (8ust as xH represents the factorial of x, or the cumulative multiplication of the consecutive natural numbers from $ through x inclusiveA a I following a number or algebraic e%pression will represent the cumulative addition of the successive natural numbers from $ through that given number or e%pression inclusive). /sing that symbol in an e+uation will help identify the process of cumulative addition in a larger e+uation. Although the symbol P I) is new ' created by the author because he could not find a representation for cumulative addition in use elsewhere ' the concept of cumulative addition is not new. >x @ $?>x? : >x @ $?I " 0e%t, both sides of the e+uation will be divided by x, and then multiplied by "a, the role of which is here being investigated# >x @ $? : >x @ $?I " x a>x @ $? : "aJ>x @ $?IK x ax @ a : "aJ>x @ $?IK x *he e%pression >a F b? is then added to both sides of the e+uation, followed by multiplying both sides by x# ax F b : >a F b? F "aJ>x @ $?IK x ax" Fbx : >a F b?x F "aJ>x @ $?IK *his e+uation now demonstrates that the increase over the initial value of the trinomial, ' (where x : #), is the result of two processes. *he first, >a F b?x, generates the second value of the trinomial, where x : $, when it is combined with '. owever, a F b will continue to contribute to the subse+uent values of the trinomial, multiplied by the ever'increasing values of x. *he second component "a, +uickly becomes the ma8or contributor to the trinomial)s increase in value because it is multiplied by the cumulative addition of x @ $. *he e+uation, as a whole, shows that any increase over the constant ' will always include "a as an growing proportion of the trinomial)s increase over its initial value, '. *he set of values for the trinomial, beginning with ' and continuing onward through infinity as x in ax" F bx increases thus becomes predictable and can be plotted out as repeating sets of modified base'3 terms. As the ardy'?ittlewood (on8ecture < speaks to some polynomial e%pressions having greater prime densities than the e%pected average, demonstrating that (on8ecture)s truth for trinomials validates the (on8ecture because some trinomials are prime'rich, as demonstrated by e%ample above, and others are prime'poor. ad (on8ecture < been demonstrated correct first, the apparent prime patterns in /lam)s 1piral 1+uare could have been proven real as a spin'off of the ardy'?ittlewood proofA as it turns out, the reverse happened.

22
*he differing prime densities also occur with binomials (which may be considered trinomials where a : #, though that is not commonly done). *he e%pression "x F ) will include all of the primes e%cept for " while "x F " will only include the prime ". *he need to prove anything further is moot, however, because proving how and why trinomials have differing prime densities demonstrates the validity of ardy and ?ittlewood)s con8ecture without going through the infinite number of polynomial orders.

Cal'ulating the Number o% &rimes in an Expression

As part of (on8ecture <, ardy and ?ittlewood also developed an e%pression that could be used to calculate the ratio of the number of primes through a given x in a polynomial e%pression compared to what number would be e%pected from random number of that si!e. *he author)s modified base'3 system of analysis (deApri%, 2775) set density values for A through <. $reater specificity can be achieved by using larger modified base systems, such as base'37 and base'247. ardy and ?ittlewood)s density calculations are therefore not contradicted by the density values for base'3. A modified base system could provide specificity on prime density only if it were infinitely large. =odified base'3 helps demonstrate the accuracy of con8ectures and initial impressions of prime densities, but it does not provide absolute specificity for any span of values for a polynomial. 0onetheless, the foregoing analysis of (on8ecture < using base'3 does indicate that more specific density values could be obtained and it thereby enhances the likelihood that ardy and ?ittlewood)s formula is accurate.

Histori'al Ee%eren'es
deApri%, Albert . ,r. I@ecoding the "rime "atterns on /lam)s 1piral 1+uare.J &%amining (ertain Mpen Questions in 0umber *heory. (2775). https#KKwww.scribd.comKAlR27deApri% ardy, $. . and ?ittlewood, ,.&. I1ome "roblems of P"artito 0umerorum)A Mn the &%pression of a 0umber as a 1um of "rimes.J (4523). Acta =athematica, 66# 4'>7.

23

P !ha"#$ean T$i%&es
1ythagorean triples have always held a fascination for this author. They have served as a gateway for understanding geometry, trigonometry, number systems, and even cosmology 2the author hopes to include several papers on the latter two topics in this e-boo* before it is completed3. "ne of the first problems with which the author dealt in high school involved the calculation of triples 2or 1Ts3. 4t was not until about a do5en years ago that he completed a complete formula for the calculation of all 1Ts. "thers have also devised systems for calculating triples using %ust one side, but what is e-ceptionally interesting is the diverse ways in which they have proven such systems correct. The author added in his system in part because it offered another unique means of validating calculations using %ust one side and because it also led, through the construction of his three tables 24, 44, and 444 in the succeeding article3 to a system of organi5ing 1ythagorean Triples and 1rimitive 1ythagorean Triples 211Ts3 into a format that leads in 6The 1attern to 1rimitive 1ythagorean Triples7 to an algorithm that organi5es all 1Ts and 11Ts in a logical grouping by magnitude. The *ey to all of that came out of reali5ing that the 1ythagorean Theorem could be written as a2 = c2 ' b2. "rgani5ing triples on the basis of a enabled the author to more easily visuali5e new patterns in the data.

26

7enerating &ythagorean Triples -sing Only /ide a

c. 2009 =athematicians function like clever detectives, piecing clues together until a complete solution emerges. <alse starts, errors, and dead'ends may postpone success, but the mathematical investigator will labor onward, consumed by a passion for the +uest. Mftentimes, solutions emerge only after many mathematicians have contributed insights over the years ' even centuries ' of effort that may be re+uired to master a given problem, as witnessed with <ermat)s ?ast *heorem. .ut time and difficulties do not matter to mathematics) devotees, or those of any other human endeavor. *he vision that an elegant solution awaits discovery continually reinvigorates the +uest. Along the way, such efforts have built up much of modern mathematics. *he "ythagorean *heorem and "ythagorean triples have led to important contributions in mathematics, including trigonometry, surveying, <ermat)s ?ast *heorem, and everything that <ermat)s classical problem has generated serendipitously. A modest increment in knowledge is being added here# algorithms, or mathematical processes, that permit the calculation of all "ythagorean triples using only a from the relationship c2 = a2 + b2. &ducators and students will be interested in the e+uations and the algorithms because their discovery illustrates how the organi!ation of data can facilitate a problem)s solution. "ythagoras) theorem was actually known before that $reek philosopher'mathematician made his debut in the si%th century ..(.&. .abylonians were aware of the relationship a millennium before "ythagoras, and apparently had ways of calculating triples before "ythagoras became eternally linked to the process. In fact, its modern e%pression, c2 = a2 + b2, would have made no sense to the ancients of either culture because algebra was unknown in the 2est until the Arabs borrowed it and decimal numeration from India, with =ohammed ibn =usa al' -hwari!mi)s early ninth century book #isab al-%abr w!almuqabala setting forth the basics of algebra (al'8abr). $reek mathematicians did their work through geometry and understood the "ythagorean *heorem as a way of decomposing one s+uare into two smaller ones. 1everal means, other than brute e%perimentation, have e%isted for calculating "ythagorean triples. "ythagoras and the .abylonians G ollingdaleH possessed a three'part algorithm that generated an infinite series of triples where n is any positive integer greater than 4# 2n, n2'1, n2+1

<or n = 2, 2n will be greater than n2 ' 1, otherwise n2 ' 1 will be the greater of the two +uantities. *he early $reeks also reali!ed, even though they did not have algebraic notation, that# a = (2'n2, b = 2(n, c = (2+n2

where ()n, ( and n are positive integers that are relatively prime (having no common factor greater than 4), and where ( and n are of opposite parity (which means that one of them is even while the other is odd). *he former of the two algorithms will not generate all "ythagorean triples while the latter will do so. In the series of triples generated using either method, some results will be primitive triples, which means that they are triples that have no common factor between all three that is greater than 4. Mthers will be nonprimitive, or multiples of primitive triples. 9. . @ye and 9.2.@. 0ickalls from &ngland published an algorithm in 455; G@ye and 0ickallsH that would e%press a triple as# x *hat allowed them to set up the e+uation# >x"@b"? "b >x"Fb"? "b

2:

x" @ "bx @ >b" F "b? : # 1pecifying rules for the use of the e+uation in different mathematical situations, the e+uation could be solved to produce roots, one of which would lead to the calculation of a triple by substituting that root into the e%pressions for the three sides of the right triangle. Another interesting approach was developed by .. 9ichardson, who employed matrices to generate "ythagorean triples G9ichardsonH. A close approach to the author)s system came in 455>, with 9. 1imms, whose formulae represented special cases of the current author)s general e+uations for generating b and c from a G1immsH. 2.,. 1pe!eski developed a method for deriving "ythagorean triples that produced a formula like the author)s, publishing it in 277; G1pe!eskiH, but he arrived at his e+uations using a different approach ' which stands as testament to the adage that there may be many roads to the truth. *he author)s e+uations generate all "ythagorean triples using 8ust one side of the right triangle, but they re+uire specifying a whole'number c'b difference and the author e%plains how that may be determined. *hat new algorithm for generating all "ythagorean triples uses two e+uations to calculate b and c from a# b : a" @ >' @ b?" " >' @ b? and ' : a" @ >' @ b?" F >' @ b? " >' @ b? <rom a cursory e%amination, it is evident that the validity of the second e+uation (for c) hinges upon the validity of the e+uation for calculating b, as c is greater than b by the difference between the two numbers. *hat re+uires demonstrating how the e+uation for b was derived. *hat derivation begins with a simple identity statement# b : b Mne side of that e+uation can be multiplied by an equivalent of 4 without altering the statement)s e+uality# b : "b " .y ne%t adding the equivalent of 7 to the right'hand side of the e+uation and applying the commutative property of addition to rearrange the order of the terms, a more useful e%pression begins to emerge# b : "b F >' @ '? " b : >' F b? @ >' @ b? " 0e%t, the right'hand side of the e+uation is multiplied by another, different, value that is also equivalent to 4# b : >' F b? @ >' @ b? . >' @ b? " >' @ b? b : >' F b?>' @ b? @ >' @ b?" ">' @ b? @igressing for a moment, the "ythagorean *heorem holds that#

23

'" : a" F b" *he terms of the theorem may be rearranged, and then factored, to yield# a" : '" @ b" a" : >' F b?>' @ b? At this point, a2 may now be substituted into the e+uation for its e+uivalent to produce# b : a" @ >' @ b?" ">' @ b? or the e+uation for calculating b. *he e+uation does employ c ' b, but it does not re+uire knowledge of the values for either c or b. *he e+uations for generating b and c are valid for all possible values for right triangles including decimal and fractional values, as well as the sought'after triples. 9ecogni!ing that the e+uation for b is valid, the companion e+uation for calculating c may now be simplified a bit# ' : a" @ >' @ b?" F >' @ b? ">' @ b? ' : a" @ >' @ b?" F >' @ b? . ">' @ b? ">' @ b? $ ">' @ b? ' : a" @ >' @ b?" F ">' @ b?" " >' @ b? ' : a" F >' @ b?" " >' @ b? -nowing how to apply the e+uation to attain the desired end now becomes important, and an arrangement of "ythagorean triples into three types, or subcategories, will make it clear how that must be done by focusing on primitive triples. Mrgani!ing "ythagorean triples into three types based upon the values of a and *c ' b), which for simplicity will now be e%pressed as + (for difference), enables the mathematical detective to observe patterns in the primitive triples and develop algorithms for calculating them. 2ith the substitution of + for *c ' b), the two e+uations now become# b = a2 ' +2 2+ and c = a2 + +2 2+

*he e+uation for c now looks similar to the one employed by the ancients, though theirs used two numbers that were not a and d. *he student of number theory should recogni!e at this point that the e+uations derived for describing the relationships between a, b, and c and calculating the latter two sides employing a place constraints upon the values for +. D and a must have a common factor(s) because 2+ must divide cleanly into a2 ' +2 and a2 + +2 for "ythagorean triples to result. *he absence of a common factor would result in the generation of decimal values for b and c. @ecimal values will also result when a and + have opposite parity, again because the difference and sum of their s+uares must be cleanly divisible by 2+. *he three types of primitive triples are illustrated in *ables I ' III. 1ome of the triples in each of those tables have been highlighted in redA those are multiples of other triples and were included in the tables as placeholders to make the mathematical progression of triples clearer and to provide for the most effective illustration of the algorithms for calculating the primitives.

2>
*able I displays the primitive triples where a is odd (thus the *ype M designation). *he first do!en triples for the initial five values of + are included. At the top, + is set forth both as a whole number and as an e%pression, e.g. *1 . ,2). In that e%pression, 1 is designated the multiplier and , is labeled the root *$)A that distinction is made because the $ will have an application in understanding the relationship between a and +. *hrough the operation of the e+uations for b and c, $ will comprise a progression of the odd whole numbers from 1 through infinity. 2hile it may seem unnecessary to list the multiplier in *able M, its inclusion provides for similar treatment for *ype M and *ype & (even) triples (for which the multiplier is 2). *he a for the first triple for each permissible value for + must be e+ual to + + 2$. *he values for a in each column then proceed by intervals that e+ual 2$. - or any factor of $ if $ can be factored, becomes the common factor that a and + must share. Falues for a that do not share a common factor with $ will therefore result in decimal values for b and c due to the e+uations that generate them from a. <or *ype M triples, then, a will be an odd multiple of $ for a given +, provided that a ) +. 1ir Arthur (onan @oyle, speaking through his famous fictional detective, 1herlock olmes, observed that sometimes what is not perceived is more important than what is heard or seen. ?oosely borrowing that concept from *he ound of the .askervilles, certain nonprimitive triples, displayed in red, have been added to *ables I ' III. *hey would not ordinarily be included in a listing of primitive triples, but their presence aids in the visuali!ation of the relationships being discussed. ,ust as the absence of a barking dog solved the case for olmes, the missing triples are a key to creating the new algorithms. *he patterns to the primitive triples are much more difficult to spot in straight listings of primitive triples, like those published on websites like those of 9utgers, (lark /niversity, and the /niversity of /tah)s mathematics website, all of which the author has used upon occasion. 9utgers) list of primitives puts primitive triples in order by the magnitude of side c G9utgersH. *he lists that the author has employed are very useful in providing the raw data needed for research, but they must be refined through a sorting process, like that at work in *ables I'III, before certain problems can be effectively investigated. =any researchers undoubtedly missed the relationship e%plored here because their data was not arranged in a format that facilitated their in+uiries. A successful mathematical investigator may need to e%periment with different data arrangements before selecting the most fruitful route for in+uiry. *he patterns to primitive triples are not truly clear until they been arranged in the three tables that the author employed in his researchA those tables also assisted in the visuali!ation of the formulae for b and c, making clear the relationship between a and +. *ables II and III set out the initial primitive triples where a is a multiple of 6. *hey are divided into two tables because there are slight differences between them that are better addressed by compiling the initial triples of each type separately from each other. *ype &4 primitives have accompanying values for + whose roots comprise the set of all odd whole numbers, 8ust as did the *ype M primitive triples. 2here, in *able II, n is the root for any given permissible value of +, every n!h triple in the progression of "ythagorean triples for that value of + will be a multiple of some smaller'value triple, as ./0, 21, 2,3 where + = 18 is a multiple of the primitive triple .2, /, ,3. Mne of the important differences between *ype M and *ype & 4 primitives is that a begins at + + 2$ for counting down the table)s columns to determine which are the n th *ype M triples that are multiples. *he same counting for a begins at + for *ype &4)s, even though a = + would be impermissible for a "ythagorean triple because a2 ' +2 would then e+ual !ero, meaning that b would have no dimension and that a = c, which cannot be a true statement for any right triangle where c is the hypotenuse. 2hile $ e+uals the s+uare root for + for *ype M primitives, and could have been accurately labeled the s+uare root, it is clearly not that for either *ypes &4 or &2 primitivesA that is why the term Proot) and not Ps+uare root) was used. <or all three types of primitive triples, $ is a factor of +, but it is not always a s+uare root. *he designation of $ for root was made in preference to 4 for factor so as to not confuse the symbol with that for function. <actoring *ype M values for + into 1 . $2 provides for identical treatment for all three types of primitive triples, eliminating the need for special'case handling for the *ype M primitives. <actoring + into either 1 or 2 times $ provides a tool that aids in the calculation of "ythagorean triples and in an understanding of their relationship as e%pressed through the two formulae derived by the author for b and c. is the factor shared by both + and a. &%amining the triple .9, 20, 213 from *able I, 9 is divisible by /. *hat means that even though that triple may not be a primitive (or a placeholder in the table), there must be another triple in which a = 9. *o discover what that triple other two members are, 81 needs to be divided by /A that will yield 2>. <or this new triple, c ' b = /, which re+uires subtracting / from 21, which leaves 22. @ividing that by 2 sets b = 12. Adding back / (or +) sets c = 21, which generates the triple .9, 12, 1,3. *hat triple does not appear in one of the three tables because it is neither a primitive triple (because it is a multiple of ./, 2, ,3) nor a nonprimitive placeholder. In fact, none of the triples where + = / will be primitives. *he process, though, does illustrate how triples may be calculated knowing 8ust a and +. *he primitive triples follow interesting patterns. In *able I, for e%ample, all members of the $ = 1 column are primitives, but where $ = /, every third member is a nonprimitive (or a trivial, as it is often called) while where $

2;
= ,, every fifth member of that column is a nonprimitive. *ables II and III e%hibit other patterns. *he columns continue downward infinitely while new columns are created to the right by infinitely adding two to $. All three tables help demonstrate that the number of primitives is infinite and that they follow clear patterns. Mne more thing may be said about "ythagorean triples# they may be comprised of numbers that are terminating decimals. *erminating decimals are merely whole numbers divided by some power of 10. <or e%ample, a" 1ubstituting and calculating, #.<" #."< #."< : : : $.)" $.1A @ $."" : '" @ b"

@ $.66 #."<

*hat is not really anything new, but it does serve as a helpful guide to those first starting to work with "ythagorean triples.

Table * Type O &rimiti8e Triples + = 1 = *1 . 12) + = 9 = *1 . /2) + = 2, = *1 . ,2) + = 29 = *1 . 12) + = 81= *1 . 92)

a b ' a b ' a b ' a b ' a b ' ) 6 < $< C $; )< $" ); 1) $1 1< AA "# $#$ < $" $) "$ "# "A 6< "C <) ;; )1 C< $$; 66 $"< ; "6 "< 2> 33 6: << 6C ;) A$ 1# $#A 43: >2 4:3 A 6# 6$ )) <1 1< 1< ;" A; $#< CC $); $<) $#6 $C< $$ 1# 1$ )A C# CA >: 477 42: $$A $"# $1A $;$ $A# ""$ $) C6 C< 6: 47; 44> C< $)" $<; $)) $<1 "#< 4;5 4;7 234 $< $$" $$) <$ $6# $6A A< $1C $A) 46> 453 26: "#; ""6 )#< $; $66 $6< <; $;1 $C< $#< "#C ")) $1$ "6# "CA ""< ";" )<) $A $C# $C$ 33 243 22: $$< "<" ";; $;< "CC )); 263 326 67: "$ ""# ""$ 1A "1# "1A 42: 377 32: $CA )6# )CA "1$ )C# 61$ ") "16 "1< ;< )#C )$; $)< )<" );; "#) )A1 66< ";A 66# <"$ "< )$" )$) ;4 337 335 $6< 6#C 6)) "$; 6<1 <#< 25> :76 :;: Author)s note# *riples displayed in red are not primitives. *hey were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and c

25

Table ** Type E$ &rimiti8e Triples + = 2 = *2 .12) a b ' + = 18 = *2 ./2) a b ' + = ,0 = *2 . ,2) a b ' + = 98 = *2 . 12) a b ' + = 102 = *2 . 92) a b ' $C$ 272 22: 2:7 ";; 373 )); 3>7 67: 662 6C$ :22

6 ) < "6 ; "< 1# $$ 1$ $$" $< $$) $C# $A 3 ; 47 37 43 36 >7 26 >6 423 32 437 45; 67 C $< $; 33 2> 6: C# )A CA $6# <$ $6A 243 33 47 26 23 62 67 :; 57 :3 473 4:6 >2 4>7 236 ;; $" )< ); 6C << ;) 477 >: 42: $1C A< $A) "<" $$< 46 6; :7 :6 >2 57 447 53 463 4;2 427 24; 2>7 466 $1 1) 1< 1# A$ $#A $"# $$A $1A 453 46> 26: "CC $;< 4; ;7 ;2 33 442 437 437 466 456 247 4>3 2>6 373 27; "# AA $#$ >2 43: 4:3 $6# $;$ ""$ ""6 "#; )#< 326 263 22 427 422 >; 437 4>; 4:7 277 2:7 23; 267 33; 362 2;7 "6 $6) $6< C6 $C; "#< $1# ")$ "C$ "<" ";< );) )1# )$A 23 43; 4>7 57 243 236 4>7 236 346 233 342 647 3>; 337 Author)s note# *riples displayed in red are not primitives. *hey were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and c.

37

Table *** Type E" &rimiti8e Triples + = 8 = *2 . 22) a b ' + = /2 = *2 . 22) a b ' + = 12 = *2 . 02) a b ' + = 128 = *2 . 82) a b ' + = 200 = *2 .102) a b ' ""$ 266 "1A 253 32: 3:3 )CA 626 61$ :77 <6$ :;6

$" < $) 6# A 6$ C6 $) C< $66 $; $6< ""# "$ 43 42 27 6; 27 :2 53 2; 477 437 33 436 267 66 "# "$ "A <1 )) 1< 47; 6: 44> $;1 <; $C< "1# 1A 26 32 67 36 6; ;7 427 36 433 452 ;7 27; 2;7 53 "C 6< <) ;" 1< A; $)" C< $<; "#C $#< ")) 377 42: 32 37 3; ;7 ;6 443 466 47; 277 226 432 237 327 4:3 )1 ;; C< CC $#< $); $<1 $)) "#< "6# $1$ "CA )6# $CA 67 53 476 53 42; 437 43; 437 232 2:3 452 327 337 226 66 $$; $"< $#6 $<) $C< 4;7 4;5 234 ";" ""< )<) )C# "1$ 6; 467 46; 442 4;7 242 452 227 252 2;; 237 3;; 677 377 <" $1< $;) $"# "#A "6$ "#6 "<) )"< )#6 "A; 6"< 6"# )6$ :3 452 277 42; 267 2>2 243 2;; 337 327 333 636 667 3;6 Author)s note# *riples displayed in red are not primitives. *hey were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and c.

34 Histori'al Ee%eren'es
@ye, 9. . and 0ickalls, 9.2.@. IA 0ew Algorithm for $enerating "ythagorean *riples.J =athematical $a!ette. =arch, 455;. Fol. ;2, pp.;3'54. ollingdale, 1tuart. =akers of =athematics. "p. ;'5. Fiking "enguin Inc.# 0ew Nork, 45;5. 9ichardson, .ill. I"ythagorean *riples.J www.math.wichita.eduKSrichardsonKpythagoreantriples.html 9utgers /niversity. I"rimitive Integral 1olutions to %2 C y2 B !2.J http#KKwww.math.rutgers.eduKSerowlandK tripleslist'long.html 1imms, 9obert. I/sing (ounting 0umbers to $enerate "ythagorean *riples.J http#KKwww.math.clemson.eduK Srsimms 1pe!eski, 2illiam ,. I9ethinking "ythagorean *riples.J Applications and Applied =athematics. http#KKpvamu. eduKaam

32

The &attern to &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples

c. 2010

*ntrodu'tion
In his efforts to find a mechanism for generating "ythagorean triples using 8ust one side of the triangle, rather than using two sides or employing the two'number algorithm known to mathematicians since ancient times (where the two whole numbers are of the form, r = s = # r @ s is odd, and the greatest common denominator, or $(@, of r and s is 4), the author e%amined primitive triples. "rimitive "ythagorean triples are those triples for which the $(@ for the three sides is 4. *he triple L) 6 <M possesses the smallest values which constitute a primitive triple. *he triple L1 C $#M is not, however, a primitive triple because its $(@ is 2. 0o tables of primitive triples were readily available to the author when he began his work, so he devised tables of his own. *his paper shares those tables and outlines the relationships between the triples in each table that would enable a researcher to e%pand their coverage. 9utgers (9utgers), (lark, and @re%el are among the institutions of higher learning that have since hosted tables of primitive "ythagorean triples. *able I provides a sample listing of the first 4: ""*s listed by ascending value of ', which has been the format of preference for tables of triples. *ables in that format provide a good listing of ""*s under a given value for ', but they unfortunately do not present their information in a manner that establishes an easily'visible relationship between the elements in the tables that simultaneously relates them to the overall pattern of "ythagorean triples and facilitates easy calculation of all successive ""*s in some uniform, ascending order. *hey often present their triples by an ascending order of the hypotenuse)s value, which has the advantage of combining multiple values for the legs with a given value for the hypotenuse, but they do not suggest how all triples might be related other than through the algorithm (presumably the rNs method) for their calculation. Table * &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples >listed by as'ending 8alue o% '?
' : 43 4> 2: 25 3> 64 :3 34 3: >3 ;: ;: ;5 5> a 3 : ; > 27 42 5 2; 44 33 6; 43 33 35 3: b 6 42 4: 26 24 3: 67 6: 37 :3 :: ;6 >> ;7 >2

In mathematics, simplicity is a critical component of elegance. A mathematical e%pression can be elegant when it represents a relationship in a clear, concise, and simple manner. *he "ythagorean *heorem, '" : a" F b", is

33
one such elegant e%pressionA it conveys the relationship between the three sides of a right triangle and will, in certain instances, consist of three whole numbers, which can be calculated using a three'part algorithm ( rNs above). *he elements of "ythagorean triples have been calculable using the rN s relationship by stipulating# a : r " @ s" b : "rs ' : r" F s"

<ollowing the re+uirements for r and s, set forth in this article)s opening paragraph, the classic algorithm will generate all of the "*s, but again, they will not be in order even if r and s follow an increasing magnitude format, as done with *able II. *he algorithm will generate both primitive and nonprimitive triples. Table ** -sing the r s ,ethod %or 7enerating &ythagorean Triples >3isted by As'ending Order o% r then s?
r 2 3 6 6 : : 3 3 > > ( s 4 2 4 3 2 6 4 : 2 3 ( a 3 : 4: > 24 5 3: 44 6: 67 ( b 6 42 ; 26 27 67 42 37 2; 62 ( ' : 43 4> 2: 25 64 3> 34 :3 :; (

Author)s mote# *riples displayed in red are not primitives. *hey were included to illustrate the progression of values for a b and '. "ythagorean triples ' those right triangles for which the values of a, b, and c are all represented by whole numbers ' have held a fascination for mathematicians. *he most famous problem involving "ythagorean triples, or "*s, was <ermat)s ?ast *heorem, which postulated that the relationship between the three sides a b, and ' can never be duplicated with whole number values for any power greater than two. Mther work with "*s has seen several means derived for calculating a "* from 8ust one side, including the author)s I$enerating "ythagorean *riples /sing Mnly side a.J *ables III through F present the author)s work in three tables that organi!e ""*s and certain placeholdersA the tables have been e%panded modestly from his earlier paper in order to reveal how others may calculate the infinite progressions of ""*s with ease, either by hand or by computer. *he ""*s have been divided into separate tables for odd values (*able III) and even values (*ables IF and F) based upon the characteristics of a value the author defines as r, which is used to calculate d, the difference between ' and b in each table)s columns.

The Tables o% &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples

*able III, in its infinite e%tension either rightward or downward, will include all of the odd'number values of a that generate ""*s. *he first column includes every odd number greater than one as a value for a (*he integer one presents a special case ' see below)A all of the other columns have repetitions of the values for a found in column one, but they will have different values for d as there are multiple sets of triples for some of the odd'number values for a. As e%plained in the author)s earlier paper on calculating triples, each column)s value for r, from which d is calculated in the three tables, increases by two per column moving infinitely rightward, making the values for d an infinite progression of odd perfect s+uares. In calculating d from r in *able III, it may seem unnecessary to multiply r" by $, but it is so done in order to establish as consistent as possible procedures for the three tables.

36
0onprimitives can be generated from the ""*s in *able I by multiplying any triple in the table by any natural number greater than one to yield infinite series of nonprimitives that begin with every ""* and nonprimitive in the table)s array of triples or any of the triples that result from hori!ontal or vertical e%tensions of the table. &ach column in *able III begins with what the author terms an identity statement, where a : d and ' : a. *hat identity statement is not a triple, but it does aid in the generation of triples. *here are also a number of nonprimitives, displayed in red, that arise in all three tables. *hey may be found in the columns of each table by following specific counting algorithms. In *able III, the count proceeds downward in each column beginning with the first triple below the identity statement. <or any number in the count that is a multiple of any prime factor of the r for that column, the triple will be a nonprimitive. In column one, there are no prime factors of r, so there will not be any nonprimitive triples in the column. In column two, 3 is the only prime factor of 3, so nonprimitives will be found by counting downward from the identity statement LA # AM, finding the first nonprimitive at L"; )1 6<M, the elements of which are all cleanly divisible by 3. Table *** Type O &rimiti8e Triples
d : $ : >$ . $"? d : A : >$ . )"? d : "< : >$ . <"? d : 6A : >$ . ;"? d : C$ : >$ . A"? d : $"$ : >$ . $$"? (

a
4 ) < ; A $$ $) $< $; $A "$ ") "< "; "A (

a
5 $< "$ 2> )) )A 6: <$ <; 33 1A ;< ;4 C; A)

b
7 C "# 33 <1 C# 47; $6# $;1 243 "1# )#C 337 6$1 6;1

c
5 $; "A 6: 1< CA 44> $6A $C< 22: "1A )$; 335 6"< 6C<

a
2: )< 6< << 1< >: C< A< $#< $$< 42: $)< $6< $<< $1<

b
7 $" "C 6C ;" 477 $)" $1C "#C "<" 377 )<" 6#C 61C <)"

c
2: ); <) ;) A; 42: $<; $A) ")) ";; 32: );; 6)) 6A) <<;

a
65 1) ;; A$ $#< $$A $)) 46> $1$ $;< $CA "#) "$; ")$ 26:

c
;4 $#$ $"< 4:3 $C< ""$ 234 )#< )<) 67: 61$ <"$ :;: 1<) ;"<

c
424 $6< $;) "#< "6$ "C$ )"< );) 6"< 6C$ <6$ 37: 1;) ;6< C"$

7 4 6 < $" $) "6 "< 6# 6$ 1# C6 $$" $66 $C# ""# "16 )$" )16 6"# 1$ C< $$) $6< $C$ ""$ "1< )$) )1< 6"$

7 65 $1 1< )1 C< 1# $#A CC $); $"# $<1 453 "6# "CC )6# )A1 6<1 <"# :;; $1A "#< 26: "CA )); )CA 66< <#< <1A 33>

;4 7 AA "# $$; 66 43: >2 $<) $#6 $;$ 4;5 "#; ""< 263 "1$ ";A 25> )$< ))) $A# 4;7 ""6 ";" 326 )C# 66# :76 <;" 166

424 7 $6) "6 $1< <" $C; C6 "#A $"# ")$ "<) ";< "A; )$A )6$ 333 )C< 6#; 6"A $1# "#6 "<" )#6 )1# 6"# 6;6 <<" 1"6 ;##

Author!s note8 Triples displayed in red are not primitives. They were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and c. The table!s first row, displayed in green, constitutes what the author terms the identity statement+ it is not a triple, but it does serve as the basis for calculating the members of its column!s infinite set of triples.

3:

Table *2 Type E$ &rimiti8e Triples

d : " : >" .$"? a 2 6 3 C 47 $" 46 $1 4; "# 22 "6 23 "C 37 ( b c d : $C : >" .)"? a 4; "6 37 33 62 b 7 ; 43 2> 67 c 4; "< 36 6: :; d : <# : >" . <"? a :7 1# >7 C# 57 b c d : AC : >" . ;"? a 5; $$" 423 $6# 4:6 $1C 4;2 453 247 ""6 23; "<" 233 "C# 256 b 7 $< 32 <$ >2 A< 427 46> 4>3 "#; 267 ";< 342 )<$ 352 c 5; $$) 437 $6A 4>7 $A) 24; 26: 2>6 )#< 33; );) 647 66A 657 d : $1" : >" . A"? a 432 $C# 45; 243 236 "<" 2>7 "CC 373 326 362 )1# 3>; )A1 646 b 7 $A 67 33 ;; $$< 466 $;< 27; 263 2;7 )$A 337 6#) 66; c 432 $C$ 272 22: 2:7 ";; 373 )); 3>7 67: 662 6C$ :22 <1< 347 d : "6" : >" . $$"? a b c 262 "1< 257 )$; 363 );; 647 66< 6;2 <"$ :32 37: 3:7 1A; >63 (

7 2 ) < ; 47 $< $; 26 23 )< 6; 1) ;7 AA 427 $6) 43; $A< 326 ); :7 1< ;2 $#$ 422 $6< 4>7 $A; 323

7 :7 $$ 1$ 26 >6 )A CA :3 473

262 7 "16 ") 2;3 6; )#C ;< 337 476 )<" 3>6 )A1 64; 66# 632 6;6 :73 <"C ::7 $)< 43; "#) 267 ";A 327 333 67; 6<< :76

6C << ;) :6 >2 57 1# A$ $#A 33 442 437 >2 43: 4:3 >; C6 57 A1 472 437 $C; 243 "6; 2;7 4>; "#< 236 "1< 25;

477 >: 42: 447 53 463 $"# $$A $1A 437 466 456 $6# $;$ ""$ 4:7 $1# 4>7 $C# 457 277 ")$ 236 "AA 333 2:7 "C$ 346 )6A 3;3

Author!s note8 Triples displayed in red are not primitives. They were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and '. The table!s first row, displayed in green, constitutes what the author terms the identity statement+ it is not a triple, but it does serve as the basis for calculating the members of its column!s infinite set of triples. The table is e-panded from the author!s earlier version 2in 9enerating 1ythagorean:3 by setting the difference between successive values for a in each column at 2+ rather than 2++ all of the triples so added are nonprimitive, but they, too, serve as placeholders for better visuali5ation of the progression of the primitives.

33

Table 2 Type E" &rimiti8e Triples

d : C : >" . ""? a b c d : )" : >" . 6"? a 32 6# 6; <1 36 b 7 A 27 )) 6; c 32 6$ :2 1< ;7 d : ;" : >" . 1"? a >2 C6 53 47; 427 $)" 466 $<1 43; 4;7 452 "#6 243 ""C 267 b c d : $"C : >" . C"? a 42; $66 437 4>3 452 "#C 226 "6# 2:3 ";" 2;; )#6 327 ))1 3:2 b 7 $; 33 <; ;7 $#< 432 $1$ 452 ""< 237 "A; 333 );; 627 c 42; $6< 436 $C< 27; ")) 237 "CA 327 )<) 3;; 6"< 636 <#< :6; d : "## : >" .$#"? a 277 ""# 267 "1# 2;7 377 327 )6# 337 )C# 677 6"# 667 61# 6;7 b 7 "$ 66 1A 53 42: 4:3 $CA 226 "1$ 377 )6$ 3;6 6"A 6>3 c 227 ""$ 266 "1A 253 32: 3:3 )CA 626 61$ :77 <6$ :;6 1"A 3>3 d : "CC : >" . $""? a b c 2;; )$) 367 335 677 6)) 63; <#< :66 :;: 32; 1;) 327 ;1A ;27 ...

; 7 ; $" < $) 43 42 27 "# "$ "A 26 32 67 "C 32 )1 67 66 6; <" :3 1# 36 ( 6< 37 ;; 53 $$; 467 $1< 452 ""$ 2:2 <) 3; C< 476 $"< 46; $;) 277 ""A 237

7 >2 $) C< 2; 477 6: 44> 36 433 C< 47; $)) 437 4;5 227 "<) 2;; )"< 336 $<; 277 "#< 232 234 252 )"< 337 )A; 633

2;; 7 )$" "< 333 :2 337 ;4 3;6 442 6#C 632 6<1 6;7 :76 :2; <<" :>3 1## 326 $6< 4;7 "$; 2:3 25> 367 )C< 632 6C$ :32

;" 1< A; ;7 ;6 443 CC $#< $); 53 42; 437 $#6 $<) $C< 442 $"# 42; $)1 466 4;7 "#A 267 ";) 37; 242 "6$ 2>2 )#< 367

Author!s note8 Triples displayed in red are not primitives. They were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and c. The table!s first row, displayed in green, constitutes what the author terms the identity statement+ it is not a triple, but it does serve as the basis for calculating the members of its column!s infinite set of triples.

Comparison o% &resentation Formats

*o bear out the author)s contention that the hypotenuse'based traditional format (t'format) of ascending values of ' does not easily lend itself to analysis, *able FI compares the progression of a b and ' for the t'format with a part of the author)s three'table revised format (r'format). C in the traditional format proceeds in 8umps of 6x, where x at this early stage may e+ual 7, 4, 2, or 3 without any apparent intermediate'term patterns to the multiple of four involved. B in the t'format meanwhile tends to 8ump around, with a few negative steps thrown in. A has even more apparent variability to it. *here is, therefore, a hint of pattern to ', but none for a or b in the t'format. 2hen switching over to the r'format, a wealth of patterns suddenly appears. &%amining 8ust the triples in *able III)s first column, it is evident that organi!ation by a creates reproducible patterns. In that column, the values for a all proceed by increments of C2. *he values of b and ' then increase by increasing steps of C6, with both b and ' increasing by the same amount at each step because the value for ' @ b (or d? is held constant within each column. 2hile the other two tables follow different increments for increasing the values for their a b and ' elements, they too follow easily detected patterns, all resulting from the values for a and d, which must have r as a common factor in order to produce "*s, as e%plained in the author)s earlier paper (deApri%). Mnce a pattern has been discovered, prediction becomes easier and data can be generated employing simple calculations or a computeri!ed algorithm. *ables III through F provide a good introduction to ""*s, but they are only the briefest portion of an infinite array of primitives. owever, they are set up in a manner that easily facilitates their infinite e%pansion, either to the right for ever'greater values of d or downward for increasing values of a while holding d constant. An infinite e%pansion of the tables would not, though, generate all "*sA the infinite number of nonprimitives that would not appear in any of the three tables can be generated by multiplying the members of any ' or of all ' triples in the tables by successively larger whole numbers. *he tables also do not re+uire that b be larger than a for any given

3>

Table 2* Comparing T@Format 4ith E@Format &rogressions o% a b and ' %rom &re'eding 2alues
T@Format Change in+ ' @ ; 6 42 6 ; 6 42 ; 6 ; 42 7 6 ; a @ 2 3 ' 4 43 ' ; ' 3 45 ' 4> 22 4: ' 3: 23 3 23 b @ ; 3 5 ' 3 3 : : 4: ' 6 ' 4 25 ' > 3 ' ; E@Format >Type O &rimiti8es Column $? Change in+ a @ 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 b @ ; 42 43 27 26 2; 32 33 67 66 6; :2 :3 37 ' @ ; 42 43 27 26 2; 32 33 67 66 6; :2 :3 37

triple# while it is customary for b to represent the larger of the two legs, an unbroken progression of the triples following the author)s format actually re+uires a to be the larger leg at the top of all but one of the three tables) columns. *hat leads to duplication of some sets, such as L< $" $)M and L$" < $)M. 1uch duplications have been retained in the tables so that the progressions in each column may mathematically flow unimpeded down the columns or across the rows. (hart I outlines a selection of relationships within and between the rows and columns of triples in *ables III'F. Mther relationships e%ist, and they could also be used to e%pand the tables, but the relationships set forth in (hart I will be sufficient to e%pand any of the trio either rightward or downward. *hose relationships all follow from the author)s derivation of the algorithm for calculating a triple using 8ust side a and choosing a value for d following specified rules. An e%amination of the rows in (hart I uncovers a strong similarity across the columnsA in some instances, all three tables (each represented by its own column in the chart) will share an identical characteristic while in others, 8ust the *ype M primitives will share an identical feature. (hart I has certain properties that must be understood before employing them to e%pand *ables III'F. *he chart has eight rows, with each e%amining one property or characteristic across the three tables. 9ows : and 3, for e%ample, result directly from the author)s derivation of the formula for calculating triples using a. 1etting a at d (9ow 4) for all three tables created what the author termed the identity statement# that then re+uired ' to e+ual a (9ow 2) because d : ' @ bA setting ' any lower than d would mean that b would have a negative length, which would not be possible in &uclidian plane geometry, from which the "ythagorean *heorem arose. If b : #, then a : ' and the geometric figure is reduced from a triangle to a line. If ' is increased by at an appropriately greater rate than a from that point onward, as ' must be because it is the hypotenuse, then b = # and a right triangle results. <or La b 'M to be a "ythagorean triple, the natural'number value by which ' must increase compared to a must be determined. *hrough e%amination of the formula the author derived for calculating "*s using a and specifying d, it becomes clear how a must progress in value in each column of the three tables in order for valid "*s to be created, it establishes what ')s value must be and it reveals why ' must e%ceed a by margins linked to perfect s+uares. In the author)s formula, Chart * Chara'teristi's o% &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples

3;
in E@Format &rogressions >Comparing Tables *** *2 and 2? Chara'teristi' Initial Pa) value in each column <irst row Falue of Pd) by columns For &Ts in Table *** a:d an identity statement, where ' : a and b : # progresses as the s+uares of all odd numbers times 4A d : >$ . r"? where r:$F# $F" $F6( F"r b : a" @ d" "d ':bFd .egin counting down each column from the first triple below the identity statementA add twice the s+uare of that count to a to obtain 'A ' @ a thereby becomes two times a perfect s+uare ((olumn I has no prime factor for r)A begin counting down each column starting with the first triple below the identity statement ' any triple for which the count is a multiple of any prime factor of r is not primitive For &Ts in Table *2 a:d An identity statement, where ' : a and b : # progresses as the s+uares of all odd numbers times 2A d : >" . r"? where r : $F # $ F " $ F 6 ( F"r b : a" @ d" "d ':bFd .egin counting down each column from the first triple below the identity statementA add the s+uare of that count to a to obtain 'A ' @ a thereby becomes a perfect s+uare ((olumn I has no prime factor for r)A begin counting down each column starting with the first triple below the identity statement ' any triple for which the count is a multiple of two or of any prime factor of r is not primitive For &Ts in Table 2 a:d an identity statement, where ' : a and b : # progresses as the s+uares of all even numbers times 2A d : >" . r"? where r:"F# "F" "F6( F"r b : a" @ d" "d ':bFd .egin counting down each column from the first triple below the identity statementA add the s+uare of that count to a to obtain 'A ' @ a thereby becomes a perfect s+uare .egin counting down each column starting with the first triple below the identity statement ' any triple for which the count is a multiple two or of any prime factor of r is not primitive

"rogression of Oa. down a given column following the identity statement Falue of Pb) Falue of O'. "rogression of O'. ' e%pressed in terms of Oa. @ down a given column following the identity statement

?ocating the n#n%$i(i!i5es in each column

' : a" @ d" F d "d .eginning with *ables IF and F, that formula for calculating ' can be used to determine the numerical value of each successive ' designated as 'n, in each of *able IF)s and F)s columns, working with the value of ai, which is defined as the value for a in the appropriate identity statement for each column in the table. *hat process begins with the author)s formula,

35

' : a" @ d" F d "d where r may then be substituted for d, as "r" : d# ' : a" @ >"r"?" F "r" ">"r"? 0ow ' can be written as 'n to mean any specific ' while a" is divided into two components ' namely ai which is the initial value that a assumes in the identity statement at the head of each column in the two tables, and xr, for which x is the number of times r must be added to ai to bring it up to an, the value of a for the specific "* that includes 'n# 'n : >ai F xr?" @ 6r6 F "r" 6r" 1+uaring the binomial representing an yields# 'n : ai" F "aixr F x"r" @ 6r6 F "r" 6r" 0e%t substituting "r" for ai and dividing the fractional value into its components# 'n : "r" F ">"r"?xr F x"r" @ 6r6 F "r" 6r" 6r" 6r" 6r" 1implifying and rearranging the terms# 'n : 6r6 F 6r"xr F x"r" @ 6r6 F"r" 6r" 6r" 6r" 6r" 'n : r" F xr F x" @ r" F "r" 6 'n : "r" F xr F x" 6 .ecause ai : "r", "r" F xr can be replaced with an in the e+uation to produce# 'n : an F x" 6 *hat means that any given 'n is e+ual to the corresponding an plus the +uantity x". As r must be multiplied by " then 6 added to any xn in any column in *able IF or *able F to calculate the ne%t xn in that column, x will always be an even number when calculating the difference between xi and any given xn. @ividing any s+uare of an even number by four will produce a perfect s+uare. *able FIII illustrates that principle. *he s+uare of any even number ( e") may be decomposed into two roots that can be designated " and y. *hat means, e" : >"y?" which can also be written as, e" : >"y?>"y?

67
and through the commutative property of multiplication, e" : >"?">y?" which means that division by 6 would leave y", which would be a perfect s+uare because half of an even whole number must be either a smaller even whole number or an odd whole number.

Table 2*** Eesults o% Di8iding /0uares o% E8en Numbers by Four e " 6 1 C $# e" 6 $1 )1 16 $## e"N6 $ 6 A $1 "<

*he difference between any 'n and its corresponding an in *able IF or *able F will therefore be a perfect s+uare, and that perfect s+uare will be the s+uare of the counting order of that "* below the identity statement in its column. .ecause d in *able III e+uals $ . r" rather than " . r", as it does in *ables IF and F, any given 'n will e%ceed its corresponding an by twice a perfect s+uare x"N" when following the same calculation process used to derive x"N6 for *ables IF and F. *able IT illustrates. Table *B Eesults o% Di8iding /0uares o% E8en Numbers by T4o e " 6 1 C $# e" 6 $1 )1 16 $## " C $C )" <# e"N" >".$? >".6? >".A? >".$1? >"."<?

,atri'es %or All &ythagorean Triples

As all ""*s will fall within the infinite bounds of one of the three tables, all triples may be calculated from them. &very nonprimitive is a multiple of some primitive. *hree'dimensional matrices may be calculated from *ables III'F by multiplying every "* in the tables ' primitive and nonprimitive alike ' by the succession of all whole numbers beginning with two. (onsiderable duplication will e%ist because the three tables include a fairly large proportion on nonprimitives, but they are needed for full appreciation of the progression of, or pattern to, triplesA they could be removed using the counting algorithm outlined above for identifying the nonprimitives in the columns of each table, but doing so is a personal preference, not an essential step.

64
*ables IF and F, which include all the primitive triples that have even values for r, could be combined, but the author has kept them separate to permit easy, visual synchroni!ation of the triples between the three tables. Mthers may wish to combine them if creating their own tables or computeri!ed databases. 1till others have created different types of relationships, such as uni+uely generated triples and co'triples that reverse a and b (1pe!eski). *he primary advantage of the revised format created by the author lies in the order provided by that newer format. *able FI provides one illustration of the order introduced by the author)s workA *able T offers an insight into another# permissible values for d, which are not even evident in the data appearing in *able FI for traditional display formats. *hey are not shown with as great an appreciation for their value in calculating triples even when they are placed in numerical order, as in *able T. *he author)s three tables of ""*s put the data into a working format that enables further investigation into relationships that contribute to the calculation of primitive and nonprimitive triples. /ltimately, each table can be e%panded into a three'dimensional matri%, with the combined matrices including all the "ythagorean triples, whether primitive or nonprimitive (though all of the primitives will be located on the original two'dimensional surfaces that gave rise to the three'dimensional matrices). All of the non' "ythagorean triples that also form right triangles will be found in between the "ythagorean triples, creating thereby the basis for the trigonometric functions that flow in unbroken streams, with ever'more minute detail being achieved through ever'longer decimal se+uences that disappear into the dust of infinity, creating solid cubes comprised of the data points that represent every triple imaginable. All of that constitutes a natural progression from the need to create a simple matri% that would include all of the primitive "ythagorean triples in the ascending order of their magnitude. Table B &ermissible 2alues o% d >%or d P "##? %or &rimiti8e Triples

4 32 424

2 65 42;

; :7 432

5 >2 435

4; ;4 277

2: 5;

Ee%eren'es
deApri%, Albert . ,r. I$enerating "ythagorean *riples /sing Mnly 1ide a.J http#KKwww.scribd.comK R27deApri% Al

9utgers /niversity. I"rimitive Integral 1olutions to %2 C y2 B !2.J http#KKwww.math.rutgers.eduKSerowlandKtriple listSlong.html 1pe!eski, 2illiam ,. I9ethinking "ythagorean *riples.J Applications and Applied =athematics. http#KKpvamu. eduKaam

Addendum to the &atterns to &rimiti8e &ythagorean Triples

62
'. "#$)
Mne of the author)s advantages in presenting his work as a developing e'book is the ability to add to or correct anything previously published. It has been suggested to the author that *ables IF and F from pp. 3:'33 be combined into one table for the even values of a in the infinite set of triples designated as a b ' where ' is the hypotenuse and a b and ' are whole numbers. *hat combined table is herewith presented for readers.

Combined Table *2@2 Type E &rimiti8e Triples

d : " : >" x $"? a " 6 1 C $# $" $6 $1 $C "# "" "6 "1 "C )# ( b # ) C $< "6 ' " < $# $; "1

d : C : >" x ""? a C $" $1 "# "6 b # < $" "$ )" ' C $) )# "A 6#

d : $C : >" x )"? a $C "6 )# )1 6" 6C <6 1# 11 ;" ;C C6 A# A1 $#" b # ; $1 "; 6# ' $C "< )6 6< <C

d : )" : >" x 6"? a )" 6# 6C <1 16 ;" C# CC A1 $#6 $$" $"# $"C $)1 $66 b # A "# )) 6C 1< C6 $#< $"C $<) $C# "#A $6# ";) )#C ' )" 6$ <" 1< C# A; $$1 $); $1# $C< "6" "6$ ";1 )#< )6#

d : <# : >" x <"? a <# 1# ;# C# A# $## $$# $"# $)# $6# $<# $1# $;# $C# $A# b '

d : ;" : >" x 1"? ( a ;" C6 A1 $#C $"# $)" $66 $<1 $1C $C# $A" "#6 "$1 ""C "6# b '

# <# $$ 1$ "6 ;6 )A CA <1 $#1 ;< A1 $$A $66 $;$ "## ")$ "16 "AA ))1 $"< $61 $1A $A6 ""$ "<# "C$ )$6 )6A )C1

# ;" $) C< "C $## 6< $$; 16 $)1 C< $#C $)) $1# $CA ""# "<) "CC )"< )16 $<; "## "#< ")" "1$ "A" )"< )1# )A; 6)1

)< ); 6C <# 1) 1< C# C" AA $#$ $"# $6) $1C $A< )"6 $"" $6< $;# $A; )"1

"C 6< <) )" 1# 1C )1 ;; << 6# A1 $#6 66 $$; $"< 6C <" <1 1# 16 $6# $1< $A" ""$ "<" $6C $;) "## ""A "1#

<< ;) ;" A# A$ $#A $$" $)# $)< $<) $1# $C; "$1 ""$ "C# $;C "#< ")6 ""A "AC

Author!s note8 Triples displayed in red are not primitives. They were included as placeholders to illustrate the progression of values for a, b, and '. The table!s first row, displayed in green, constitutes what the author terms the identity statement+ it is not a triple, but it does serve as the basis for calculating the members of its column!s infinite set of triples.

6!$uc!u$a& Ana& sis

63
Solving certain problems in mathematics require first attaining an understanding of the underlying structure of the number system before a paradigm may be constructed that leads to such a problem!s solution. Such is the case with 9oldbach!s Con%ecture, which was not actually devised initially by 9oldbach. 4n attempting to tac*le this challenge, which the author first completed in '((' but modified slightly in '((; for independent internet publication, the author first investigated the problem!s structure before proposing a solution to it. The author apologi5es to the reader for the rather complicated presentation, but the comple- structure he discovered yielded a complicated e-planation. #e would li*e to attempt a further simplification in the not-too-distant future, but there are higher-ran*ing priorities at the moment. #e would prefer a more elegant solution to the problem. The solution does not tac*le the Con%ecture directly. 4nstead, it sets up barriers, or < as they author li*es to visuali5e them < hurdles that paired potential prime pairs must surmount to be primes that add to consecutive even natural numbers. The author found that raising the hurdle barriers well above those that do e-ist still fails to eliminate a certain minimal number of prime pairs for each family, or set, of even natural numbers. The author!s modified base-6 analytical tool that he used in his wor* on lam!s Spiral Square and the #ardy-$ittlewood Con%ecture & found application in his study of 9oldbach+ that hints that other problems may be waiting out in mathematical limbo that might benefit from its application to them. The author already has another problem!s resolution in which he employed that modified base tool. The easiest way to visuali5e the process of surmounting the barriers to creating new paired primes for successive numbers is to picture a tower of ornamental water pools in a garden8 the top pool must first fill before water is free to flow down into the second-highest pool and then into successively lower pools. "nce a pool is filled, the water is permitted to flow into the ne-t lower pool in the tower. The water serves as an unending < or infinite < supply of numbers < that flow through the barriers.

7oldba'h.s Con5e'ture
c. 2009

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In 4>62 (hristian $oldbach con8ectured that every odd natural number greater than 3 was the sum of three primes, as :C2C2B5. $oldbach sent his con8ecture to ?eonhard &uler, but that eminent mathematician could neither disprove it nor devise a proof for it. &uler, however, recast the con8ecture in its more widely known form# that every even natural number greater than 2 is the sum of two primes. &uler)s recasting of $oldbach)s (on8ecture in its more commonly known form leads to the original con8ecture because 3 can be added to any every even natural number starting with 6 to generate every odd natural number beginning with >. istorically, $oldbach was not even the first to recogni!e the problem. 9ene @escartes discovered the even natural number version of the problem before $oldbach penned his letter to &uler, but "aul &rdos suggested that Iit is better that the con8ecture be named after $oldbach because, mathematically speaking, @escartes was infinitely rich and $oldbach was very poor.J G"rime $lossaryH Ivan Finogradov proved in 4532 that all sufficiently large enough odd integers can be written as the sum of three primes. 0umber theorists have meanwhile demonstrated the (on8ecture)s validity up to at least 6%4746 G"rime (on8ecturesH, but no one has been able to prove $oldbach)s (on8ecture in the general case. (urrent work includes the use of supercomputers to partition primes using advanced algorithms, and assaults on the problem employing probability analysis indicate that it is more than e%tremely unlikely that the (on8ecture is invalid due to some case far down the number line, but even a vanishingly small probability that such a number e%ists means that it could well e%ist. An e%amination of 8ust the first 33 even natural numbers reveals that while the number of prime pairs that sum to the members of a series of even natural numbers generally increases as the magnitude of those numbers increases, the relationship is not at all directA that variability would seem to make a proof more difficult to construct. Table * Numbers o% &rime &airs Adding to 7i8en E8en Natural Numbers N No. &airs " # 6 $ 1 $ C $ $# " $" $ $6 " $1 " $C " "# " "" ) "6 ) "1 ) "C " )# ) )" " )6 6 )1 6 )C " 6# ) 6" 6 66 ) N No. &airs 61 6 6C < <# 6 <" ) <6 < <1 ) <C 6 1# 1 1" ) 16 < 11 1 1C " ;# < ;" 1 ;6 < ;1 < ;C ; C# 6 C" < C6 C C1 < CC 6 N No. &airs A# A A" 6 A6 < A1 ; AC ) $## 1 $#" C $#6 < $#1 1 $#C C $$# 1 $$" ; $$6 $# $$1 1 $$C 1 $"# $" $"" 6 $"6 < $"1 $# $"C ) $)# ; $)" A

*he (on8ecture)s intractability has been a considerable frustration to professional and amateur mathematicians. *hat frustration served as the basis for a 2777 novel, /ncle "etros U $oldbach)s (on8ecture by Apostolos @o%iadis. <aber and <aber and .loomsbury "ublishing, the novels two publishers, offered a V4 million pri!e for a valid proof of the (on8ecture provided that it was submitted by =arch 4:, 2772.

6:
*hat observable variance in the number of prime pairs that add to 8ust the first few even natural numbers out of the infinite total leads to the possibility, however miniscule, that the number of paired primes could drop back to !ero for some yet une%amined even natural number lurking somewhere in the dark regions beyond 6%4746. If an underlying rule or mechanism governing the number of paired primes that sum to a given even natural number could be discovered, then it could be determined whether or not the number of prime pairs could ever drop to !ero. *he following analysis of the (on8ecture will reveal the mechanisms that govern the number of prime pairs that sum to any given even natural number. <or simplicity, a few abbreviations will be used throughout this article to represent fre+uently employed terms# &00 will represent even natural numberA M0", odd'number pairA and "", prime pair. An M0" will be any pair of odd natural numbers that add to a given &00A M0"s may both be primes, both may be composites, or one member of the pair may be a prime while the other is a composite. A "" will only consist of two primes that sum to a given &00. *hough primes create their own uni+ue progression and cannot be generated in their infinite succession by any known mathematical e%pression without the inclusion of numerous composites, patterns can be imposed upon them. *he simplest of such imposed patterns results when the even numbers, which include only the prime 2 for which all subse+uent even numbers constitute composites, are segregated from the odd numbers, thereby concentrating the infinite remainder of primes in a set that encompasses only half of the natural numbers. A series of operations or manipulations will be arbitrarily performed in this analysis that will reveal how and why the number of paired primes summing to any series of &00s varies. *he resulting information will then enable a paradigm, or model, to be constructed that will demonstrate that every &00 greater than 2 has at least one set of ""s that sum to it.

Assignment o% Natural Numbers to /ix /ets

A simple operation can distribute the natural numbers into si% sets, labeled A through <, with 4, 2, 3, 6, :, and 3 designated as the first members of those sets in that counting order and the remaining natural numbers through infinity being assigned to those sets in similar counting order on the basis of 6n = where - is the initial member of the set. *he first five members of each set are set forth in *able II. Table ** Assignment o% the Natural Numbers to /ix /ets A 4 > 43 45 2: ( B 2 ; 46 27 23 ( C 3 5 4: 24 2> ( D 6 47 43 22 2; ( E : 44 4> 23 25 ( F 3 42 4; 26 37 (

.ecause 3 is a composite of 2 and 3, the assignment of all natural numbers to the si% sets defined by - C 6n segregates 2 and its composites into 1ets ., @, and < and 3 and its odd composites into 1et (. *hat isolates all other primes and their odd composites, which are not also composites of 3, into 1ets A and &. 0e%t, the set of pairs of natural numbers that sum to any given &00 can be arranged in dual vertical columns, with the left'hand column starting at the top with 4 and continuing downward through n>' (which will be a whole number because every &00, being a composite of 2, is divisible by 2 without remainder). *he right'hand column will begin at the bottom with n>' and continue upward through n-). *hat process is illustrated in *able III for the &00 27.

63

Table *** Di8ision o% a Eepresentati8e ENN into its Component /umming &airs "# C C C C C C C C C C

4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47

45 4; 4> 43 4: 46 43 42 44 47

primes are noted in red 2ith 4 and n-) paired, 2 and n-' paired, and so forth, the entire set of summing pairs through n>' and n>' are aligned visually. "rimes that are paired in this fashion can be relatively easily observed and counted to yield the total number of prime pairs that add to any given &00. <or 27, there are two prime pairs that sum to the number# 3 and 4> plus > and 43. If the paired natural numbers that sum to each &00 are replaced with their modular set designations of A through < (from *able II) for si% consecutive &00s (labeled as 0 4 through 03 in *able IF below), three patterns of pairings emerge due to the manner in which the summing pairs were aligned mechanically. *he si% possible pairing designations for any ?->' can be AA, .., ((, @@, &&, or <<. 2ith all possible upper cells having si% rows because all of the natural numbers belong to one of the si% sets, and with the first number in the left column for each pair of summing numbers starting with 4 which belongs to 1et A, the pairing designation for ?->' will control the pattern of pairings across the two columns for each &00 by serving as the starting point for the ascending right'hand column for each &00. .ecause there are only si% set memberships possible for ?->' (which are A through <), the patterns will repeat through infinity. /nder this arrangement, 27 from *able III would belong to set @ and the @@ pairings. "aired numbers in the upper cell are then e%amined to determine if the summing pairs for an &00 include AA, &&, or A&K&A match'ups. 2henever ?->' is a member of either 1et A or @, one AA pairing per upper cell will result due to the modular pattern to the pairings. If ?- belongs to either 1et . or &, one && pairing per upper cell will result. If, however, ?->' belongs to either 1et ( or <, there will be an A& plus an &A pairing in each upper cell. *here will be only one bottom cell for a given &00, but there can be anywhere from !ero (where ?- e+uals from 4 to 3) to an infinite number of upper cells (for an infinitely large &00), that number being determined by how many times 3 divides into ?->' e%clusive of any remainder. As sets A and & (from *able II) contain all of the primes e%cept for 2 and 3, those &00s that have A&K&A pairings ought to have a greater potential for paired primes than those &00s that have either AA or && pairings. *hat general, though clearly not absolute trend is evident in *able F, which rearranges the number of paired primes for each &00 from *able I into a new format based upon A and & pairings. &ach &00 in the hori!ontal set for AA, &&, and A&K&A pairings is si% greater than the &00 to its immediate leftA for AA, for e%ample, the set runs 2, ;, 46Dthrough infinity. *able F thereby reveals that some of the variability of ""s is due to the format of the A and & pairings.

6>

Table *2 &ossible &airings and the Eesulting 7roup ,emberships %or NxN" * N$ AA .< (& @@ &( <. ** N" A( .. (A @< && <@ *** *2 N) N6 A& AA .@ .< (( (& @. @@ &A &( << <. 2 N< A( .. (A @< && <@ 2* N1 A& .@ (( @. &A << A& .@ (( @. &A <<

immediate upper 'ell >dupli'ated by any 'ells yet higher?

AA A( A& AA A( .. .@ .< .. (( (& (A @@ @< &&

bottom 'ell

Table 2 Number o% &&s by A and E &airings &airings Number o% &rime &airs AA >"@$"C? 7 4 2 2 3 2 2 EE >6@$)#? 4 2 2 3 2 6 3 AENEA >1@$)"? 4 4 2 3 3 6 6 3 6 : 6 3 : 3 6 3 3 : 3 2 : 3 : : > 6 : ; : 6 5 6 : > 3 3 ; : 3 ; 3 > 4 7 3 3 4 2 6 : 4 7 3 > 5

*he total number of AA, &&, and A&K&A pairings for each &00 from 2 through 432 can be substituted for the data in *able F to produce a useful pattern. *he number of AA and && pairings e+uals the number of upper cells for each &00 plus the number of pairings (7 or 4) found in the bottom cell for the &00s belonging to $roups I, II, IF, or F from *able IF. *he number of A&K&A pairings e+uals two times the number of upper cells plus the number of pairings (4 or 2) found in the bottom cell for the &00s belonging to $roups III or FI from *able IF.

6;

Table 2* Total Number o% A and E &airings &airings Number o% A and E &airings by ENN AA >"@ 4 4 2 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 $"C? EE >6@ 7 4 4 2 2 3 3 6 6 : : $)#? AENEA 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 4 4 >1@$)"? 7 4 3 3 4 2 > 3 4 3 > > 4 6 ; > 4 : ; ; 4 3 5 ; 4 > 5 5 4 ; 4 7 5 4 5 4 7 4 7 2 7 4 4 4 7 2 4 44 44 22

*he total number of pairings displayed in each data cell in *able FI consists of match'ups that include two primes, two composites, or a prime plus a composite. *he number in each of those data cells sets an upper limit for the total possible number of ""s for a given &00 e%cept for 6 (for which 2C2B6) and for cases where 3 is paired with another prime (such as 3C: B; or 3C5>B477). *his upper limit not only helps make the pattern of ""s clearer, it, too, also plays a role in analy!ing $oldbach)s (on8ecture.

Ho4 the Number o% &&s *s Determined

*able FII sets forth the M0"s for each &00 from 3 through 57 that have A&K&A pairings, with the number being reduced from 432 in this table and for *ables IT and TII due to space considerations. &ven'number pairs were not included in this table and its companion tables that shortly follow because such pairings are irrelevant as only 2C2B6 has any bearing upon the (on8ecture)s validity and because their e%clusion makes each of the three tables a bit more readable. *he +uantity of the odd'number pairings for successive &00s in *able FII increases by the pattern C4, C2, C4, C2 D because one pair is added whenever ?->' is odd but not when ?'>' is even. 1ince every third &00 has A&K&A pairings, there will always be at least one odd 0%K2 between A&K&A pairings and alternating A&K&A pairings will end up with two, all due to the mechanical way each &00 had its pairings set up. *able FIII displays the M0"s for each &00 with A&K&A pairings in column two. (olumn three then lists the number of M0"s that have at least one composite of 3 in any given pair. *hat third column (e%cept for 3, which is the special case 3C3B3) also follows a progression, in this case C7, C4, C7, C4 D which, like the number of odd'number pairings for &00s, also results from the mechanical way the natural number sets and the summing pairs for &00s were created. (olumn four subtracts column three)s results from the figures in column two to yield remainders.

65
Table 2** Odd@Number &airings %or ENN/ 4ith AENEA &airings 1 through A#
1 $" $C "6 )# )1 6" 6C <6 1# 11 ;" ;C C6 A#

4 : 4 44 4 4> 3 3 3 5 3 4: : > : 43 > 44 5 5

4 23 4 25 4 3: 4 64 4 6> 4 :3 4 :5 4 3: 4 >4 4 >> 4 ;3 4 ;5 3 24 3 2> 3 33 3 35 3 6: 3 :4 3 :> 3 33 3 35 3 >: 3 ;4 3 ;> : 45 : 2: : 34 : 3> : 63 : 65 : :: : 34 : 3> : >3 : >5 : ;: > 4> > 23 > 25 > 3: > 64 > 6> > :3 > :5 > 3: > >4 > >> > ;3 5 4: 5 24 5 2> 5 33 5 35 5 6: 5 :4 5 :> 5 33 5 35 5 >: 5 ;4 44 43 44 45 44 2: 44 34 44 3> 44 63 44 65 44 :: 44 34 44 3> 44 >3 44 >5 43 4> 43 23 43 25 43 3: 43 64 43 6> 43 :3 43 :5 43 3: 43 >4 43 >> 4: 4: 4: 24 4: 2> 4: 33 4: 35 4: 6: 4: :4 4: :> 4: 33 4: 35 4: >: 4> 45 4> 2: 4> 34 4> 3> 4> 63 4> 65 4> :: 4> 34 4> 3> 4> >3 45 23 45 25 45 3: 45 64 45 6> 45 :3 45 :5 45 3: 45 >4 24 24 24 2> 24 33 24 35 24 6: 24 :4 24 :> 24 33 24 35 23 2: 23 34 23 3> 23 63 23 65 23 :: 23 34 23 3> 2: 25 2: 3: 2: 64 2: 6> 2: :3 2: :5 2: 3: 2> 2> 2> 33 2> 35 2> 6: 2> :4 2> :> 2> 33 25 34 25 3> 25 63 25 65 25 :: 25 34 34 3: 34 64 34 6> 34 :3 34 :5 33 33 33 35 33 6: 33 :4 33 :> 3: 3> 3: 63 3: 65 3: :: 3> 64 3> 6> 3> :3 35 35 35 6: 35 :4 64 63 64 65 63 6> 6: 6: prime pairs designated in red

*he same process is then repeated in *able FIII for the composites of :, >, and 44. owever, a new factor comes into play due to the manner through the columnar pairings were created. In column five every fifth &00, all of which are composites of :, have composites of : paired against each other, which reduces the total number of M0"s with composites of : in them. *his then yields a higher remainder in column si% and ultimately a greater number of ""s in most cases. *hat effect becomes noticeable with 57 and 427. *he same thing happens with composites of > for every seventh &00 and with composites of 44 for every eleventh &00, but that is not apparent due to the *able FIII)s brevity. It also holds true for the composites of the larger primes involved with larger &00s. *hat is the same basic process that occurred when there were (( pairings, but the larger the prime, the less obvious the process because larger primes have fewer composites for any given &00. Fariation in the numbers of ""s becomes substantially a function of the location of composites in one column versus the location of primes in the other. If a given &00 is a composite of a particular prime (or primes), the composites of that prime (or primes) will be paired against each other and will only bar that prime (or those primes) from matching up with a larger prime to form a "". .ut, as with the match'ups of 3)s composites one'third of the time, composites of larger primes do not usually make up all of the pairings lost by any smaller prime that is a factor of a given &00. *hat means more ""s result, as can be observed in *able F, for which the A&K&A also have (( pairings. Another, though more modest, variation occurs because every prime does not divide without remainder into every &00. 2ith 3, for e%ample, only every third &00 is a composite of 3A dividing 3 into any of the others leaves a remainder of two or four. *he e%istence of those remainders ever'so'slightly lowers the ratio of M0"s knocked out of contention as ""s by composites of 3. *hat happens for every prime)s composites where the s+uare of that prime is smaller than a given &00. *hat also happens with (( pairingsA the e%istence of remainders for any of the primes that have s+uares less than an &00 lowers the ratio for those composites slightly. Mne more factor that plays a role in the variance of the number of ""s must likewise be noted. *he number 4 is a Iunit,J not a prime or a composite. .ut in every case, because it is not a prime, it behaves like a composite when paired with a prime, such as with 64 for 62A ""s can only include primes, so 4 is never part of a "". *hat reduces by one the number of ""s for every &00 that is 4 greater than a

:7
prime. *he interplay of these patterns produces the variability found in column twelve of *able FIII, which is the total number of ""s for each of the table)s &00s. It should also be noted that when composites are paired for an &00, each composite will be counted as a composite of the smallest prime which is a factor of that composites (3:, for e%ample, being counted as a composite of : and not >) when counting up the number of composites to calculate the remainder at any given step in the calculation of the number of ""s for each &00.

$ ENN

" ON&s

3 42 4; 26 37 33 62 6; :6 37 33 >2 >; ;6 57 53 472 47; 446 427 423 432

2 3 : 3 ; 5 44 42 46 4: 4> 4; 27 24 23 26 23 2> 25 37 32 33

Table 2*** Ho4 the Number o% &&s Are Deri8ed %or ENNs 4ith AENEA &airings ) 6 < 1 ; C A $# &airs Eemainder &airs Eem &airs Eem &airs Eem Dith Dith Dith Dith Comp Comp Comp Comp O% ) O% < O% ; O% $$ 7 2 7 2 7 2 7 2 4 2 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 3 > > ; ; 5 5 47 47 44 44 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47 44 42 43 46 4: 43 4> 4; 45 27 24 22 7 7 7 4 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 3 6 ; ; 2 3 6 6 6 : 3 > ; > ; 5 47 42 47 44 42 43 43 43 46 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 2 4 2 3 2 3 2 6 2 3 2 3 6 6 6 : 3 3 > 3 > > 5 47 > 5 5 44 42 44 44 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 2 3 6 6 6 : 3 3 > 3 > > 5 47 > 5 5 44 42 47 47

$$ Ad5 For $ 4 4 4 4 4 7 4 4 4 4 7 4 7 4 4 7 4 4 4 7 7 4

$" &&s

4 4 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 3 3 > ; 5 > ; ; 47 42 47 5

:4
"airings with the composites of a given prime on occasion seem to e%ceed the e%pected limit that should e%ist for the ability of that prime)s composites to be paired with primes as summing pairs. <or e%ample, composites of > should not account for more than 2K>ths of the remainder from column si% in *able FIII (rounded, 2;.3R). owever, composites of > pair up with three primes from the remainder of 47 for the &00 53, which is 37.7R. *hat seeming contradiction, and others like it, occurs due to the arrangement of the smaller primes and composites in the summing pairs. In the case of 53, : is knocked out by 54, but : is a member of the prime'composite family for :, so had : been a composite instead of a prime, 54 would not have knocked out that M0" as a "" because doing that would already be credited to the composites of :. -nocking out : as part of a potential "" thereby raises the number of remaining pairs in column si% with which the composites of > are paired. *hat only happens when the composite of a larger prime pairs up with a smaller prime, as when 54 is paired with : for 53. *ables IT and T for AA pairings and *ables TI and TII for && pairings repeat the analytical process from *ables FII and FIII. In these cases, however, the members of 1et ( are not paired against each other as they were for &00s with A&K&A pairings but rather against members of 1ets & and A respectively. Mnly 3 in 1et ( is prime so those (& and (A pairings reduce the total number of ""s that result from the pairings in comparison with the &00s that have A&K&A match'ups. (( pairings reduce the impact of composites of 3, generally resulting in the higher number of ""s for A&K&A match'ups seen in *able F. owever, unlike with the A&K&A pairings, 3 does not get paired with composites for every &00, so it creates a "" whenever a given &00B 1-=@. *his adds to the variance by increasing the number of ""s by 4 beyond what would be e%pected for those &00s that have AA or && pairings. As 4 is a member of 1et A, it will always be paired with a member of 1et ( for &00s that have && match'ups, so 4 has virtually no impact on the number of ""s in *able TII, unlike in *ables FIII and T, because it only knocks out 3 for the &00 6.

:2

Table *B Odd@Number &airings %or ENNs 4ith AA &airings C through C1

C 4> 3: $6 4 43 3 44 : 5 > > "# 4 45 3 4> : 4: > 43 5 44 "1 )" )C 66 <# 4 65 3 6> : 6: > 63 5 64 44 35 43 3> 4: 3: 4> 33 45 34 24 25 23 2> 2: 2: <1 4 :: 3 :3 : :4 > 65 5 6> 44 6: 43 63 4: 64 4> 35 45 3> 24 3: 23 33 2: 34 2> 25 1" 4 34 3 :5 : :> > :: 5 :3 44 :4 43 65 4: 6> 4> 6: 45 63 24 64 23 35 2: 3> 2> 3: 25 33 34 34 1C 4 3> 3 3: : 33 > 34 5 :5 44 :> 43 :: 4: :3 4> :4 45 65 24 6> 23 6: 2: 63 2> 64 25 35 34 3> 33 3: ;6 4 >3 3 >4 : 35 > 3> 5 3: 44 33 43 34 4: :5 4> :> 45 :: 24 :3 23 :4 2: 65 2> 6> 25 6: 34 63 33 64 3: 35 3> 3> C# 4 >5 3 >> : >: > >3 5 >4 44 35 43 3> 4: 3: 4> 33 45 34 24 :5 23 :> 2: :: 2> :3 25 :4 34 65 33 6> 3: 6: 3> 63 35 64 C1 4 ;: 3 ;3 : ;4 > >5 5 >> 44 >: 43 >3 4: >4 4> 35 45 3> 24 3: 23 33 2: 34 2> :5 25 :> 34 :: 33 :3 3: :4 3> 65 35 6> 64 6: 63 63

4 2: 4 34 4 3> 4 63 3 23 3 25 3 3: 3 64 : 24 : 2> : 33 : 35 > 45 > 2: > 34 > 3> 5 4> 5 23 5 25 5 3: 44 4: 44 24 44 2> 44 33 43 43 43 45 43 2: 43 34 4: 4> 4: 23 4: 25 4> 24 4> 2> 45 45 45 2: 24 23

prime pairs designated in red

:3

Table B Ho4 the Number o% &&s Are Deri8ed %or ENNs 4ith AA &airings
$ ENN " ON&s ) &airs Dith Comp O% ) 7 7 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47 44 42 43 46 4: 43 4> 4; 45 27 6 Eemainder < &airs Dith Comp O% < 7 7 7 7 4 4 2 4 4 2 2 3 2 4 3 3 6 3 2 6 6 : 1 Eem ; &airs Dith Comp O% ; 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 7 2 4 2 2 4 2 4 3 2 C Eem A &airs Dith Comp O% $$ 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 $# Eem $$ Ad5. For $ 4 4 4 4 7 4 4 4 7 7 4 4 4 4 7 7 4 4 4 7 7 4 $" &&s

2 ; 46 27 23 32 3; 66 :7 :3 32 3; >6 ;7 ;3 52 5; 476 447 443 422 42;

4 2 6 : > ; 47 44 43 46 43 4> 45 27 22 23 2: 23 2; 25 34 32

4 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 3 > > ; ; 5 5 47 47 44 44 42 42

4 2 3 3 3 3 3 6 : 6 : 6 3 > 3 3 3 > 5 > ; >

4 2 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 3 6 3 3 : : 6 6 3 > 3 : :

4 2 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 3 6 3 3 : : 6 6 3 > 3 6 6

7 4 2 2 3 2 2 3 6 3 3 2 : 6 : 6 3 : 3 3 6 3

:6

Table B* Odd@Number &airings %or ENNs 4ith EE &airings $# through CC

$# 45 3> :: $1 4 4: 3 43 : 44 > 5 "" "C )6 6# 4 35 3 3> : 3: > 33 5 34 44 25 43 2> 4: 2: 4> 23 45 24 61 4 6: 3 63 : 64 > 35 5 3> 44 3: 43 33 4: 34 4> 25 45 2> 24 2: 23 23 <" 4 :4 3 65 : 6> > 6: 5 63 44 64 43 35 4: 3> 4> 3: 45 33 24 34 23 25 2: 2> <C 4 :> 3 :: : :3 > :4 5 65 44 6> 43 6: 4: 63 4> 64 45 35 24 3> 23 3: 2: 33 2> 34 25 25 16 4 33 3 34 : :5 > :> 5 :: 44 :3 43 :4 4: 65 4> 6> 45 6: 24 63 23 64 2: 35 2> 3> 25 3: 34 33 ;# 4 35 3 3> : 3: > 33 5 34 44 :5 43 :> 4: :: 4> :3 45 :4 24 65 23 6> 2: 6: 2> 63 25 64 34 35 33 3> 3: 3: ;1 4 >: 3 >3 : >4 > 35 5 3> 44 3: 43 33 4: 34 4> :5 45 :> 24 :: 23 :3 2: :4 2> 65 25 6> 34 6: 33 63 3: 64 3> 35 C" 4 ;4 3 >5 : >> > >: 5 >3 44 >4 43 35 4: 3> 4> 3: 45 33 24 34 23 :5 2: :> 2> :: 25 :3 34 :4 33 65 3: 6> 3> 6: 35 63 64 64 CC 4 ;> 3 ;: : ;3 > ;4 5 >5 44 >> 43 >: 4: >3 4> >4 45 35 24 3> 23 3: 2: 33 2> 34 25 :5 34 :> 33 :: 3: :3 3> :4 35 65 64 6> 63 6:

4 24 4 2> 4 33 3 45 3 2: 3 34 : 4> : 23 : 25 > 4: > 24 > 2> 5 43 5 45 5 2: 44 44 44 4> 44 23 43 4: 43 24 4: 45 4> 4>

prime pairs designated in red

::

Table B** Ho4 the Number o% &&s Are Deri8ed %or ENNs 4ith EE &airings
$ ENN " ON&s ) &airs Dith Comp O% ) 7 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47 44 42 43 46 4: 43 4> 4; 45 27 24 6 Eemainder < &airs Dith Comp O% < 7 7 7 7 4 7 4 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 6 3 3 1 Eem ; &airs Dith Comp O% ; 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 7 7 7 7 4 4 2 4 4 7 4 2 2 C Eem A &airs Dith Comp O% $$ 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 7 $# Eem $$ Ad5. For $ $" &&s

6 47 43 22 2; 36 67 63 :2 :; 36 >7 >3 ;2 ;; 56 477 473 442 44; 426 437

4 3 6 3 > 5 47 42 43 4: 43 4; 45 24 22 26 2: 2> 2; 37 34 33

4 2 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 3 > > ; ; 5 5 47 47 44 44 42

4 2 2 3 2 6 3 6 6 6 : : : 3 : > > > > > ; 5

4 2 2 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 : : : : 6 : 3 3 > 3 3 >

4 4 4E 2 7 2 2 7 2 3 7 3 2 7 2 6 7 6 3 7 3 6 7 6 3 7 3 6 7 6 : 7 : : 7 : : 7 : : 7 : 6 7 6 : 7 : 3 7 3 3 7 3 > 7 > 3 7 3 : 7 : > 7 > E1pecial case of 2 C 2 B 6

Ee8ie4ing Ho4 &&s Are Created

*he foregoing discussion illustrates how prime pairs are mechanically generated, but it does not resolve the +uestion of whether or not cases e%ist which invalidate $oldbach)s (on8ecture. *he complicated process, which involves a number of factors, produces the variance in the number of ""s observed in *able I. (ritical information, however, has emerged from the e%amination of the structure of the summing pairs that will enable a final paradigm to be constructed that will reveal why no invalidating cases e%ist. 2hen the natural numbers are assigned to one of the si% sets designated A through <, only match' ups of 1ets A, (, and & become relevant to the problem e%cept for the special case of 2C2B6 involving 1et .. 1ets ., @, and < comprise the even numbers, or 2 and all of its composites. *he only prime that belongs to 1et ( is 3, with the rest of that set consisting of the odd composites of 3. 2hen members of 1et ( are matched'up with members of either 1et A or & to form odd'number pairs that sum to a given &00, all primes in the set whose members are paired with 1et ( end up paired with composites, knocking them out of contention as potential members of a "". *he only e%ception to that rule occurs when a given &00 is three greater than a prime so that 3 gets paired with another prime, as with 3C6>B:7. *he types of match'ups that occur for a given &00 are controlled by the set membership of &00K2. If that number belongs to 1et ( or 1et <, (( pairings result which conse+uently create A&K&A

:3
match'ups. If it belongs to either 1et A or 1et @, AA match'ups result while if it is a member of 1et . or 1et &, && pairings are created. As a conse+uence of si% being chosen as the number of sets for the assignment of all natural numbers, all odd composites of 3 are confined to 1et (. *he odd composites for all other primes meanwhile rotate through 1ets A, (, and & due to the <undamental *heorem of Arithmetic. Any prime multiplied by 2 will yield a result uni+ue from the multiplication of any other prime times 2. 0o prime ("%) is divisible by another prime without remainder due to the definition of primes, so 2%3 will never divide without remainder into any 2" % where "%O3. *hat means that two successive odd composites of any prime greater than 3 cannot be members of the same set. *hree successive odd composites of any given prime likewise greater than 3 must be members of three different sets because 3 cannot divide without remainder into 6"%. owever, an odd composite of "% that is three odd composites greater than another composite of "% will be in the same set as that smaller one because 3" % is divisible by 3 without remainder. A corollary to that is that every " %th member of all natural numbers, all odd natural numbers, and each set of natural numbers that have been designated A through < will be a composite of " %. <or e%ample, multiples of : can be counted out in the set of all natural numbers at 47, 4:, 27, 2: D while such multiples appear every fifth member of the odd natural numbers# as in the case of :, >, 5, 44, 43, and 4:. =eanwhile, using 1et A as an e%ample, the progression follows the same pattern, as with 2:, 34, 3>, 63, 65, and ::. *his is all made possible because counting order was chosen as the basis for assigning the natural numbers to their sets. =ultiples of 3" % cause those patterns to occur because 3 is the number of sets chosen created for the assignment of the natural numbers in counting order and because any 03" %, where 0 is any natural number, is divisible without remainder by " %. &mploying the same principle, every "yth composite of "% in a given set will also be a composite of " y counting from the first appearance of such a composite in whichever progression of numbers (all natural numbers, all odd natural numbers, all composites of "%, or all composites of " % in a given set of natural numbers) because all such numbers are products of "y"%, which means that they are divisible without remainder by both " y and "%. *hat says, for e%ample that 47:, which is a composite of both : and > is > odd multiples of : from 3: and : odd multiples of > from 3:. *his process is what limits the impacts of the composites of odd primes greater than 3 on the number of ""s for a given &00. Mne'third of all odd composites of : are already composites of 3 because composites in this analysis are counted in the sets of the smallest prime for which they are a composite. It also means that composites of 3, which with 3 constitute the members of 1et ( of the natural numbers, will be paired against composites of : when 1et ( members are matched against 1et & members, for those &00s that have prime pairs that result form AA pairings, every fifth composite of 3 and every third composite of :.

2alidating the Con5e'tureQ

*he investigation into the validity of $oldbach)s (on8ecture ne%t sets up conditions that contradict either some aspect of the (on8ecture or some mathematical principle to demonstrate that the (on8ecture cannot be invalid. <irst, $oldbach)s (on8ecture would be invalid if the supply of primes ran out at some point. *hat does not happenA &uclid proved that the supply of primes is infinite. Although the fre+uency of primes thins out gradually as a conse+uence of the "rime 0umber *heorem, the density of the composites is the critical concern because as the density of primes thins out, the density of the composites, as a conse+uence, increases but that density of composites is ultimately stopped from attaining a value of 4.77 for the ratio of composites to all natural numbers beyond any given point because the supply of primes is infinite. If primes were to run out at some point along the infinite number line, then eventually all primes would be matched up with composites for sufficiently large enough &00s (those that are greater than two times the largest prime, whatever it might be hypothetically). *his investigation ne%t e%amines what could be done to alter the parameters that govern the generation of ""s for each &00 to discover what would have to be done to bring about the elimination of ""s. *he matching of composites with primes in the summing pairs of each &00, as has been demonstrated above, has been the controlling factor in the number of ""s that sum to any given &00. 2hat, then, could be done to alter the pattern of composites to insure that there were no ""s for some unknown &00W If that alteration either violated mathematical principles or still could not eliminate ""s

:>
for one or more &00s, then $oldbach)s (on8ecture would be validated. *able TIII provides the illustration for the discussion of that effort. <irst, an &00 must e%ist in every caseA changing that violates the problem, so the starting point cannot be changed in column one of *able TIII by substituting an odd natural number or some other number that is not an &00. *he supply of &00s is infinite because 2 can be consecutively added through infinity to any last &00 to generate more &00s. *he M0"s for a given &00 could be reduced or increased in column two, but the number of M0"s is established for a given &00 by the mechanical manner in which M0"s are generated. 1tarting with 8ust the first M0" (which is )=? where ?A0??--)) for a given &00, ne%t an even number pair then another odd number pair are added in se+uence below the first pair (as in *able III) until the number of summing pairs e+uals 0??>'. *hat means that the number of M0"s for a given se+uence of &00s will increase by the pattern C4, C7 D because summing pairs are added in an odd'even se+uence as the &00s increase by 2 at each step in their progression. After considering and discarding the foregoing options for finding an &00 greater than 2 that does not have any ""s, the only remaining possibility is to find an &00 for which all primes are paired either with composites or the number 4. (omposites of a given prime are paired up with primes for a given &00 following a very specific template, as e%plained through the e%ploration of the (on8ecture)s mechanics above. 1etting aside 2 and its composites, the composites of 3 then eliminate 9(2K3)'4 (where 9 is the initial number of M0"s when dealing with composites of 3 or the remainder of M0"s not eliminated by composites of the prime immediately smaller than the prime'composite family under consideration) all M0"s from contention as ""s (e%cept when (( pairings occur, for which the composites of 3 eliminate only 4K3 of all M0"s). <ractions are dropped from the results of the calculation because they represent a partial distance to the ne%t composite in a prime)s family of composites, but because that value is fractional, the ne%t composite in the series would be greater than the &00 for which the calculation is made. *he smallest odd prime (3) was chosen to begin that process because one'third of all odd natural numbers are composites of 3 and they thereby have the greatest potential for impact upon the generation of ""s as they have the greatest density of the composites of any odd prime. It is also easier to begin with the smaller primes first because additional, larger primes and their composites only become relevant as the &00s increaseA starting with the smallest primes enables the investigator to employ consistent procedures.

Table B*** Eesults o% Altering the &arameters

$ ENN " ON&s ) &airs Dith Comp O% ) 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 6 6 6 6 : : 3 3 3 3 > 6 Ee@ main @der 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 < &airs Dith Comp O% < 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 1 Eem ; &airs Dith Comp O% ; 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 C Eem A &airs Dith Comp O% $$ 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 $# Eem $$ &airs Dith Comp O% $) 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 $" Eem $) &airs Dith Comp O% $; 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 $6 Eem $< Ad5 For $ 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 $1 ,in Num &&s 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 ; 47 42 46 43 4; 27 22 26 23 2; 37 32 36 33 3; 67 62

2 2 3 3 6 6 : : 3 3 > > ; ; 5 5 47 47 44

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

:;
66 63 6; :7 :2 :6 :3 :; 37 32 36 33 3; >7 >2 >6 >3 >; ;7 ;2 ;6 ;3 ;; 57 52 56 53 5; 477 472 476 473 47; 447 442 446 443 44; 427 422 426 423 42; 437 432 436 433 43; 467 462 466 463 46; 4:7 ( 377 ( 377 Alt. 377 44 42 42 43 43 46 46 4: 4: 43 43 4> 4> 4; 4; 45 45 27 27 24 24 22 22 23 23 26 26 2: 2: 23 23 2> 2> 2; 2; 25 25 37 37 34 34 32 32 33 33 36 36 3: 3: 33 33 3> 3> 3; ( >: ( 4:7 4:7 > ; ; ; ; 5 5 47 47 47 47 44 44 42 42 42 42 43 43 46 46 46 46 4: 4: 43 43 43 43 4> 4> 4; 4; 4; 4; 45 45 27 27 27 27 24 24 22 22 22 22 23 23 26 26 26 26 2: ( :7 ( 477 477 6 6 6 : : : : : : 3 3 3 3 3 3 > > > > > > ; ; ; ; ; ; 5 5 5 5 5 5 47 47 47 47 47 47 44 44 44 44 44 44 42 42 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 ( 2: ( :7 :7 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 : : : : : : 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 > > > > > > > > > ( 4: ( 37 67 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 : : : : : : : : : : : : 3 3 3 ( 47 ( 27 47 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ( 6 ( ; : 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 ( 3 ( 42 : 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 4 4 ( 4 ( 3 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ( : ( 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ( 4 ( 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ( 6 ( > 3 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 ( 7 ( 4 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 ( 6 ( 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ( 4 ( 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ( 3 ( : 2

:5
*he remaining M0"s that have not been eliminated by the composites of 3 then face similar hurdles from the composites of successive primes up through those of the prime the s+uare of which is the largest prime s+uare smaller than the &00 in +uestion (as, for e%ample, 65 is for the &00s from :7 through 427). *he ratio of the composites follows the same pattern as with the composites of 3# 9(2K:)'4 for the composites of : e%cept when an &00 is divisible by :, for which the composites of : in the parallel columns will be paired against each other and thereby eliminate only 4K: of the M0"s that remain after the composites of 3 have eliminated their share of the M0"s from being ""s. After each prime)s composites remove M0"s from contention as ""s, the ne%t larger prime)s composites are applied to the M0"s that still remain. *hat will continue for all the infinitude of primes for every &00, but only the primes for which the s+uares are less than the &00 need be considered because primes which have s+uares larger than the &00 will not have any composites smaller than the given &00 that are not already a simultaneous composite with a prime that has a s+uare smaller than the &00. =ost of the larger primes will not have any composites that are smaller than a given &00, as any given &00 is finite and the number of primes is infinite. *hat e%planation may seem complicated, but it is similar to the way through which the 1ieve of &ratosthenes mechanically eliminates whole numbers from the number line as potential primes. .oth are sieving processes employing composites. =aking the hurdles higher and therefore harder to pass over for M0"s becomes the ne%t step in determining if there is an &00 for which there are no ""s. <irst, the ratio for composites of 3 in the set of M0"s will be raised to 2K3 for all &00s, which would count 3 as a composite and would mathematically ignore the third of all cases in which composites of 3 are paired against each other. *he numerator of the ratio for the composites of other primes will then be increased to 3 (3K:, 3K>, 3K44D), thereby increasing the share of successive remainders of M0"s knocked out by the composites of those primes. *hat procedure was followed in the construction of *able TIII, which sets up that process. Although *able TIII looks like *ables FIII, T, and TII, those latter three tables represented actual results while *able TIII is an artificial construct. In *able TIII the ratio)s numerator remains at 3 for every prime)s composites even when an &00 is a composite of that prime (which in actual cases winds up having that prime)s composites paired against each other and limits the ratio)s numerator for that prime to 4, as in 4K:). In addition, the unit 4, which is neither a prime nor a composite, will always be considered paired with a prime, thereby increasing the impact of 4 upon the process. =aking those alterations raises the barriers that the M0"s must cross to become ""s in *able TIII. *hose higher ratios and always considering 4 to be paired with a prime substantially reduce the number of ""s that result from the process, as a comparison of *ables I and TIII reveal. .y doing that, the analyst created conditions that violate basic mathematical operations, such as setting the numerators for the ratios used to calculate the number of pairs with composites of :, >, 44 and larger primes at 3 for all pairings. ?ikewise, always considering 4 to be paired with a prime also violates basic mathematical operationsA primes simply do not follow any known pattern, which means that they will not all be two apart, which would be necessary for 4 to pair only with primes. &ven so, ""s are still created under those more stringent conditions, beginning with the &00 23. 2hat happens is that each time the number of M0"s is increased by 4 by increasing the &00 by 2, that added value (of 4 M0") can wind up artificially paired with a composite of 3 or composite of any subse+uent prime through the mathematical functioning of their ratio. 0ote that the term Pvalue) is used. ?ocation of the pairs possessing the composites of various primes is not in +uestion, only their number. *hat way, the number of the ""s becomes the critical factor, not the identity and the e%act location of the primes that comprise those ""s. It is important to remember that such mathematical pairing in *able TIII is not an actual pairingA as an artificial construct, *able TIII is only concerned with how many M0"s could be optimally eliminated as ""s through mathematical ratios, not actual pairings. *hat construct uses higher ratios and other devices to make it harder for ""s to emerge at the end of the process. Mnce that value makes it through the process to become a "", however, that value remains in the "" column due to basic mathematics. *he functioning of those processes can be seen in simple division# dividing a number by : will generate a specific +uotient (as with 5: divided by : yielding 45). Increasing the dividend will eventually increase the +uotient (477K:B27), but nowhere along the infinite number line can the division of ever'larger dividends by : produce smaller +uotients. *herefore, even with these higher barriers, the number of ""s will gradually increase because the factors that originally produced the variance in the actual results have been eliminated and even though the higher barriers generate ""s (in this case beginning at 23) at a higher number and at a slower rate, the alterations do not permit some unknown large number to be devoid of ""s. *he observed

37
variance in the actual results is e+ual to or greater than the minimum number of ""s established for each &00 by the artificial construct, so use of that construct creates a minimum floor below which the number of ""s cannot fall. 9aising the barriers even higher will slow the creation of ""s, as seen for the alternate 377 at the bottom of *able TIIIA for that alternate result, the numerators for the ratios involving primes greater than 3 were raised to 6. In that alternate paradigm, there were still two ""s at 377, though there were five in the construct that used 3 in the numerators of the ratios for the primes greater than 3. @epending upon how much higher the numerator values are set (as long as the ratios do not e+ual 4.77), the arrival of the value 4 and any higher values will be delayed in the "" column. If any of the ratios were set at 4.77, no ""s would result, but that could not happen because altering the sieving process in that way would violate the same mathematical principles that would be compromised if &ratosthenes)s 1ieve had a prime that could eliminate all subse+uent primes in violation of the numerous proofs that verify that the supply of primes is infinite. Mnce the value of an M0" reaches that final, "" column (which would have to be moved to the right as the number of &00s was increased and additional primes became conse+uential in the calculation) it means that from that point forward there must always be at least that minimum number of ""s for all subse+uent &00s. *he hurdles erected serve as sieves that individually strain out M0"s for each &00. If something happens when a 4:th M0" first comes up in the process, it will happen the same way each time the sieving process is employed. Mne 8ust has to picture each M0" passing through the process one at a time. .y dropping the '4 from the ratios used to calculate how many M0"s are eliminated from consideration as ""s by the composites of a given prime Gas with 9(3K:) '4 for the composites of :H, the variance created by composites of primes with s+uares less than the &00 pairing with smaller primes found in the first column of the summing pairs for that &00 is eliminated. All of the primes with s+uares less than that &00 are counted as composites by the artificially increased ratios used to calculate how many M0"s are eliminated by a given prime)s composites, making moot those match'ups that can slightly increase the ratios above e%pected values (as described above for the composites of > for the &00 53 (where the composite 54 knocks out :)A both members of the pair artificially wind up being primes where one would occasionally be a smaller prime than the factor of the composite of the larger prime. &ven though the barriers in the artificial constructs are set well above those that e%ist in reality, ""s are still mathematically generated. 2here 3 is used in the numerator for the primes greater than 3, ""s still wind up being mathematically generated at the &00 23. &ven when 6 replaces 3 in the ratio)s numerator for primes greater than 3, ""s still show up early along the number line, at 422. If 3 then replaced 6 for the numerator of the ratios for primes greater than :, the first "" would arrive at ;62. &ach &00 through 23, 422, or ;62 can be visually inspected to confirm in reality that they have ""s. In fact, the barriers would have to be set e%ceedingly high at this point in our mathematical knowledge because it has already been demonstrated that there are ""s for every &00 up through at least 6%47 46 G"rime (on8ecturesH. 1ince setting the barriers in the artificial construct so far above those that actually winnow out ""s from M0"s cannot bar ""s from making it through the process, the use of that construct to set minimum values for ""s produces results that argue forcefully that $oldbach)s (on8ecture is valid. All of the variance in the results has been eliminated by the more stringent conditions, which means that even with higher barriers to the production of ""s, they are still created for &00s e+ual to or greater than a certain &00, which is determined by how high the ratio numerators are set. (hoosing 3 for the ratio numerator for all primes greater than : and 6 for :)s numerator and 2 for 3)s, always using the higher ratio numerator even when a prime is a factor of a given &00, making all primes composites when their s+uares are less than the &00, and always considering 4 to be paired with a prime place far higher barriers than those that actually e%ist, but even though basic mathematical principles are violated to do so, ""s would still eventually be created and would e%ist for all larger &00s once the first "" arrives, as e%plained above. *herefore, there are no even natural numbers waiting somewhere down the dark, une%plored reaches of the number line waiting to invalidate $oldbach)s (on8ecture as it was restructured by &uler.

34

Histori'al Ee%eren'es
@o%iadis, Apostolos. /ncle "etros U $oldbach)s (on8ecture. .loomsbury "ublishing, 0ew Nork, 2777. offman, "aul. Archimedes) 9evenge. 2.2. 0orton U (ompany, 0ew Nork, 45;;. *he "rime $lossary. 9oldbach!s con%ecture. http#KKprimes.utm.eduKglossaryKpage.phpK$oldbach(on8ec' ture.html Berifying 9oldbach!s Con%ecture up to C - )()C. http#KKwww.informatik.unigiessen.deKstaffKrichsteinKcaK $oldbach.html

32

The T4in &rime Con5e'ture+ A /tru'tural Approa'h

c. 201/ Certain problems in mathematics are considered unsolvable < perhaps due to the lac* of an appropriate technique for solving them or perhaps because their parameters create impossible conditions. Sometimes that insolvability results from those see*ing solutions having continually travelled down barren roads which have offered no chance for success. As put by #ardy and Dright in their );E; edition of An 4ntroduction to the Theory of ?umbers and quoted in Dolfram Mathworld, proof of con%ectures li*e the Twin 1rime 6is at present beyond the resources of mathematics.7 $ Apparently, there has been a need for more productive techniques. The Twin 1rime Con%ecture has appeared to be one of those inscrutable mathematical challenges that have lain %ust beyond the reach of *nown techniques. 1revious attempts to solve it, particularly by formulaic means, have seemed destined to fail, though there is one polymath effort that appears to be closing in on a solution based upon a niversity of ?ew #ampshire math professor!s analysis of the problem. This paper will, however, demonstrate the con%ecture!s validity, but it will do so through a structural analysis that employs several simple, arbitrary constructs which are acceptable tools to employ in the quest for the proof. 4t will first e-plore the relevant structures employed in the proof, then move onto the proof itself, which will be very simple and very brief.

*ntrodu'tion
*here are two twin number con8ectures, the better known of which contends that there are an infinite number of primes that differ by two. 2hile this has hitherto not been proven, mathematicians generally believe that Ithe evidence Gfor the correctness of that con8ectureH is overwhelming.J " *he discovery of ever'larger twins are continuously announced and considerable work has been done to demonstrate that there is a limiting bounds by which primes can differ. *his is the con8ecture that will be proven in this paper. A second twin prime con8ecture involves a modification to .run)s constant, with a version of it known as the strong twin prime con8ecture, or ardy and ?ittlewood)s first con8ectureA it will not be dealt with here. In the vein of the author)s earlier papers on /lam)s 1piral 1+uare, ardy and ?ittlewood)s (on8ecture <, and $oldbach)s (on8ecture, the approach will be based upon the structure of the number system as it can be permissibly bent to the specifics of the problem.

A 2ery Brie% History o% the T4in &rime Con5e'ture

*win primes and their nature have been considered at least as far back as &uclid in the 3 rd (entury ..(.&. 1ome attribute the con8ecture to the $reek mathematician &uclid of Ale%andria, which would make it one of the oldest open problems in mathematics. ) *hat means that the problem is something over 2,377 years old, making it perhaps the oldest remaining unresolved problem in the field of number theory. Alphonse de"olignac e%panded the problem into an infinite set of problems, known collectively and 8ustifiably as de"olignac)s (on8ecture, by asserting that an infinite number of primes (p and p)) e%ist such that p) ' p B 2k where k is a natural number O 4.6 *he *win "rime (on8ecture then becomes the case where k B 4.< $. . ardy and ,ohn ?ittlewood proposed a stronger version of the *win "rime (on8ecture, proposing a distribution law for the twins similar to that of the "rime 0umber *heorem, which finds an asymptotic distribution of primes.

33
@ue to the researcher)s age, the AA9" recently posted X as did many other sources X the story of *itang Yhang)s =ay 22, 2743 paper that has taken a tremendous step forward in resolving the *win "rime (on8ecture. Yhang, a previously obscure, but popular /niversity of 0ew ampshire mathematics instructor (reportedly in his :7s) broke ardy)s truism that II do not know of an instance of a ma8or mathematical advance initiated by a man past fifty.J 1 Yhang established a bound of >7 million for some integer 0 that serves as the gap between infinitely many prime pairs. is research took advantage of work published in 277: by @aniel $oldston, ,anos "int!, and (em Nildirim, Iwhich had shown there would always be pairs of primes closer than the average distance between two primes. ; <ollowing up on Yhang)s paper, *arrence *ao proposed a "olymath pro8ect ("olymath;) to limit the bound further, reaching an announced value of 6,3;7 on ,uly 2>, 2743.C

&arallel Number 3ines

*he progression of numbers along their dimming pathway toward infinity is often conceived as a number line, with both distinct X or e%actly definable X and imprecise points along its course, designating the different numbers as locations along that line. *he creation of a number line is an arbitrary intellectual e%ercise. 0umbers do not actually e%ist on a master line someplace, but the use of a number line helps visuali!e their relationships.A If one number line can be so created, one could also create paired number lines. *hey could be placed alongside each other and be offset by two in a similar arbitrary, but perfectly allowable, manner. Mne could then choose to highlight only the odd whole numbers on the two parallel lines (in this case doing so only because no even whole numbers constitute twin primes, as twin primes can only differ by two and two is the only even prime). <igure I below has parallel number columns that represent parallel number lines (actually line segments) as described, though the columns in this visual e%ample are broken apart for conservation of presentation space and all even numbers have been arbitrarily removed as unessential.

Figure * An Example o% Arbitrary &arallel Number 3ines O%%set by T4o

4 3 23 2: 3 : 2: 2> : > 2> 25 > 5 25 34 5 44 34 33 44 43 33 3: 43 4: 3: 3> 4: 4> 3> 35 4> 45 35 64 45 24 64 63 24 23 63 6: LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL "rimes in locations where they form a twin prime denoted as > "rimes in locations where they do not form a twin prime denoted as > In <igure I, twin (or paired) primes are marked in red and solitary primes X those without a prime immediately opposite on the parallel number line X are marked with yellow. It is interesting to note that <igure I, with its limited number of entries, already shows the density of twin primes getting thinner. *hey do thin out considerably faster than primes.

36 Employing Arbitrary Constru'ts

*hus, while the supply of twin primes seems ine%haustible, the infinitude of their total number is still only surmised, not proven. *he effort at hand to demonstrate that the number of twin primes is infinite will begin with the paired number lines illustrated in <igure IA it will proceed through how composites block paired integers on that line from being twin primes, and will conclude with the proof that shows why composites can never fully block the creation of new twin primes along the course of the paired number lines. *he analytical constructs employed to winnow out the infinitude of twin primes will be arbitrarily selected for the task. *heir design X such as the use of the two parallel number lines introduced above X will avoid violating any mathematical principles. *hey are being employed to help promote an understanding of the structure of twin primes. *he pantheon of twin primes does have a general structure and some of it will be revealed through the use of certain constructs. *he first of those constructs was the paired number lines (in <igure I). *he ne%t involves the division of those two number lines into (4) blocs defined by the s+uares of the consecutive odd integers and (2) sets comprised of four consecutive paired integers from those two number lines. 2hen working with the infinite parallel number lines, as initiated in <igure I)s line segments, each set of paired numbers on the two lines may be conceived as one entity (such as 3,: and 4:,4>). 0othing prohibits this from being done. In this respect the parallel number lines would be treated as if they were a single line, but with doubled entries of numbers along that line. arking back to the 1ieve of &ratosthenes, nonprimes X known as composites X could be winnowed out of that double'line by dividing each number by the primes that are e+ual to or smaller than its s+uare root. If one were to work their way through the double'line, first dividing by 2, then 3, then :, and onward by each prime in succession, all of the composites would be identified and removed, ultimately leaving only primes. In some cases there would be only one number (a solitary prime) remaining from a set of paired numbers, but in other instances, two numbers would remain, which would be twin primes. 1o, if 2 and all of its composites (known collectively as the even numbers) were removed, no harm would be done because no even numbers are part of any twins. Mnce the even numbers have been removed from the doubled number line, 3 would divide cleanly, or without remainder, into two'thirds of the remaining numbers that follow 3 along the downsi!ed, paired line.$# *hat will be treated as a simple given. <rom this point forward it becomes useful to understand the structure of the blocs and sets that comprise *able I.

3: Table * Di8iding the &aired Number 3ines into Blo's and /ets
.loc 4 1et 4 ' 4 4 3 3R :R :R >E > 5 5 44 44E 43E 43 4: 4: 4>R 45 24 4> 45R 24 23 .loc 3 1et 4 23 2: 2> 25R 34 33 3: 3> 35 64E 63 6: 2: 2> 25 34R 33 3: 3> 35 64 63E 6: 6> .loc 6 1et 4 6> 65 :4 :3 :: :> :5E 34 33 3: 3> 35 65 :4 :3 :: :> :5 34E 33 3: 3> 35 >4 >3R >: >> >5 .loc : 1et 4 >5 ;4 ;3 ;: ;> ;5 54 53 ;4 ;3 ;: ;> ;5 54 53 5:

.loc 2 1et 4

1et 2

1et 2

1et 2

1et 2 .

1et 3

1et 3

1et 3

5: 5> 5> 55 55 474 474R 473R

1et 6 >4R >3 >: >>

1et 6 473 47: 47: 47> 47>E 475E 475 444

1et : 444 443 443 44: 44: 44> 44> 445 LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL "erfect s+uares denoted by 65 *win "rimes denoted by R

Blo's /ets and T4in &rimes

*he number of odd integers in each bloc can be readily calculated using the formula# Bn : >n F "?" S >n?" " where .n is the number of odd integers in the bloc that begins with n2. <or *able I)s .loc 3, Bn : >;?" @ ><?" " Bn : $" *hat simple formula leads to a more general e%pression that calculates the number of paired odd integers, .a, that are consecutively added to the blocs in their order of progression# Ba : >n F 6?" S >n F "?" @ >n F "?" @ >n?" " "

33

Ba : >n" F Cn F$1? S >n" F 6n F6? @ >n" F 6n F 6? @ >n"? " " Ba : >6n F $"? @ >6n F 6? " " Ba : 6 *his, with its removal of the even numbers, is only a variation of the difference between consecutive s+uares.$$ 1o far, nothing is very complicated, but the increase in paired numbers from one bloc to the ne%t is a crucial element in the proof of the infinitude of prime numbers. Mne bloc to the ne%t consecutive bloc will always e%hibit an increase of four pairs of numbers. In addition to dividing the paired number lines into blocs and sets, *able I also denotes the locations of the first ten twin primes. *here are two twin primes in each of the first five blocs, as shown in the table, but unfortunately that pattern does not hold for very long, going to three twin primes in .loc > and four in .loc ; before falling back to two again in the ninth and tenth blocs. *able II illustrates.

Table ** T4in &rimes in the First Ten Blo's

Blo' Number o% T4in &rimes

4 2 2 2 3 2 6 2 : 2 3 2 > 3 ; 6 5 2 47 2 LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL

Eliminating &aired Numbers as T4in &rimes

As part of the effort to prove that the supply of twin primes is infinite, an algorithm has been established for the way in which paired numbers along the combined number lines will be removed from consideration as twin primes because at least one member of a given pair is a composite. *here are several ways that pairs could be removed from consideration, but the way that is here being specified must be followed due to the mechanics of the proof. As stated above, the paired number lines may be conceived as one number line with paired numbers, some of which will be twin primes (as displayed in <igure I). "roceeding in a manner similar to that of &ratosthenes) 1ieve, composites of each prime are removed in order from consideration as twin primes, but working with twin primes sets up a slightly different process. .eginning with 3, each prime is divided into all remaining numbers beginning with the prime)s s+uare to determine which numbers along the line are its composites (and therefore not members of twins). <igure II illustrates how this is to be done#

3> Figure ** Eemo8ing Composites %rom the &aired Number 3ine

by < by ) &airs by ) by <

4 4,3 3,: :,> ;A % % A $$ 44,43 $) $< % % $< $; 4>,45 $A "$ % % "$ ") ") "< % "< "; % % "; "A 25,34 )$ )) % % )) )< % )< ); ); )A % % )A 6$ TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT "airs with one or more composites are marked in red. *win "rimes are marked in blue. .oth numbers at a given point are removed from consideration as twin primes if either or both of the pair is a composite. owever, if one of the pair is a prime, it could still be part of a twinA to be so it would have to be paired with a prime at its other position along the modified number line. *he process of removal from consideration stops once one member of the pair has been identified as a composite by the sieving. 2hether the other member of the pair is a prime or a composite is irrelevant. 9emoval from consideration is accomplished by the smallest magnitude prime that divides cleanly into either member of the pairA that larger magnitude primes may divide into either member of the pair is also irrelevant. *he smallest prime that divides into either member of the pair gets all of the credit for the pair)s removal from consideration. owever, unlike &ratosthenes) 1ieve, composites of 3 remove two'thirds of all pairs down the infinitude of this special, combined number line, not one'third. <ive then removes two' fifths of the remaining pairs from consideration, and the process follows in the same manner for each prime in succession (each removing the fraction 2Kp % from the new total ). In each case, a prime can only remove pairs beginning with the pair that is the first to contain that prime)s s+uareA :, for e%ample, does not remove 4:)s pairs from consideration because 4: is first considered a composite of 3 and, as such, was already removed from consideration.

/ummariUing &rogress 4ith the &roblem

At this point, four critical components of the solution have been covered# *wo odd'only number lines have essentially been combined into one line with two numbers, differing by 2, at each point along its infinite lengthA A rigid, prioriti!ed process has been adopted for removing paired numbers along that line from consideration as twin primesA

3;
As conse+uence, a prime)s composites can only begin to remove paired numbers from consideration as twin primes beginning with the s+uare of that prime (though a composite of a smaller prime may do so at that point as :4 does with 65, :4 because :4 is a composite of 3 while 65 B >2)A and, *hat blocs progressively and consistently increase by four pairs over the number contained in their immediate predecessors because successive blocs begin with the s+uares of successive odd whole numbers.

Net, all of that does not provide enough tools up to this point to construct the con8ecture)s proof. *hat is because there is an illusion of disorder to primesA one cannot determine e%actly where either primes or twin primes will fall along the paired number lines without resorting to brute arithmetic methods even though the density of primes and twins, when graphed, appear to follow generally predictable functions. *able III offers a snapshot of an interesting relationship. *he table)s first column sets up the initial ten blocs and lists X for each bloc X the initiating odd root, the s+uare of which starts off the right' hand column of the combined number line. *he table then lists Gin (H how many pairs are in each bloc. (olumn @ provides the fractional value of each pair within each bloc (which is the inverse of the total number of pairs in the bloc). (olumn & presents what will become an important value in the process of proving the *win "rime (on8ecture. It is the fraction of pairs along the combined number line that are not removable as possible twin primes by composites of primes e+ual to or less than the defining number from (olumn . for a given bloc. *hat may seem complicated, but it is not. *he prime 3 removes 2K3s of all the pairs beginning with .loc 2 and progresses on through infinity continuing to do so. *hat means that 4K3 of all paired numbers along the combined number line are not removed from consideration as twin primes by the action of odd composites of 3. (olumn < then converts (olumn &)s fractions to rounded decimal values. .y simple deduction, as long as (olumn < is not permanently reduced to 7 from some point, or bloc, onward, the supply of twin primes will not be e%hausted. <rom knowledge of the studies of twin primes, ever'larger twins are being discoveredA no end to them has been found. A given bloc could be reduced to 7, but that will not demonstrate that all successive blocs will also be 7A likewise a fractional value in (olumn < for any bloc will not guarantee that successive blocs will also display non'!ero values. *he values in (olumn < do not even seem to follow an orderly progression. <ollowing the action of 3)s odd composites, the prime : comes into play beginning with .loc 3. 9emembering that the composites of the smaller prime(s) take effect before considering the composites of the new large prime (in this case :), the composites of : remove 2K:s of the remaining paired numbers along the number line beginning with .loc 3, which means that it does not remove 3K:s of those remaining numbers. <igure III illustrates how that works. (omposites of 3 and : remove pairs in a pattern that is infinitely repeated based upon the algorithm# EN : $ @ >p$ @ "?(>px @ "? p$ px EN is the fraction of the pairs not removed from consideration as twins by the actions of the primes from p$ (3) through >px? largest prime serving as a defining number through some arbitrary bloc along the combined number line. <or purposes of the proof, all primes and their composites are considered, but only in consecutive order and at the appropriate point. =oving on, *able III)s (olumn $ lists the actual number of twin primes within each bloc, followed by the fractional value of pairs in each bloc that are twin primes G H. As long as (olumn & is not permanently reduced to !ero from some bloc onward, there are more twin primes and the supply is not e%hausted. &ver'larger twin prime pairs are being discovered, so no end has yet been found to their supply for (olumn $ (and therefore also ) and the value in (olumn & has therefore not been permanently reduced to !ero. owever, the data so far does not give any indication in the other direction eitherA nothing in *able III suggests that the progression of fractions in (olumn & cannot be permanently reduced to !ero at some pointA no boundary is evident below which the values in (olumn & cannot fall, so a !ero value is possible for some as'yet unknown large value for (olumn .. 0o clear pattern has emerged. .ut, there is a way to create a base pattern that demonstrates that the data in an infinite continuation of (olumn & will never be permanently reduced to !ero after some arbitrarily large n is reached in (olumn ..

35

Table *** The Elimination o% &aired Numbers along the Combined Number 3ine as T4in &rimes
A B C Blo' De%ining &airs in Number Blo' >e? 4 2 3 6 : 3 > ; 5 47 4 3 : > 5 44 43 4: 4> 45 6 ; 42 43 27 26 2; 32 33 67 D $Ne E Fra'tion >%? o% &airs Eemaining ( 4K3 4K: 4K> 4K> 5K>> 5K54 5K54 43:K4:6> 43:K4>25 F $.###>%? 7 Number o% T4in &rimes in Blo' 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 6 2 2 H Fra'tion o% &airs in Blo' that are T4ins 4K2 4K6 4K3 4K; 4K47 4K42 3K2; 4K; 4K4; 4K27

4K6 4K; 4K42 4K43 4K27 4K26 4K2; 4K32 4K33 4K67

( .3333 .2777 .4625 .4625 .4435 .75;5 .75;5 .7;>3 .7;>4

>7

Figure *** An Example o% the &attern o% Composites

&aired Number &osition Composite o% ) Composite o% <

43, 4: 4 x x 4:, 4> 2 x x 4>, 45 3 45, 24 6 % 24, 23 : % 23, 2: 3 % 2:, 2> > x x 2>, 25 ; % 25, 34 5 34, 33 47 % 33, 3: 44 x x 3:, 3> 42 % 3>, 35 43 % 35, 64 46 % 64, 63 4: '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 63, 6: 43 x x 6:, 6> 4> x x 6>, 65 4; 65, :4 45 % :4, :3 27 % :3, :: 24 % TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 9ed denotes twin primes. $reen indicates pairs with composites of both 3 and :.

The &roo%+ T4in &rimes Are *n%inite in Number

Mne could guess, based upon the discovery of ever'larger twin primes, that the pattern to the data in *able III probably continues infinitely, but probably and absolutely are radically different concepts. "roof or re8ection of the con8ecture)s validity will re+uire finding a relationship where it can be demonstrated that some mathematical linkage requires either the elimination of opportunities for twin primes to e%ist after some point along the number line or a clear demonstration that a boundary absolutely e+ual to or more mathematically stringent than the e%isting pantheon of primes is incapable of eliminating the opportunities for the e%istence of twins. 2hile the primes themselves cannot offer up a convincing argument in either direction, an algorithm can be constructed employing a bit of *able III as its starting point. @oing so will re+uire the use of an acknowledged false assumption that would mathematically create a situation which would more aggressively eliminate opportunities for twin primes to occur than do the e%isting composites, but would nonetheless be demonstrably unable to block the infinite supply of twins in a manner that would prove that ever'larger twin primes cannot be blocked by the progression of composites down the number line. *able IF sets up that proof)s mechanics.

>4

Table *2 *nability to Eliminate T4ins through a ,ore Aggressi8e Elimination o% &aired Numbers
A B C Blo' De%ining Number &airs in Blo' >e? D $Ne E $.####>$Ne? F 7 Fra'tion >%? $.####>%? o% &airs Eemaining H Column 7 Di8ided by Column E

4 4 6 4K6 .2:77 ( ( ( 2 3 ; 4K; .42:7 4K3 .3333 2.333 3 : 42 4K42 .7;33 4K: .2777 2.674 6 > 43 4K43 .732: 4K> .4625 2.2;3 : 5 27 4K27 .7:77 4K5 .4444 2.222 3 44 26 4K26 .764> 4K44 .7575 2.4;7 > 43 2; 4K2; .73:> 4K43 .7>35 2.4:6 ; 4: 32 4K32 .7343 4K4: .733> 2.434 5 4> 33 4K33 .72>; 4K4> .7::; 2.44: 47 45 67 4K67 .72:7 4K45 .7:23 2.476 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 55 45> 353 4K353 .772: 4K45> .77:4 2.767 ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 555 455> 3553 4K3553 .7772:72 4K455> .777:77> 2.7742 TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT

(olumns A through @ in *able IF are taken, with the e%ception of the data for .locs 55 and 555, directly from *able III (for purpose of +uick comparisons). *able IF)s (olumn & meanwhile converts the fractional value of 4Ke to a decimalA that will facilitate the easiest division of the data in (olumn $ by that in (olumn &. (olumn &)s data is the decimal value that a given pair of numbers along the combined number line possesses as a share of the total number pairs within its specific bloc (as one pair in .loc 2 accounts for 4K; of the eight pairs in the bloc, which can be decimally recorded as .42:7). *able III)s (olumn &, with its actual number of twin primes per bloc, and (olumn <, with its fraction of pairs in a given bloc that are twin primes, are not carried over to *able IF. *he patently false assumption upon which *able IF is mathematically constructed is that every odd number in (olumn . is, and will be treated as, a prime for the purpose of eliminating number pairs along the infinite number line as twin primes. A new (olumn < for *able IF records the fraction of the paired numbers beginning with each bloc that are n#! removed from consideration as twin primes by the mathematical action of the primes and false' primes acting against the number line)s paired numbers. *he fraction recorded in (olumn < is calculated by multiplying the fraction of the pairs not removed by the action of composites of 3 (4K3), then multiplying that remainder by the fraction (3K:) of pairs not removed as possible twin primes by the action of : and onward through the odd numbers effective within each specific bloc. *hus, the fraction displayed for each bloc in (olumn < is calculated by multiplying the fraction of paired numbers for each prime or false'prime that cannot be removed from consideration as twin primes. .ecause false'primes are included, a greater fraction of pairs are removed from the number line and a smaller fractional value remains than is found in *able III)s (olumn &. *hat means that (olumn <)s fractional values and (olumn $)s accompanying decimal values are lower than those that can be obtained down each column using only true primes and their composites.$" *hose calculations are done for both primes and false'primes by the author to establish a more restrictive bound than would be possible with 8ust true primes and their composites. *he calculations are +uite simple, as illustrated for 3 through 5#

>2

For 5ust )+ For ) and < 'ombined+ For ) < and ; 'ombined+ For ) < ; and A 'ombined+

E : >$N)? E : >$N)?>)N<? : )N$< : $N< E : >$N)?>)N<?><N;? : $<N$#< : $N; E : >$N)?>)N<?><N;?>;NA? : $#<NA6< : $NA

0ew twin primes are added in each bloc of *able IF because the primes and false'primes upon which the composite calculations are based cannot generate enough composites at any given point to eliminate all pairs as twins. (olumn in *able IF is the result of dividing (olumn $ by (olumn & to show how many twin primes ought to be found in each bloc. $) It is apparent from the limited entries in the table that the values in are decreasing towards 2.777 as one descends the column. *he values in will never actually fall to e%actly 2 or lower (such as to the 7 needed to block the creation of new twins) due to the relationship between the fractions in @ and <. *he number of odd pairs in a bloc, as shown earlier, is calculated by the formula# Bn : >n F "?" S >n?" " *he number of pairs in a given bloc will therefore always be twice the defining number for that bloc plus two. =eanwhile, it has already been shown that for combination of primes and false'primes composed for *able IF, the fraction of pairs remaining will be the inverse of the defining number. @ivision of the number of pairs in a bloc by the defining number will be e+uivalent to# B : "n F " n 1uch a relationship will always produce a result that is a decimal value greater than 2, with that decimal constantly decreasing as n increases. 2hile decimal values are employed from (olumns & and $ to calculate , the same relationship results and the value found for any given bloc in will always be greater than 2. /se of the false'primes thus produces values in *able IF that are both predictable and that will always be greater than 2, thereby insuring that even with the e%tra mathematical impact against the e%istence of twin primes, twin primes cannot be e%tinguished by the more stringent constraints on twins found in *able IF. *able IF thereby provides minimum bounds on the number of twin primes, which is clear are infinite in number 8ust as they would have to be under the more stringent constraints envisioned for *able IF. *he +uestion is resolved# twin primes have to be infinite in number in reality because twins would still be infinite in number under a prime plus false prime arrangement that would remove more pairs from the combined number line than could 8ust real primes and their composites alone. In addition, the real prime plus false'prime combination has the advantage of predictability through infinity that is not evident with 8ust the real primes, ensuring that a minimum boundary for twin primes will e%ist through an infinite and predictable progression.

A%ter4ord
It seems that the proof cannot be that simple, but it is. A minimum boundary that is absolutely predictable in its mathematical behavior has been found that demonstrates that twin primes cannot fall below a certain density per bloc ensures the infinitude of twin primes because the number of blocs is infinite as their infinitude, in turn, is based upon the infinitude of odd numbers. 1imultaneously, the proof)s mechanics match up well with the decreasing density of twin primes. *he primeKfalse'prime

>3
algorithm upon which the proof is constructed reveals a minimum of 2C twins per bloc, and that matches up +uite well with the need for a decreasing density for twinsA the si!e of blocs steadily and predictably increases due to the increasing distance between the s+uares of the consecutive odd numbers that define each bloc. *he true number of primes will vary from that, but the number of twins will consistently e%ceed the minimum set by the boundary, which does not conflict with the need for an infinite number of twin primes as set by the con8ecture. 2hat is clear is that that the composites of real primes alone can never wipe out the opportunities for twin primes along the dual number line. 0ow that it is proven that there is an infinite number of twin primes, what, then, about other 2k differences between primes where k is e+ual to any whole numberW *he arrangement for twins was accomplished by combining two parallel number lines whose variance was IarbitrarilyJ selected to be two because any even'number difference could have been setA two was selected because that met the con8ecture)s parameters. *wo number lines can be moved relative to each other to create any difference between them and their then'paired numbers. *he author will follow this paper with e%amples of such other differences, creating new *ables III and IF to prove such relationships create infinite numbers for any 2k arrangements.$6

Notes
$

J*win "rime (on8ecture.J http#KKmathworld.wolfram.comK*win"rime(on8ecture.html Ibid.

"

=c-ee, =aggie. J<irst proof that infinitely many prime numbers come in pairs.J 0ature, 46 =ay 2743. http#KKwww.nature.comKnewsKfirst'proof'that'infinitely'many'prime'numbers'come'in'pairs'4.425;5
6

J*win "rime.J http#KKen.wikipedia.orgKwikiK*winLprime Ibid. http#KKblog.aarp.orgK2743K7:K26K:7'something'

<

-iger, -enneth. AA9" .log. =ay 26, 2743. mathematician'solves'twin'prime'con8ecture'problemK

;

(hang, -enneth. I1olving a 9iddle of "rimes.J 0ew Nork *imes, =ay 27, 2743. http#KKmichaelnielsen.orgKpolymath4Kinde%.phpWtitlaB.ounded'gaps'

J.ounded gaps between primes.J between'primes

A

*here is an aspect of +uantum theory that proposes all of e%istence is a vast hologram, but number lines do not e%ist in nature X they are human intellectual constructs.
$#

.ecause the number lines are offset by two, composites of three are not found opposite of each other, leading to 2K3s of all number pairs being removed from consideration as twin primes, with one member of each of those pairs being a composite of three.
$$

*he removal of even numbers from consideration, and calculations, can be done because they are in all cases irrelevant. If even numbers were included in this instance, .a would e+ual ;.
$"

Mf course, the composites of the false'primes are really composites of smaller primes, but they wind up being counted twice to arithmetically cut down on the number of possible twin primes. *hey do not actually remove any twin primes, but the calculations make it appear that the number of twins has been reduced.

>6

$)

It is important to remember that both primes and twin primes do not appear to follow orderly progressions. 2ith calculations pro8ecting 2C twin primes per bloc, some blocs may have more primes than that, accumulating some of those decimal values to result with more than two twins in a given bloc. *hat happens with the twins that are permitted by the actions of the real primes and their composites. owever, the actions of the composites of the real primes X say 3 and : X follow a cyclical pattern, as e%plained in the te%t, so that on the average there are more than two twin pairs per bloc due to the composites of 3 and :A the addition of larger primes to the mi% mask those effects by knocking out pairs not removed by the actions of 3)s and :)s composites, but the composites for 3 and : follow a cyclical, or modular, pattern.
$6

*he introductory e%planations will not be needed again, as they would remain the same. 2hat will need to be determined is whether or not a similar relationship e%ists between @ and <, producing a similar , for 2k pairs to be infinite in number for any given whole'number value of k.

>:

Beyond T4in &rimes+ &ro8ing de&oligna'.s Con5e'ture Con'erning the *n%initude o% "9 &rime &airs &art A+ 9 : " 7aps
c. 2012 Alphonse de"olignac e%panded the *win "rime (on8ecture in 4;65 by hypothesi!ing that an infinite number of consecutive primes (p and p)) e%ist where p) X p B 2k for which k is a natural number = 4.4 /nder this formulation, the *win "rime (on8ecture becomes the case where k B 4. 2 "roving the validity of de"olignac)s (on8ecture, however, will be a bit more complicated than that for demonstrating the case for twin primes. *he twin prime version is simpler to prove because there are no intervening primes between p and p), which makes the *win "rime (on8ecture a special case. *he case of k B 2 is also a special case, not unlike that for the twin primesA there is one, and only one, instance where there is an intervening prime between the two members of any of the k B 2 prime pairings, specifically where : intervenes between 3 and >. @ue to the odd composites of 3 thereafter, there are no other progressions of three consecutive differing by two because every third odd number is a multiple of 3. After the progression 3,:,> there will therefore be no instances where intervening primes will have to be considered and thus the 3,:,> trio can be ignored because where there are an infinite number of cases, the reduction of the total by one case leaves a still'infinite number of cases remaining. 3 As only one e%ception e%ists, at the very outset of the progression of k B 2 pairings, it will be ignored without harm to the con8ecture)s validity. *he following case for k B 2 pairings will generally proceed like that for twin primes, with certain aspects understood from the latter)s proof. 1ome additional material will meanwhile be added at the beginning.

But the Numbers Do Not ,at'hH

An easily noted difference between twin and k B 2 prime progressions arises when the number of paired primes for each is compared by blocs. &nlarging *able II from the preceding paper on twin primes 6 demonstrates that pairings for the different gaps do not follow identical patterns#

Table * T4in and 9 : " &rime &airs Found in the First Ten Blo's
Blo' Number o% T4in &rimes Number o% 9 : " &rimes LL4LLLLLLLLL LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL2LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL 4LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL 2 2 3 3 2 2 6 2 4 : 2 6 3 2 2 > 3 2 ; 6 3 5 2 3 47 2 2

>3
*otal 24 (23 counting .loc 4) 22 (23 counting .loc 4) .loc ) is separated from the others because it lac*s a complete set of paired numbers for both twins and * A ' pairings. *he reason that they do not follow identical patterns lies in the shift of the left'hand column in the k B 2 pairings from the position that it had in the twins) pairingsA the composites, beginning with those of 3 and continuing through those for ever'larger primes, have their positions shifted, causing them to be paired against different primes (or composites), as shown in <igure I below. *hat shift will leave different prime pairings in its wake. It must be remembered, however, that only the positions of the composites, and therefore their pairings, changeA the number of composites obviously remains the same, so they can block out only a certain sha$e of primes from being prime pairs, as *able IF from the author)s preceding article illustrates.: Mld prime pairings from the twins are lost through the alteration of the patterns, but new ones arise. <igure I reveals why the processes for twin prime and k B 2 pairings are the same even though they appear to be different#

Figure * Comparing &rime &air /ie8ing &atterns %or T4in and 9 : " Number 3ines
T4ins $ $ ) R ) < R < ; ; A A $$ R $$ $) $) $< $< $; R $; $A $A "$ "$ ") ") "< "< "; "; "A R "A )$ )$ )) )) )< )< ); ); )A )A 6$ 9 : "s $ ) $ < R ) ; < A R ; $$ A $) $$ $< R $) $; $< $A $; "$ R $A ") "$ "< ") "; "< "A "; )$ "A )) )$ )< )) ); )< )A R ); 6$

R R R R

R R R R

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 7e 8 !9in #$ : = 2 %$i(e %ai$s R $$ $) R *;#!e8 /,1 n#! a !$ue : = 2) %ai$ $e(#5e+ b c#(%#si!e #4 / #n $i"h! si+e #4 %ai$in" $; "$ %ai$ $e(#5e+ b c#(%#si!e #4 / #n &e4! si+e #4 %ai$in" "; "A %ai$ $e(#5e+ b c#(%#si!e #4 , )$ )< <igure I also aids the reader on visuali!ing why the number of paired primes per bloc differs between twins and k B 2s in their details even though the overall picture remains very similar. *he chart could be set up several different ways, but the author chose to hold the right'hand columns for the twins and k B 2 pairings

>>
constantA the left'handed columns for each are shifted from each other (or one is shifted from the other) to create the gaps of 2 and 6 between the paired numbers. &ach such pairing could be considered an opportunity for a pairing of primes. (omposites for 3 and then higher primes in succession knock out those possibilities for paired primes to e%ist, as, for e%ample, 5 in the right'hand column for k B 2 matchups kills the chance for : from the left'hand column to be part of a prime pair. *he process of identifying nonprime pairs along the infinite course of each doubled number line may be conceived as a sieving operation, but once a particular pair has been found to have a composite, no further consideration need be givenA having one #$ two composites in a pair makes no difference in this analysis.

The &roo% that 9 : " &rime &airs Are *n%inite in Number

*he proof for the infinitude of k B 2 prime pairs follows that for the infinitude of twin primes. *wins are but two apart so there can be no intervening primes due to that specific separation. *he prime 2 precedes all twin primes, so it is not relevant. Among the k B 2 pairings, only 3,> has an intervening prime, so it can be ignored as 3,:,> is the only case of three consecutive odd primes, as the odd composites of 3 break up all other opportunities to have three consecutive odd primes. If the first and third members of a set of three consecutive odd numbers are primes, the middle member of that set must be an odd composite of three. *he primeKfalse prime ("K<'") algorithm, the initial data for which appears in the preceding article)s *able IF,3 works as easily with k B 2 pairs as it does with twin (k B 4) primes. *he "K<'" strategy arithmetically eliminates more possible pairings than do the composites of real primes alone, and because the algorithm produces predictable results through infinity, there must therefore be an infinite number of k B 2 prime pairings because there will be more of them than there are pairings allowed by the "K<'" algorithm, which provides an unending supply of paired primes, as was demonstrated in the author)s preceding article on the twin prime con8ecture. > *he proof for k B 2 follows the same steps as that for twin primes, so they will not be repeated here but can be referenced in that preceding article. All the remaining de"olignac prime pairings, where k O 2, however, introduce a new +uestion to be resolved# do intervening primes (like the : in the 3,:,> set) limit the possible infinitude for k O 2 pairingsW 2here k O 2, intervening primes would rule out sets of various values for kA de"olignac specified consecutive primes, so while all values for intervening sets would be easier to demonstrate of intervening primes could be ignored, the same is not true where intervening primes dis+ualify a particular match'up for a k O 2 value. 1uch situations will be e%amined in "art ..

Notes
4

2olframAlpha e%presses the problem as Ievery even number is the difference of two consecutive primes in infinitely many ways.J http#KKwolframalpha.comKinputKWiBdeC"olignac)sCcon8ecture <or e%ample, 6 e+uals >'3, 44'>, 4>'43, etc.
2

<or those not as familiar with the parlance, if k B 4, then 2k B 2 and two is the gap for twin primes. *he author dealt with twin primes in his preceding article, The Twin 1rime Con%ecture8 A Structural Approach.
3

An infinite +uantity minus a finite +uantity must, perforce, yield an infinite result, lest an infinite result should become the addition of two finite numbers, making the infinite number thereby finite.
6

The Twin 1rime Con%ecture8 A Structural Approach. Ibid.

>;
3

*he primeKfalse'prime algorithm is used to eliminate a greater number of pairs than could be achieved using the composites of only true primes. In reality, the false'primes are already composites of smaller primes, but by employing them in the calculations, they reduce the number of match'ups that could be paired primes for a given value of k. *heir use also guarantees a certain predictability that is not available with primes aloneA all odd numbers are treated as if they were primes, which (when their s+uares are reached along the paired number lines) would then generate composites that more effectively limit the possible number of paired primes and do so at a rate that can be calculated because the location of all odd numbers is known whereas primes do not follow a regular pattern.
>

*he proof for kB2 becomes a restatement of that for k B 4. &verything remains the same e%cept for the e%clusion of 3, :, >, as 3 and > are not consecutive primes. 0o other progression of three consecutive primes of the form p, p C 2, and p C 6 is possible.

>5

A /pe'ial Note Con'erning &aired@&rime &roo%s

c. 201/ *hese proofs concerning the three cases of paired primes (twins, k B 2, and k O 2) have not directly demonstrated that such primes are infinite in number. .ased on an algorithm that initially considers each pairing of numbers along a double number line to be paired primes (at the appropriate numerical gap from each other), composites then eliminate them as paired primes whenever one member of a given pair winds up as a composite of a prime of lesser magnitude. .oth members of a given pair may be composites of lesser primes, but only the composite of the least of those two primes that generated the composites that matched up with the members of the two paired numbers is used to eliminate the pairA the other composite and its prime are inconse+uential. 2hat the proofs generate is simple# if a more difficult'to'escape barrier to the e%istence of paired primes leaves an infinite number of prime pairs in its wake, then the true number of paired primes in each of the three cases must be infinite. *he barrier selected by the author to be more difficult to pass through treats each odd number as a prime, which then is used in a calculation to determine of its supposed composites could block out paired primes if such false primes were real primes. <or e%ample, the composites of 3 block 2K3s of paired numbers from being prime pairs and then : and > remove 2K:s and then 2K>s of the succeeding remainders from being prime pairs, 5 then is counted as a prime in the calculations, removing 2K5s of the ne%t succeeding remainder at the appropriate point. *he algorithm employed demonstrates that the false primes and their numerical fiction of composites cannot remove all potential prime pairs through any given point and that they never will be able to do so through any conceivable point due to the pattern that they infinitely follow down the number line. *he author)s proof of $oldbach)s (on8ecture (previously in this section) also follows a strategy of setting up a more difficult barrier for its prime pairs then demonstrating that that more difficult barrier will still be unable to keep paired primes from summing to any even number. If more difficult to overcome barriers cannot eliminate a single even number as proposed by the (on8ecture, then the (on8ecture must be true.

;7

&art **+ /'ien'e

;4

A%%&ie+ <a!he(a!ics an+ Ph sics

Feno of 0lea created series of now-famous parado-es that sought to defend the philosophical viewpoint that the then-*nown universe as a single entity in which motion and divisibility were illusions. That philosophical contention, *nown as the 0lean School, has since been generally re%ected, though quantum mechanics holds out tantali5ing hints that there may be some truth to that viewpoint at the smallest levels of e-istence within the universe. The following paper disputes several of Feno!s parado-es and it presents a new argument against his &letcher!s 1arado- 2or 1arado- of the Arrow3 based upon a calculable truth that even nondimensional instants of time carry an imprint or signature where motion e-ists.

;2

Beno.s &aradoxes+ Dis'o8ering ,otion.s /ignature at a Dimensionless *nstant o% Time

c. 2012

Beno.s &aradoxes
Teno of &lea (alt. spelling Yeno, ca. 657'637 ..(.) created a series of parado%es that ostensibly demonstrated the difficulties inherent in working with concepts involving infinity and they supported the philosophical contention that motion and divisibility were illusions, that the universe is singular, eternal, and unchanging.4 is parado%es have led to controversies in the mathematical and philosophical worlds which linger X a bit X today. A member of the &leatic 1chool founded by Tenophanes and championed by Teno)s mentor "armenides in southern Italy (an area then known as =agna $raecia), Teno supported the school)s doctrine of Iall is one,J crafting his parado%es to counter those devised by philosophers who opposed "armenides) ideas. &ven though the &leans believed that motion and divisibility were illusions, they applied considerable intellect to their philosophical arguments, as witnessed by the continuing disagreements over the solution of Teno)s parado%es. Teno employed the techni+ue of reducto absurdium, challenging opponents) arguments and supporting his own through proof by contradiction. Teno devised an estimated 67 pu!!les, now termed parado%es, to support the &leatic philosophy, though most of those pu!!les were variations on 8ust several themes. is only known work, 0picheivemata, was a compendium of those pu!!les. =ost of his original te%t has unfortunately been lost, like many other ancient treatisesA only 277 words of it yet remain. 2 2hat the modern world knows of Teno)s parado%es has arrived via other $reek philosopher'scientists, including Aristotle and "lato. 2ith seemingly nothing left of Teno)s 0picheivemata, and with the general lapse of learning in &urope during the @ark Ages, Teno)s legacy dwelt in obscurity until his work was populari!ed by .ertrand 9ussell and ?ewis (arroll. 2ith that populari!ation, four of Teno)s parado%es have become generally familiar today# o o o o The /ichotomy X which argues that absolute motion is impossibleA The Achilles X relative motion is likewise impossibleA The Arrow (or The &letcher!s 1arado-) X time cannot be divisibleA and, The Stadium X half the time is e+ual to twice the time.

*his paper will briefly e%amine The /ichotomy and The &letcher!s 1arado- to summari!e Teno)s reasoning behind them. After challenging the two parado%es along classical lines of opposition to them, the paper will present a new argument against The Arrow that demonstrates that motion can be perceived at a dimensionless instant of time, which interestingly enough opens the door a tiny crack to uncover a little +uantum weirdness in the macro world.

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No &aradox Exists 4ith The Dich#!#(

In The /ichotomy, Teno proposed that before a person could traverse a given distance, he would first have to cross half that distance. .ut before that person could cross half of the initial distance, he would first have to cover half of that first half, and before that could take place, he would have to move across half of the first +uarter of the distance. As any distance can be infinitely subdivided into ever' smaller halves, motion would become impossible under The /ichotomy because the individual attempting to move could never initiate his 8ourney as he would first be compelled to take an infinitely small step that e+ualed !ero. If !ero distance becomes the first step, then no motion could be possible and our world would become an illusion of divisibility and motion. owever, no parado% e%ists.3 *o demonstrate that contention and, coincidingly, that motion and divisibility are not illusions, Teno)s /ichotomy can be recast into its alternative version that instead of barring the initiation of motion, it keeps any 8ourney, however short, from ever being completed, again due to an infinite subdivision of the proposed 8ourney into ever'smaller segments. (hanging that aspect of the problem will make the absence of an actual parado% clearer, and what can be discerned from that recasting will then be applied to Teno)s primary format. In that recasting, the perple%ed traveler would first be forced to cover half of his proposed 8ourney, then cross half of the remaining distance, and then half of what yet remained, ad infinitum. In that manner, an infinite number of steps, with a last step of !ero, would be re+uired to complete any 8ourney, regardless of their physical length , thereby erecting, from Teno)s perspective, an unspannable barrier to the completion of any movement from one point to another. Teno)s alternative parado% ultimately breaks down because the $reek philosopher adroitly confused the process of infinite subdivision with motion. *hey are not e+uivalents, or even complementary operations. 1omeone giving thought to the parado% might not initially catch that distinction because it is easy to assume that the process of infinite subdivision re+uires time, so he or she might think that anyone performing an infinite series of subdivisions and traversings thereof must consume an infinite amount of time, as each subdivision re+uires some finite time for its completion, making the total process infinitely long. Infinite subdivision, however, e%ists outside of time. 2hat does that meanW 2hile the application of mathematics to a problem re+uires time for its completion, and mathematics would fre+uently employ numbers in the solutions to problems, no number has any temporal aspect simply as a number. A number is dimensionless until it is used or applied in some manner that, for e%ample, defines a dimension or is used for counting. Infinite subdivision is likewise an intellectual concept that is not performed as an everyday, real' world process. 2hile any distance could be infinitely subdivided, it is not how motion progresses. =otion involves moving from some starting point to a finishing point. In between those two points lies a measurable distance. A person moving between those two points has speed or velocity (two similar, but not identical concepts, as velocity involves a vector). If the course between the two points is a straight line, both speed and velocity would take the distance covered by the person in moving from the start to the finish and divide it by the time, yielding a value that can be e%pressed, for e%ample, in miles per hour or centimeters per second. &nergy is e%pended moving from the initial to the final point and time passes. 6 Mne can be said to cross any mental subdivisions of a given distance, but such subdivisions would be crossed in a time that is a function of distance divided by speed. *hus, infinitesimally small distances would be crossed in infinitesimally short time intervals. In contrast, Teno)s parado% assumes that all subdivisions of a distance must apparently be delineated and crossed in finite times so that crossing an infinite number of such subdivisions would re+uire an infinite amount of timeA at a minimum there would be some !ero'distance segment (a point) that could not be crossed as no motion could occur in such a segment. *he process of infinite subdivision is thereby confused to create a parado% in which no distance could ever be fully crossed. In The /ichotomy Teno poses the impossible task of ever being able to start because the process of infinite subdivision re+uires the individual to first cross an initial subdivision of !ero before being able to cross any other subdivisions of the total distance. .ut as seen in the alternative above, motion progresses with a speed that is determined by dividing the distance by the time e%pended. An infinitesimally small distance would re+uire an infinitesimally small time to cross, given any normal average speed. Infinite subdivision is not a process undertaken by the traveler but rather only by the mathematician or philosopher in a thought'e%periment. 0othing is ever actually infinitely subdivided in the physical world.

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As stated, motion is movement between two definable, essentially ad8oining points X the start and the finish. If infinite subdivision could somehow decrease the distance between two points to the e%tent that they become one dimensionless point, there would then theoretically be no motion at that ultimate, dimensionless subdivision (though, technically speaking, no subdivision would yield 8ust a point because half of something cannot be nothingA that would make all distances e+uivalent to nothing as infinite subdivision should then ultimately yield nothing but strings of dimensionless points along any course of travel, making any motion thereby impossible). 1uch an outcome is what Teno cleverly argued would result if the universe were not a singular, indivisible entity. Teno appeared to be arguing that is the outcome that would result from any attempt at motion, but assuming both that an infinite number of steps is re+uired for any distance and that any trip would be barred from being initiated because any first or subse+uent step would be limited to covering a !ero distance, Teno confused the issue for his readers because no infinite number of subdivisions would ever yield a distance e+ual to a dimensionless point and because, as pointed out above, infinitesimal subdivisions would re+uire only infinitesimal amounts of time to cross, given a finite speed of motion. *o summari!e# motion occurs between dimensionless points, not within them, because they are artificial constructs which possess no internal passage of time. Teno attempted to defend the belief that all motion was illusory because any distance was a collection of dimensionless points that could not be crossed and because infinite subdivision produced an infinite succession of divisions of a distance that would consume infinite time in their crossing, which he reasoned must be impossible.

The Flet'her.s &aradox

*he +uestion of whether or not motion e%ists was dealt with by Teno through The &letcher!s 1arado-. Teno perceived that at any given dimensionless instant of time, the arrow could not be in motion. As the arrow must move through a series of dimensionless moments of time, passing from one definable point to another, no motion could take place within any of those dimensionless moments, making motion impossible if time is composed of (merely) a series of moments. Aristotle sums up the parado%, e%plaining that IIf everything when it occupies an e+ual space is at rest, and if that which is in locomotion is always occupying such a space at any moment, the flying arrow is therefore motionless.J : *ime must, in Teno)s usage in his parado%, consist of an infinite string of dimensionless moments. 2ith no motion taking place in any of them, motion must, as a conse+uence, be an illusion. *he initial, fairly obvious solution parallels that for The /ichotomyA dividing time into dimensionless units is like dividing space through infinite subdivision. 1uch division is an intellectual, mathematical process, but it is divorced from movement in the physical world. @imensionless instants of time do not comprise time any more than dimensionless points comprise distance or a line. *he location of a point in either space or time can be defined, but it has no real e%istence because it has no dimension. "oints (in space or time) are theoretical constructs that enable mathematicians and physicists to make calculations regarding processes in the physical world. *hose dimensionless points provide referencesA 8ust as calculations are made ignoring forces like gravity and friction to calculate ideal cases involving another property, the instant or moment of time has been employed as an intellectual tool to enable calculations to be made without the results being blurred by motion across time and space. Net, even though the instant of time is a theoretical construct, motion can, in a fashion, be perceived at that construct. *hat ability to perceive motion as part of an instant overturns Teno)s parado% through a second argument that, by means of mathematical e%position, illustrates how an observer Psees) an ob8ect)s motion that accompanies, or is attached to, any given dimensionless instant. 1uch motion is not seen in the normal sense as progressing along the path of travel, but it does leave an almost, but not totally, imperceptible trace on that moment, verifying that motion is in progress. Anything in motion carries an observable characteristic that sets it apart from an identical ob8ect or entity that is not in motion. A recogni!able difference thereby e%ists between an ob8ect in motion and one at rest relative to an observer. *he <letcher)s "arado% sets up a problem concerning the divisibility of time that parallels that of the divisibility of space. Teno maintains that for motion to take place, an ob8ect X specifically an arrow in this parado% X must move from the place it occupies at one moment to some other place at some other moment. In the case of the arrow, Teno contends that no motion occurs within any dimensionless moment,

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so therefore the arrow cannot be in motion. 9egardless of which moment is selected for e%amination, no motion ought to be detected according to Teno. *he ancient $reeks, as talented as they were, could not measure the speed of lightA they did not even reali!e that light had a speed of propagation. =odern scientists have a fairly good understanding of its speed and have defined it to be e%actly 255,>52,6:; kmKsec. .ut apparently until now no one has had a means for detecting motion at a dimensionless moment of time. 2ith no duration to an instant, there has theoretically been no way to measure motion, even motion with the swiftness of light, because motion re+uires time for an e%penditure of energy to generate or sustain it. 0onetheless, motion is measurable at (though not across or within) a specific instant of time, even if the technology for doing so must advance for the observation to be actually made at the low speeds common in the everyday physical world. A thought'e%periment illustrates how that observation can be accomplished. *he e%periment will also show how the <letcher)s "arado% is resolved by demonstrating that an arrow)s motion can be observed at a fro!en moment of time, thereby overturning Teno)s contention that since motion cannot be seen, it must therefore not e%ist.

,easuring ,otion a! an *nstant

Teno)s arrow is taken as the departure point for a thought'e%periment that demonstrates that, contrary to Teno)s understanding, motion can be observed at a dimensionless instant of time, and that e%periment will then be e%trapolated to note where a little touch of +uantum weirdness can be found in the macro world. <or the e%periment, the arrow will be arbitrarily defined as one meter in length and its midpoint will be marked e%actly by a dimensionless point. It will travel at a constant velocity of 477 kmKhr. along a straight flight path. *hat midpoint will be located at point = for purposes of the e%periment. *he effects of gravity and any air or wind resistance will be ignored for simplicity of calculation, though those factors would have to be worked into any calculations involved in a laboratory performance of the e%periment. <igure I illustrates that thought'e%periment. In it an observer (at M) is located 47 m from the midpoint at the instant that a line drawn from M to = would be perpendicular to the arrow)s path of travel. *he arrow)s point (located at " 4) thereby forms the right triangle M=" 4. "2 would be a point behind "4 along the arrow)s path of travel that creates the line " 2"4, which represents the visible length compression of the front half of the arrow due to the arrow)s straight'line motion from the observer)s left to his right at 477 kmKhr. 9 would be a point at the arrow)s rear, situated at the end of the arrow at the point in time when M and = form the described right triangle)s longer leg (M=). M=, at 47 m, is the longer of the triangle)s two legs (M= and =" 4). M"4 meanwhile serves as that right triangle)s hypotenuse. *he key point here is that M" 4 is slightly longer than M=, specifically by 4.2: cm (rounded) as calculated using the "ythagorean *heorem. At the specified moment chosen for the thought'e%periment, = is the closest point along the arrow)s path of flight to the e%periment)s observer at point M. *hat means that the light'carried image of the arrow)s midpoint at = that reaches the observer at M arrives before the light and the corresponding image of the arrow)s point at " 4 that started simultaneously from its position as the midpoint image started from =. *he image from " 4 arrives later, however, because it had to travel a path that is 4.2: cm longer. *herefore, from the observer)s viewpoint, the arrow)s point has not yet reached the position on the diagram defined as " 4, but is rather seen at point "2, which is a point at an as'yet unspecified position ever'so'slightly behind " 4)s actual position but is situated so that the light, and the point)s image from its earlier arrival at " 2, arrives at the same time that the midpoint)s image does at M. *he difference is e%ceptionally miniscule, but it is real. *hat means that the front half of an arrow in motion, under the conditions specified, must appear shorter, or compressed, to an observer than an identical 4 m long arrow at rest at e%actly the same distance from the observer. Applying similar logic, it can be shown that the end of the arrow, physically at 9 4 when the midpoint is at =, has to start from an earlier point in time than the image)s departure time from = (when the rear of the arrow was at 9 2) to arrive at M at the same time as the midpoint)s image at =A the back half of the arrow will therefore appear lengthened or e%panded in comparison with a stationary arrow. *hat may seem a bit odd, but it really is not. *he stationary arrow would also have different arrival times for a given instant)s image from " 4 than it would for the image coming to the observer from =, but no image compression would take place because the image seen at a given point in time from " 4 would have started earlier than the image from =. If the arrow is stationary, the complete image would

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keep reinforcing itself even though the starting times from different places along the arrow)s length would have begun at earlier times than the shortest possible pathway from = to the observer at M. If that seems at all confusing, consider two different types of energy travelling from the same point to the same observer, but at different speeds. *he visible flash and smoke from a track meet starter)s gun fired at a track)s 277 m mark are seen by timers at the finish line before they can hear the sound of the gun firing. *he sound wave arrives later than the light carrying the image, which means that when the sound wave arrives at the timers) positions at the finish line, they are already seeing images that began their path to the timers later than the sound waves started. A timer is therefore hearing something that happened further in the past than the light that arrives at the same moment. Mne may think of such situations as gateways into slightly different pasts. *he arrow in motion under the thought'e%periment)s conditions sees a midpoint and a front point whose light'carried images

Figure * /impli%ied Diagram o% Apparent 2isual Compression

R M P2 >>--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------> |_| / / | / / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / | / |/ |/ LLLLL V _____ observer)s visual plane P1

M
?ote8 /iagram not drawn to scale

began their 8ourneys to the observer at different points in time in order to simultaneously arrive at the observer)s position. *he image from "4 that began at the same time as the light'carried image from = will not arrive until a later instant because it has 4.2: cm further to travel. *he front half of the arrow in motion will therefore appear ever'so'slightly shorter, or compressed in length, than the arrow that is not in

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motion. *hat tiny, but calculable, compression would provide the evidence that a given arrow is in motionA one can IseeJ motion a! a given dimensionless motion in time because, with sensitive enough e+uipment, one could measure that compression. *hat compression is the motion that one sees at the dimensionless instant. Teno was therefore wrong because one could, with advanced'enough e+uipment observe the effect of motion at a dimensionless moment, so the parado% dissolves into the nothingness of a failed idea. *he ancients of Teno)s time did not understand the speed of light and what individuals actually saw. ?ight carrying images to an observer serves, in a sense, as a time machine because time must pass for any image to reach an observerA more distant ob8ects are further in the past than closer ones, which is a point well' understood by astronomers.

Cal'ulating Apparent Compression

A mathematical relationship can be established that relates the difference between " 4 and "2, which represents the apparent compression of the front half of the arrow, to the velocity of the arrow times the difference in the length of M=" 4)s hypotenuse minus the M= leg, all divided by the speed of light, beginning with# arrow velocity compression) speed o% light O&$ *h %#!enuse) S O, *&e") 2hat this says is that the arrow)s travel time from " 2 to "4 will be controlled by the difference between the length of the hypotenuse and the length of the specified leg and the amount of time re+uired for light to travel their different distances. It would not take long for light to travel the difference in distance between those two sides of M=" 4, which means that there would be little time elapsing between the arrow)s point moving from "2 to "4, resulting in an almost miniscule distance being travelled between " 2 and "4 at the arrow)s slower speed of 477 kmKhr. An algebraic e%pression of that relationship, with the variables rearranged for calculation of the apparent compression of the arrow)s front half with ( a e+ual to the apparent length of the compression (or reduction in front'half length, as represented by "4 X "2), becomes# Ca 1olving# Ca Ca Ca : >".;;C x $#) 'mNse'?>$ ##$."6A 'm S $ ###.### 'm? ).# x $#$# 'mNse' : >".;;C x $#) 'mNse'?>$."6A 'm? ).# x $#$# 'mNse' : $.$<; x $#@; 'm : 8 >O&$ S O,? ' varies as P1 - P2 (or apparent

*his figure of 4.4:> % 47'>cm represents motion)s signature on the arrow in flight under the conditions specified and is represented by the line segment " 4"2, which is greatly e%aggerated in <igure I. It is the apparent foreshortening or compression of the front half of the arrowA while it is e%tremely minute, its magnitude can be calculated, making it a real +uantity and, as such, it contradicts Teno)s contention that, since motion cannot be seen at a dimensionless instant of time, motion cannot be real because time consists of a string of such instants. =otion)s signature could be seen with technologically advanced enough e+uipment, so the parado% falls because motion could be determined at a dimensionless instant of time. 2hat would be seen is a bit counterintuitive X a shortening of the front half of the arrow in the direction opposite to its path of flight, but it happens due to the different distances that light, and therefore the arrow)s image, must travel from different parts of the arrow in the thought'e%periment as it is

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conceived. 2hat one sees are images of parts (in reality an infinite number of parts) from ever'so minutely different times blending together to produce the image of the arrow that the observer sees. 0ow, an astute observer would note that another calculation must be made before the issue can be fully and finally resolved. .ased upon the mathematics of the "ythagorean *heorem, M" 4 is minutely longer than M"2 due to "4"2 being a calculable reduction of " 4=. At the velocity of the arrow in this e%periment, it actually does not amount to a difference that would change the e%periment)s conclusion. *o demonstrate, calculations will be done side'by'side comparing the time the arrow)s point takes to travel from "2 to "4 versus the difference in time that light would take to cover the difference in length of M" 4 (earlier calculated to be 4,774.2652 cm) and the length of M" 2 (calculated to be 4,774.2654 cm utili!ing "ythagoras)s e%ceptionally wonderful theorem). *he formula for velocity >8 : d? will be used to compare t the travel times involved# Arro4 point tra8el time &" to &$ t : d 8 t : $.$<1C x $#@C 'm ".";C x $#) 'mNse' t : 6.$16$ x $#@$" se' >O&$ S O&"?>'? t : d 8 t : $.# x $#@6 'm ).# x $#$#'mNse' t : ).)))) x $#@$< se'

*he arrow point travel time from "2 to "4 is 4.2652 % 473 times greater than the time that light would re+uire to cross a distance e+ual to M"4 X M"2. A slight alteration of the "4"2 distance would be needed to ad8ust the relationships so that the image from the ad8usted " 2 position would arrive at the observer at the same time that the midpoint)s image arrived from =, but it is not critical to the conclusion reached here about the IvisibilityJ of motion at a dimensionless instant of time. As one might surmise from the particulars of the thought'e%periment, the numerical results could be changed by altering the e%periment)s parameters, though motion would still leave an imprint at a dimensionless instant of time. An ob8ect)s closest point to its observer could be changed to any point on the ob8ectA it could even be replaced by a different ob8ect, but an observer would still note either a compression in front of the nearest point, a lengthening behind that point, or both. *he si!e of the e%perimental ob8ect can be varied to any degree desired as could its distance from the observer. *he ob8ect could meanwhile be moving towards the observer or on a path away from him. *he ob8ect)s path need not even be straightA it could be in orbit around the observer or an astronomical body on which the observer is located. All cases would demonstrate apparent compression andKor lengtheningKe%pansion. *he following calculation illustrates one of many different possibilities. In it, the arrow and all of the other parameters from the original thought'e%periment are retained, but its velocity is increased to 7.>:c# Ca : 8>O&$ S O,? ' Ca : >"."< x $#$# 'mNse'?>$ ##$."6A 'm S $ ###.### 'm? ).# x $#$# 'mNse' Ca : >"."< x $#$# 'mNse'?> $."6A 'm? ).# x $#$#'mNse' Ca : .A)1C 'm At high velocities, approaching that of light, the apparent compression (and, likewise, the apparent e%pansion behind the midpoint in this e%periment) becomes very visible. *here would be a larger ad8ustment for the different lengths of M"4 and M"2, but as M"2OM= due to the "ythagorean *heorem, there

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will be a noticeable compressionKe%pansion effect and a clear refutation of Teno)s reasoning in the <letcher)s "arado%.

A Bit o% Quantum Deirdness

Quantum weirdness occurs at the ultra'small level of atoms and subatomic particles. Mne of the +uandaries of +uantum mechanics arises with the locationKvelocity problem# an observer can determine either the location or the velocity of a particle ' but not both X because measuring one of those characteristics mediates the other. @ue to forces and interactions, physicists cannot even predict a particle)s location with great accuracy because too many factors need to be controlled. *he same problem arises with Teno)s arrow. I1eeingJ the arrow, even at a dimensionless instant of time, does not help an observer predict its future location. @ue to the compressionKe%pansion phenomenon resulting from motion, different possible velocities for the arrow, different distances from an observer, and different angular relationships between the arrow and the observer, the e%act location of the arrow cannot be pinpointed at any given moment because what is IseenJ is in the past, and different parts of any ob8ect so observed are in slightly different pasts. *he differences in observed and true location may be e%tremely small, but their e%istence illustrates how, due to 8ust this particular observational phenomenon, things are 8ust not where they ought to be. *he e%istence of the compressionKe%pansion observational phenomenon crushes the <letcher)s "arado% because motion)s signature can be calculated and, with improving nanotechnology tools, will be measurable. Apparent compression and e%pansion do not create much of a problem with the si!es and speeds that normally e%ist in the macro world, being well within the tolerances of most operating systems found at the macro level. .ut such differences could become important at the nanotech scale when high velocities are involved. It is now 8ust a thought, but the time approaches when such concerns will become critical.

Notes
4

*he &lean 1chool proposed that everything was one, that motion was an illusion, and that most things perceived were likewise illusions. Teno attempted to refute the non'&leans by demonstrating the impossibilities behind their thinking, that, for e%ample, the divisibility of space leads to the conclusion that motion is impossible. 2 http#KKwww.masthcs.orgKanalysisKrealsKhistoryK!eno.html 3 Aristotle was an early $reek philosopher'scientist who presented a series of arguments against Teno)s parado%es, by pointing out fallacies in his logic (1hysics). 6 "hysicists still debate the nature of timeA it is part of &instein)s space'time continuum, but how it functions is still open to discussion. : Aristotle, 1hysics, 235b37. 3 *he rounded figure used herein for the speed of light is the same for light travelling in a vacuum as it is for light travelling through &arth)s atmosphere.

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A Chan"e #4 Pace
As an astronomy student and laboratory assistant, the author often wondered why Benus was so inhospitable to life while 0arth was the only *nown home for it in the Solar System. Ges, Benus is closer to the Sun, but it is still beyond the inner edge of what astronomers call the 69oldiloc*s Hone,7 where life ought to be possible. 4t would be hotter than its near-twin, the 0arth, but temperatures there should have been within the range possible for life and its polar regions would probably not be much warmer than the tropics on 0arth+ it ought to be habitable. #owever, with temperatures hot enough to melt lead and a poisonous>cho*ing atmosphere of sulphuric acid and carbon dio-ide, what might have been apparently never was, or at most did not last for long. Dhat could have driven Benus down a pathway so different from that of 0arth < or, conversely and critically for the search for life elsewhere < what might have enabled 0arth to develop so differently from Benus. An insight into the cause or causes of those differences might help astronomers gauge the possibility for success for the S0T4 pro%ect, the Search for 0-tra-Terrestrial 4ntelligence. 4t is %ust possible that Benus is the norm for what will li*ely be many 0arth-si5ed planets to be discovered by astronomers employing ever-advancing technology. The following brief article s*etches out several reasons for the differences between the two planets and proposes the root cause behind those differences. &uture research into the questions touched upon by the article will undoubtedly bring new theories, clarifications, and insights as part of the ongoing process of science. 4t is the first of a pro%ected group of pieces concerning science that will comprise a modest section of this e-boo*, which is still under construction. 0n%oy the article and consider its implications.

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*mpli'ations o% 2enus Being a Failed Home %or 3i%e

c. 2011

*ntrodu'tion
Appreciation for the role that lunar gravity has played in making &arth more hospitable to life has been increasing in recent years. It has been generally accepted that having the =oon in orbit around &arth has stabili!ed its a%ial tilt, keeping the planet more consistently around a value X 23 o 2>) X that provides seasonal variations without e%tremes, as is the current case with Fenus and was apparently the case with =ars in that planet)s geological past. 1cientists have likewise theoretically connected tidal pools that fluctuate daily with the evolution of life on &arth. (omputer simulations that have modeled a violent lunar birth have likewise now achieved widespread acceptance in the astronomical community. =any theories take time to attain acceptance in the general scientific community. Mne of those, which plays a critical role in this paper, was Alfred 2egener)s 454: book, *he origin of continents and oceans (originally published in $erman), that presented the ideas on tectonics and continental drift that he first proposed in 4542. is ideas did not gain academic credibility until fifty years later, when marine geology and the discovery that the continents appeared to move relative to the 0orth "ole forced geologists to adopt 2egener)s ideas as the best e%planation for the phenomena that they were discovering. *hat the =oon)s e%istence has been necessary, or at least e%tremely beneficial, for the development of life on &arth is now gaining general acceptance. *he ensuing paper will optimistically add another credential to our satellite)s resume of accomplishments in fostering life on &arth. It will do so in the conte%t of the failure of life to take hold on &arth)s nearest planetary neighbor, Fenus. *his paper, in an attempt to provide the broad conte%t for the theories that it e%presses, will first e%plore planetary evolution and the =oon)s connection to it, contrasting geological and biological conditions on &arth and Fenus, which the author dubs Ithe failed home for life,J leaving the possibility that Fenus may well have once harbored life forms similar to those found on &arth during the early days of biological evolution on our planet. It will then move forward, e%plaining a broader scope for the &arth'=oon relationship than is currently accepted. ow &arth is being affected by the evolution and aging of that relationship will be tied into the generally accepted e%planation of what went wrong for life on Fenus and how Fenus, and not &arth, might provide the basic model for the viability of life on the escalating number of e%tra'solar planets being discovered.

Dhy Not T4in EarthsQ

(omparing what we know about &arth and Fenus, it would seem that the latter ought to be a reasonable candidate for life beyond the &arth, but that is e%tremely far from reality. If a hell e%ists in the 1olar 1ystem, it e%ists on our nearest planetary neighbor. ?ead can melt on its surface and the atmosphere is an inhospitable mi% of an e%tremely thick (M2 shroud topped by a sulphuric acid cloud cover. *able I sets forth important similarities and differences between the two planets including the two stark differences of temperature and present'day atmospheric contentA even a casual review of the table)s data would suggest that life ought to have achieved a beachhead on our closest planetary neighbor ' if our understanding of solar system history is correct ' had it not been for the

52
(ytherean$ surface temperature and atmosphere. 1omething therefore must have happened differently on the two planets for &arth to have travelled one path towards an abundance of life forms and Fenus another, completely different trail towards hostility to terrestrial'type life.

Table * Comparing Earth and 2enus Cha$ac!e$is!ic

Distan'e %rom /un Eelati8e *nsolation ,ean /ur%a'e Temperature &lanetary Diameter ,ass 7lobal /tru'ture Contemporary Atmospheri' Composition Early Atmospheri' Composition 2ol'anism

Ea$!h
465.3 % 473 km (4.77 A/) Earth : $.# $<o C 42,>:3 km &arth B 4.77 thin crust, mantle, molten outer 'ore solid inner core N " O" H"O tra'e CO" , e

=enus
47;.2 % 473 km (7.>2 A/) $.A x Earth 616o C 42,476 km 7.;2 % &arth thin crust (but thicker than &arth)s), mantle, solid core CO" H"/O6 then probably the same as &arth)s hot spots

a'ti8e plate te'toni's, hot spots

Cratering minorA mostly weathered, subducted minorA volcanic resurfacing LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL /igni%i'ant di%%eren'es highlighted in red

&%amining *able I)s data, it is obvious that insolation, or the amount of solar radiation received at our neighbor)s distance from the 1un is almost twice as great as that received by the &arth, but those average figures do not take into consideration either substantial variations on each planet due to e+uatorial versus polar insolation levels or for the long (ytherean night, which ought to contribute to atmospheric and surface cooling. &arth)s a%ial tilt of 23.:o allows for fro!en polar !ones and torrid e+uatorial conditions. *he (ytherean tilt of 4>>.3 o, combined with its long nights, should produce a variation there also, leaving large regions seasonally temperate, even if 8ust barely by &arth standards. istorically, the (ytherean a%ial tilt was not likely 4>> o at all timesA lacking a stabili!ing satellite, it probably varied over time, even if a collision knocked it into a greater tilt at some point in its past. /nfortunately for the cause of life, all of Fenus is e%cessively hot due to the high atmospheric (M 2 content. 2hile there is no detectable molecular o%ygen in Fenus)s atmosphere, considerable o%ygen is bound molecularly to (ytherean carbon to produce the planet)s crushing atmospheric pressure and the hot'house effect that results from carbon dio%ide)s ability, as a greenhouse gas, to trap heat. 1omething happened differently on the two planets to smother Fenus in that suffocating (M2 while &arth was left with 8ust enough (M 2 to support plant life while substantial molecular o%ygen facilitated the rise of the animals. *here appears to be general agreement in planetary astronomy that active plate tectonics on &arth, contrasted with now inactive tectonics on Fenus, is the significant difference between the

53
two planets," but the root cause behind &arth)s active plate tectonics versus Fenus) now apparent lack thereof remains an open +uestion. *he following analysis proposes that the e%istence of &arth)s large lunar companion is the basic cause for the &arth)s hospitable conditions for life and it suggests that this finding will have implications in the search for intelligent life beyond the 1olar 1ystem (1&*I) and in the determination of the remaining time of habitability for life on &arth.

Brie% &lanetary Histories

=uch of the geological histories of &arth and Fenus, based upon the best and latest scientific evidence, would have the two neighbors e%periencing many similar creative processes. .oth undoubtedly began through the aggregation of dust, then planetesimals, planetoids, and finally protoplanets, as is currently taking place around younger stars such as .eta 1ectoris. &arth wound up somewhat larger than Fenus, but the difference is very modest. At some point in its very early history &arth was hit a glancing blow by a =ars'si!ed protoplanet, with the collision resulting in one or possibly two moons partially comprised of material from the interloper and partially made up of &arth crust and mantle.) The A''retion Era *he four terrestrial planets accreted into rock and metal bodies in which the metal gradually differentiated down into the core of each planet, aided by the heat generated by the accretion process and by gravity. &arth had an early 2 and e atmosphere and probably also had some water. owever, solar radiation would have driven the two lightest elements off into interplanetary space and broken down the stability of the water molecules. 6 $amma rays plus ultraviolet light and other damaging radiation from the 1un would have had an easy time breaking down molecules in the early atmosphere because the &arth)s still undifferentiated core would not have been able to generate the magnetic lines of force that protect the planet today and there would not have been enough o%ygen to create the M3 (o!one) that today blocks out much of the harmful ultraviolet. A strong planetary magnetic field re+uires a spinning, molten metal outer core surrounding a solid inner core for its generationA because their interiors were still in the process of differentiating, none of the early terrestrial planets had inner dynamos capable of generating strong magnetic fields.< Fenus, =ercury, and =ars were undoubtedly molded by the same processes that shaped the &arth during those early times, with differences being modest results of the varying planetary masses and their distances from the 1un, or ,upiter in the case of =ars. 2ith the Asteroid .elt composed primarily of rock or nickelKiron bodies and inner =ercury having a metallic core, planetary compositions were generally similarA no available evidence suggests that the four terrestrial planets formed in any radically different way from each other or that they were formed from significantly different materials.1 2hat is accepted as fact in astronomy today is that the accretion process rapidly assembled the planets through a process of collisions, building ever'larger bodies. At one point in the latter part of the process there were up to 477 planetoids orbiting in the inner 1olar 1ystem. .eing inside the solar system)s ice !one boundary, water would have e%isted in the inner system, but it would not likely have lasted long. As the solar nebula condensed, water would have been gravitationally attracted to the growing planetesimals and been included in the early, merging bodies. *he heat of the collisions that resulted from that accretion process would have driven water X as steam X out of the condensing bodies and into their atmospheres where, due to the lack of magnetospheres in those very early times, radiation would have disassociated the water molecules allowing most of the hydrogen to escape. ; *he accreting planets would have been left very hot, with surfaces comprised of molten rock and minerals. *he entire accretion process took something on the order of 477 million years to complete. C The WBilliard HallX Era =ore planets, planetoids, asteroids, and -uiper bodies e%isted near the end of the Accretion &ra than now remain in the 1olar 1ystem. A ?ikewise, planets did not follow the same orbits that they do today. As they accreted, the planetary bodies began a winnowing process that continued until the illusion of seeming stability that comprises our modern 1olar 1ystem resulted. *he author calls that violent period of planetary collisions the I.illiard allJ &ra because there were so many collisions and planets changing their orbits so dramatically that the 1un)s retinue must have seemed to smash into each other like the balls in a recklessly active billiard parlor. @uring the Accretion &ra, &arth orbited the 1un as a solitary planet prior to ac+uiring its lunar companion. *he protoplanet *heia$# revolved around the 1un in an orbit very close to &arth)s. *heia was a =ars'si!ed ob8ect

56
and gravitational interactions between it and &arth resulted in a collision, modeled by astronomers, that landed a glancing blow on &arth that ripped off terran crust and mantle that then merged with rubble left behind by *heia to form either one or two moons that circled &arth in a tight orbit. $$ &arth)s mantle was reduced in mass and at least some of *heia)s core merged into the &arth, modestly increasing our planet)s mean density. .ecause &arth)s nascent crust and its mantle were still very hot and plastic from the heat of accretion, terran gravity reestablished the planet)s spherical shape within about one day, leaving no scarring apparent today. 2hatever remained of *heia headed out into interstellar territory, its damage done and its blessing bestowed. &arth)s collision with *heia was not an e%ception to business as usual in the solar neighborhood in the late Accretion &ra, when the evolving system was less than 477 million years old. 9ationale and some evidence e%ist to argue that each of the remaining inner planets e%perienced one or more ma8or collisions prior to commencement of the ?ate eavy .ombardment (? .). &ven the =oon, as already noted, had a ma8or collision, which in the =oon)s case merged two satellites travelling in roughly the same orbit, combining a smaller body that now makes up the highlands on the side of the =oon not visible from &arth with the much larger body that comprises most of the mass of today)s =oon in an impact that had a relatively slow closing rate, facilitating a merger rather than a shattering crash. =ercury also suffered a ma8or collision, one that ripped away a considerable portion of its crust and mantle. =ercury)s core had already substantially differentiated, which led to a much higher mean density for the innermost planet, 8ust as the collision that had created the =oon did with &arth. If a moon could have coalesced from the debris of =ercury)s collision, it did not remain in orbit around the planet for very long because the =ercury)s ill 1phere is too small for the innermost planet to retain a moon in competition with the nearby massive solar gravity well.$" =ars e%perienced a series of ma8or collisions, with the most powerful of those carving out the .orealis .asin in the planet)s northern hemisphereA the .asin was only discovered by =ars orbiters. &arth'based observers failed to detect evidence of that collision because the .asin)s edges were depressed and because the depression covered such an immense area. $) *he collisions it suffered reduced the bulk of the 9ed "lanet)s atmosphere, severely restricting its greenhouse capability and leaving the planet cold and dry. $6 *hat leaves only Fenus in the inner system. *he massive tilt of the (ytherean a%is of rotation could be the result of an obli+ue collision with a smaller body that did not have enough mass and relative speed to put sufficient debris into orbit that could coalesce into a moon. Fenus has a slightly lower density than &arth, which lost crustal and mantle materials due to its impact with *heia, thereby giving &arth a resulting higher average density than it had previously possessed. It is therefore unlikely that Fenus lost any appreciable mass due to that collision. *hat proposed collision with Fenus is speculativeA as of the date of this article it has not yet even been modeled, but it is a likely scenario given the amount of material orbiting the 1un in the inner system at that time. (ollisions were thus the norm in the inner 1olar 1ystem of the late Accretion &ra. 2ith more ob8ects in orbit around the 1un in the inner system, the likelihood for collisions was good. ad those ma8or collisions occurred during or after the ? . there would have been clues in the amount of cratering on =ercury, the =oon, and even =ars that would have dated those massive impacts to the ? .. A crucial +uestion does arise with the =oon)s creation# what is the probability that ma8or moons have been created by similar collisions in the !ones that are populated by terrestrial'type planets around other stars. *he answer to that +uestion will have a great deal of influence on where to search for e%tra'terrestrial life once the search technology has been upgraded to the point that the markers for life can be detected on distant earths and on super'earths. The 7iant &lanets <ollowing the initial accretion of 1ol)s ma8or planetary retinue, three outer gas giants are believed to have migrated outward from the 1un, establishing orbits similar to those that they have today. 0eptune, the outermost and third'most massive giant, accreted about 37R closer to the 1un than it is today. According to the 0ice =odel, 0eptune ostensibly accreted inside the orbit of /ranus, and those two planets began a dance that saw them e%change positions.$< After 0eptune)s and /ranus) e%change or in any event about a billion years after the formation of the 1olar 1ystem, 0eptune began its steady drift further outward from the 1un. .eyond it laid the -uiper .odies and the Mort (loud. A little rocket science makes what happened ne%t a little more comprehensible. Applying standard 0ewtonian physics, gravity serves as a function of mass, causing bodies to be attracted towards each other in a process that is strengthened, as they close the gap between them, by the inverse s+uare of the distance that separates them. 0ewton)s 1econd ?aw of =otion Gpublished in his 43;> Phi&#s#%hiae ;a!u$a&is P$inci%ia <a!he(a!icaH e%plains that the mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies are equa&, #%%#si!e, an+ c#'&inea$. (ombining 0ewton)s work on mathematics and physics with -epler)s ?aws of "lanetary =otions, it +uickly becomes evident that the 1olar 1ystem, through a comple% clockwork of ever'moving masses, is held together by

5:
gravity. 9ocket scientists have employed those 0ewtonian principles to give space probes speed boosts through gravitational assists that bring the probes close to planetary bodies to pick up acceleration on their 8ourneys of e%ploration. .ut it must be remembered that if a probe uses a planet)s gravity to pick up a little acceleration, the helpful planet in turn loses a little velocity that is proportional to the masses of the two ob8ects, as is re+uired by the 1econd ?aw. In that way a probe can gain a considerable boost while minimally impacting the planet)s orbital velocityA the difference between a probe)s mass and a planet)s mass is so great that the effect upon the planet)s velocity is infinitesimal. 0eptune hovered on the edge of a wider -uiper .elt, which is believed to have e%tended farther inward during the early years of the 1olar 1ystem than it does today. 2ith appro%imately 4> &arth masses, 0eptune had considerable gravitational impact upon the rock and ice bodies that revolved about the 1un beyond that ice'giant)s then'closer orbital path. 0eptune itself was a rock and ice body, as models of its interior strongly suggest. *here simply was not enough material left beyond 0eptune to create another giant world. .ut 0eptune would not leave the outer 1olar 1ystem at peace. *he planet)s powerful gravity began tugging at the rock and ice bodies that lay out beyond it in deeper space. *hose that could not lock themselves into a simple mathematical resonance with 0eptune Glike "luto)s 2#3 orbital synchronicity with 0eptuneH were drawn inward through 0eptune)s warping of space'time. 1ome of those bodies, including 0eptune)s moon *riton, were captured by one of the outer giants. *he giant'planet satellites with retrograde motion compared with their primary)s e+uatorial rotation are believed to be such captured -uiper bodies.$1 /ranus and 1aturn then provided additional gravitational boosts to the inward'bound -uiper and Mort ob8ects. =assive ,upiter finally either (4) pulled those migrating bodies into itself or into orbit around it, (2) e%pelled them from the 1olar 1ystem, or (3) sent them further sunward. As a result of 0ewton)s 1econd ?aw, 0eptune)s orbit ratcheted outward, as did /ranus) and 1aturn)s to lesser degrees, all due to the acceleration they imparted to the -uiper and Mort bodies dislodged by 0eptune. It is theori!ed that ,upiter)s orbit remained fairly similar to what it had originally been, perhaps actually shrinking by 4' 2R.$; If 0eptune)s distance from the 1un did increase by 37R, or anything close to that figure, a fair amount of mass had to have been gravitationally dislodged by that blue ice'giant and sent sunward. At this 8uncture in the discussion it is important to remember that great amounts of ice, which is a ma8or component of -uiper bodies, thereby streamed sunward after the planets had formed or had almost completely formed.

Dater Arri8es
=any astronomers now believe that the ? . included ob8ects from the ice'rich regions of the 1olar 1ystem brought water to the terrestrial bodies. *here is evidence for ice in deep polar craters on the =oon, $C and =ars seems to have limited amounts of ice on its surface plus evidence for earlier flowing water and shallow seasA $A even =ercury now seems to have small amounts of ice. "# *he =oon and =ercury lack protective atmospheres, so any water that they did ac+uire through the ? . would logically have rapidly evaporated off into spaceA if any was preserved, it would therefore have to be under the surface or in deep craters where sunlight cannot penetrate, as very recent discoveries suggest. 2hile =ars still holds some water from its ancient seas, Fenus has none now evident "$ in contrast with &arth, which has retained massive oceans of that li+uid so essential for life. &vidence was recently announced (Mctober :, 2744, reported online in 0ature) that strengthens the theory that &arth)s large supply of water originated in the -uiper .elt."" (omet artley 2, which likely descended into the inner 1olar 1ystem from the -uiper .elt, has a hydrogen'to'deuterium ratio that matches of the water in &arth)s oceans. 1i% other comets whose I to II ratios have been studies, had a different ratioA however, their source of origination was believed to have been the theori!ed Mort (loud, which lies far beyond the -uiper .elt. ?ead author of the study, "aul artogh of the =a% "lanck Institute for 1olar 1ystem 9esearch, said that the team will have to study other comets to determine if their ratio)s match those of terrestrial water. 1hould additional studies determine a similar I to II ratio for the short'term comets that originate in the -uiper .elt, the .elt will more assuredly stand out as the source of the water in the inner system that would have arrived during the ? .. As .elt ob8ects are mi%tures of rock, ice and other fro!en gasses, their prevalence in the ? . would strengthen the case for the e%istence of water on Fenus following the ? .. *hen it would be 8udged that Fenus had possessed water to help lubricate the planet)s early plate tectonics and +uite possibly have filled oceans, like on &arth, which could have harbored early, primitive life'forms.

53
It is unlikely that the 1un would have evaporated away the entire ancient (ytherean hydrosphere 8ust through insolation. *he 1un has gradually increased its luminosity as it has aged, with Fenus receiving about 27R less insolation at the time of the ? . by current estimates, which in turn suggests that there would have been less chance of the 1un boiling away all of the water Fenus received from collisions with incoming ice'laden bodies. 1omething in addition to solar radiation alone had to be acting upon Fenus, in a way that did not occur on &arth, for Fenus to lose all of its water. *he primary culprit in that loss would, of course, have been the greenhouse effect brought on by the thick, (M2'dominated (ytherean atmosphere. &arth at the same stage of planetary evolution X at about the time of the bombardment of ice'rich bodies X also possessed an atmosphere rich in (M 2, but it did not suffer from the runaway effect that evaporated the (ytherean hydrosphere and put that water vapor within reach of the solar radiation that would break down the 2M molecules and allow the hydrogen to escape into space from the upper reaches of the planet)s atmosphere. *hat means that some process was initiated on &arth that was either absent on Fenus or was shut off in an early epoch there. *hat process was plate tectonics. Mn &arth, plate tectonics create new oceanic and continental crust through e%tensive volcanic activity in places where lava wells up through long volcanic chains, such as the Atlantic Mcean)s mid'oceanic ridge and the "acific Mcean)s 9ing of <ire. In other areas, subduction involves large pieces of e%isting crust being forced down below a neighboring plate, taking with it carbon, which is then stored in rock metamorphosed through that subduction. (arbon was thereby cycled out of the atmosphere, assisted by life processes. *hose life processes removed (M2 from the atmosphere and in return released M2 back into it. As molecular o%ygen gradually built up, metals were o%idi!ed, M3 was generated protecting the evolving life from the 1un)s intense ultraviolet radiation, animal life that re+uired o%ygen arose, and carbon from dead, decaying life forms was deposited and eventually subducted. It had to be an ongoing process because volcanoes released fresh (M2 into the atmosphere. Fenus has numerous volcanoes and volcanic remnants, but no active volcanoes have been spotted to date by missions to the planet or through earth'based radar imaging. =ost of the surface is comprised of cooled lava flows, which have resurfaced the planet since the cessation of the earlier bombardments. *he e%istence of those volcanic features indicates that Fenus has e%perienced volcanic activity like &arth and has had massive lava flows not unlike the @eccan *raps that spread across the Indian subcontinent 3: million years ago. Folcanic activity on Fenus may have ended, or substantially ended, because the (ytherean mantle has cooled more than has &arth)s and that cooling would produce a crust thicker than that of the &arth. ") As plate tectonics on &arth are driven by heat from the planet)s interior as part of the planetary cooling process, it would be reasonable to hypothesi!e that the cooling of Fenus and the thickening of the planet)s crust in comparison with &arth)s would have strangled plate tectonics and volcanism due to that cooling. Fenus could very easily have had plate tectonics and a substantial hydrosphere following the ? ., but cooling of the (ytherean interior ended the tectonics and their carbon recycling, allowing the dense (M 2 component of the (ytherean atmosphere to take off on a runaway greenhouse spiral that boiled off the water and caused it to rise into the upper atmosphere where solar radiation attacked the water)s molecular integrity. *he (ytherean gravity was unable to retain the planet)s hydrogen any more than &arth)s gravity can retain considerable atomic hydrogen, so Fenus lost its water and became inhospitable to life. Mnly hints of plate tectonics remain there to suggest that the early history of Fenus may have been very similar to &arth)s, "6 but the cooling of the (ytherean mantle and core set Fenus on its divergent path, away from its twin. *he key +uestion then arises as to how &arth, further from the 1un than Fenus, retained greater interior heat, particularly in light of &arth)s mass and diameter being only modestly greater than Fenus)s.

The Additional Criti'al Di%%eren'e o% Earth.s and 2enus.s ,agnetospheres

&arth possesses a very strong magnetic fieldA Fenus does not. *his is a second very significant difference, and it provides an additional clue as to why Fenus and &arth followed such strikingly divergent evolutionary pathways. Among the 1olar 1ystem)s eight planets, neither Fenus nor =ars has a notable magnetic field, though geological evidence e%ists pointing to an ancient magnetic field for =ars. *he author theori!es that Fenus also once had a magnetosphere like the other planets, but lost it, with any traces of its prior e%istence being buried deep within the planet)s unusually thick crust that was in part built up from the planet)s periodic widespread lava flows, which would not easily yield underlying evidence of magnetic orientation in the substrata. Iron particles in the crust will

5>
align with a planet)s magnetic field, but the massive lava flows that have covered Fenus after the planet lost its field would have left no apparent orientation to any iron particles in the upper portions of the planet)s thick crust. =agnetic fields arise, as scientists believe, from turbulence within a terrestrial planet)s li+uid metallic outer core. *he e%istence of a li+uid metal core within the &arth has long been determined through studies of earth+uake p' and s'waves. 2ith temperatures e+ualing those of the 1un)s outer layer, a great deal of turbidity and convection takes place in the &arth)s core. 2hat are still primitive computer models agree in their general outlines with what is theori!ed to e%ist within the core and with what is needed to create &arth)s magnetic field. &arth)s field helps protect the planet)s surface from the solar wind, generating the magnetosphere which traps the potentially harmful particles streaming in from the 1un."< Fenus lacks a magnetic field and accompanying magnetosphere. *he (ytherean ionosphere partly mitigates the absence of a magnetosphere, but damaging solar radiation that would destroy terrestrial'type life does reach down through the planet)s atmosphere, unlike on &arth where most harmful radiation is blocked. *hat lack of a protective magnetic field is attributed to a cooling of the (ytherean metallic core. Fenus)s density of appro%imately :.2 gramsKcm3 in comparison with &arth)s :.: gmKcm 3 argues strongly that the two planets have very similar overall compositions."1 2ith similar densities and with births from the same section of the early proto'solar disc, the two planets ought to have very similar compositions and structures. 1ome divergence in geological history would be possible, but Fenus and &arth have followed strikingly different pathways with significantly different results, as is summari!ed in *able II.

Eoot Cause o% the Terran@Cytherean Di%%eren'es

&arth and Fenus condensed from the same proto'solar disc of gas and dust in basically the same neighborhood. *hat being the case, it is logical to assume that they accreted from basically the same elements and compounds and it is not unreasonable to assume that they would have wound up with similar masses and volumes. According to the most recent thinking, =ercury had been larger than it is today, but it lost considerable mass from its early crust and mantle through a collision with a planetoid following the period during which =ercury)s metallic core had differentiated out from its mantle and crustal materials. =ercury)s mass would also have been restricted due to its pro%imity to the 1unA both the circumference of the inner planet)s orbit, its pro%imity to the solar gravity well, and the power of the early solar wind would have restricted its mass. =ars)s si!e was meanwhile affected by its pro%imity to ,upiter and the disruptive influence of the powerful ,ovian gravitational force. "; 2ith Fenus and &arth condensing and accreting 8ust 64 million kilometers apart in the solar nebula, it is hard to picture how the two planets would have condensed out of different materials, or in greatly different proportions, when =ercury and =ars are dissimilar from &arth primarily in si!e but not in composition. 0othing in current scientific thinking provides a reason for the pathways of Fenus and &arth to diverge so substantially from the time of their accretion through to the modern epoch. Table ** /igni%i'ant Earth@2enus Di%%eren'es Cha$ac!e$is!ic
&late Te'tonics 2ol'ani' A'ti8ity ,agneti' FieldN ,agnetosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Crust

Ea$!h
Active 2orldwide activity 1trong Activity 02, M2,
2

=enus
InactiveA some evidence for ancient activity @ormant now, but possibly periodic Inactive eavy (M2 concentrationA 0o
2 2

M, small (M2
2

1M6 clouds

Abundant

=oderate thickness

*hicker than &arth)s

5;

,antle Core

"lasticity in upper region (Asthenosphere) =olten metal surrounding solid inner core

0ot believed to have significant plasticity 1olidified metal

LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL 1late tectonics, volcanic activity, and atmosphere recapitulated from Table 4 for ease of reader review.

<ollowing the Accretion &ra, the inner 1olar 1ystem then e%perienced the ? ., which brought water in the form of ice from the -uiper .elt due to gravitational disruption of that region by 0eptune and the channeling influence of the gravitational attractions of the three other giants planets. .oth Fenus and &arth should have ac+uired considerable water, creating substantial hydrospheres. Fenus, surprisingly, would have been an easier target for those icy bodies to hit due to the (ytherean orbit being smaller than &arth)s, creating a greater density of incoming bodies being attracted sunward by 1ol)s gravityA Fenus should therefore have received more water than &arth for the same geometrical reason that it receives greater insolation than its outer neighbor. Fenus ought to have had oceans, which would originally have helped lubricate tectonic activity, but it was shortly after the ? . that the planets) pathways diverged. Fenus began cooling internally faster than &arth. *he (ytherean mantle began to cool and its plastic asthenosphere began to harden. *he core likewise cooled and solidified, or Pfro!e.) *ectonics is a cooling process, utili!ing heat that rises from below through convective currents to drive the plate motions. As Fenus cooled, plate tectonics would have slowed, then haltedA only periodic lava flows, like those of the @eccan *raps, remained to resurface the planet. 2ith plate tectonics halted on Fenus, no mechanism remained to cycle (ytherean carbon, so the planet)s atmosphere and surface heated up through a runaway greenhouse effect, which in turn boiled off all of the planet)s water and allowed the water molecules to be broken up in the planet)s atmosphere and the hydrogen to escape into space because the (ytherean gravity was not strong enough to retain the lighter and most common isotope of that lightest of all elements. "C At the same time, with its core cooling, Fenus gradually lost its magnetic field and magnetosphere, which in turn meant that the planet)s surface would have steadily less protection from solar radiation that would be damaging to life, if any had arisen there Gand it did arise very early on &arth, as testified by Australian stromatolitesH. Fenus became inhospitable to life while &arth)s plate tectonics continued functioning through to today and its outer core remained molten enough to permit the planet to retain its magnetic protection from the solar wind."A

The -ltimate Question

2hat mechanism enabled &arth to retain its internal heat, thereby allowing life to develop and thrive thereW 9emembering that plate tectonics are a cooling process, something must have been generating additional heat for the &arth that was not doing the same for Fenus. &arth and Fenus do have one very significant difference, which the author hypothesi!es put humanity)s home on a different pathway from its twin# &arth has a ma8or moon while Fenus has no satellite whatsoever. *hat made the difference. *o understand how, one must first recogni!e that all astronomical bodies are storage batteries. *hey are not so much electrical batteries X though electricity is involved in some of their mechanics X they are hea! storage batteries. eat can be stored much like electrical charge, but it does dissipate through various means, which are often referred to as entropy. ?ike a gas released into a large enclosure, heat will dissipate until it is evenly distributed. In the case of astronomical bodies, that heat is distributed out into space. 1tars are energy generators and storage batteries that produce heat through their nuclear reactions, fusing their raw materials into ever'heavier elements until their nuclear reactions can no longer sustain them and they are then forced onto one of several possible evolutionary pathways, as determined by their masses. $ravitational energy, through compression of the proto'stellar material, builds up the heat in a nascent star until it reaches the point where the heat and pressure turn on the fusion reaction that generates helium from hydrogen. "lanets and moons, as smaller bodies, do not produce heat through fusion reactions. *he terrestrial planets receive some heat from the 1un, but their internal heat, found in their mantles and cores, results from the decay of radioactive elements and, also significantly, from compression caused by the gravity of their masses acting upon their internal structures. 1o far, there is not much to distinguish &arth from Fenus.

55
.oth Fenus and &arth have generated a good portion of their own internal heat through radioactive decay. *he three primary elements involved in radioactive decay on &arth are /ranium, *horium, and "otassium. *able III provides their radioactive half'lives.

Table *** Hal%@3i8es o% Earth.s ,ost /igni%i'ant Eadioa'ti8e *nternal Heat@7enerating *sotopes >s#!#%e
23; 232

?a&4'@i5es
6.6>%475 yrs. 4.64%4747yrs. 4.2;%475yrs.

/ *h 67 -

LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL *hese three elements reside in the mantle, )# wherein they radiate their heat upward, driving plate tectonics, and downward, helping keep the outer core molten. 1ome scientists will say that there was a different distribution of those elements between the two planets, leaving Fenus with less, but that leaves the unanswered +uestion of why &arth would have actually received such a substantially greater concentration of radioactive elements than the other terrestrial bodies if it indeed had received such a greater supply. 1ome means, other than the heat from radioactive decay, must be found to account for the differences between &arth and Fenus. &arth still has active plate tectonics, a molten outer core, and a magnetosphere whereas Fenus has none of those or at least not at a level presently perceptible. 1omething significant must be added to the heat budget e+uation for &arth to have retained those characteristics which Fenus no longer displays. 9adioactive decay is important, but using the half'lives of the three radioactive isotopes from *able III, almost half of the original ")C/, a bit over seven'eighths of the original ")"*h, and nine'tenths of the starting supply of 6#- have decayed since &arth formed. *here would be intermediate products in the decay process, but the only conclusion possible is that both Fenus and &arth have been losing their supply of radioactive materials that have been heating the planets internally. *he (ytherean interior no longer produces enough heat from radioactive decay to drive plate tectonics and keep enough of the core molten to preserve the planet)s magnetic field. 1omething else must have contributed significantly to &arth)s total heat budget for it to have retained those characteristics so necessary for the continuation of life on the planet. .oth planets also retained heat from their accretion processes, but as noted regarding radioactive isotope decay, that residual accretion heat combined with radioactive decay no longer drives tectonics or retains a molten outer core within Fenus, arguing that neither retained accretion heat nor radioactive decay would be enough, even combined, to sustain &arth)s tectonics and the planet)s molten outer core. 0o reason e%ists to suggest that Fenus and &arth have significantly different compositions, particularly with radioactive materials, that would have provided &arth with greater internal heat than Fenus. Fenus is closer to the 1un, so it does get more insolation, but no mechanism is currently known that would greatly increase internal heat loss by raising surface temperatures. Fenus)s closer position to the 1un would create greater gravitational heating of the (ytherean interior due to the planet)s closer orientation to the 1un)s powerful gravity well, but that would be offset by Fenus having the least orbital eccentricity of any of the eight planets, cancelling out much or most of the advantage in internal heating that Fenus would e%perience due to its closer pro%imity to that gravity well. *he 1un does have an effect on the &arth)s tides, but the =oon e%erts a greater influence, which leads to the inference that the combined lunar and solar influence on &arth)s internal heat budget is greater than the sole influence of the 1un on Fenus.

477
*he =oon adds a significant gravitational component that so far seems to be overlooked in assessing &arth)s heat budget. It is a declining in its absolute contribution to &arth)s heat budget, 8ust as are radioactive decay and latent heat from planetary accretion, but it has been historically significant on a geological time scale. *he =oon)s gravity pulls on &arth)s mantle and the core 8ust as it does on the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. *hat constant churning both creates heat and impacts upon the convective currents that drive plate tectonics, modifying the convection that helps the &arth)s interior cool through tectonics. "late tectonics would thus be prolonged on &arth in comparison with Fenus due to the =oon)s gravitational effect. =odeling of the &arth)s core in order to determine how the planet)s magnetic field is generated is still in its mathematical infancy, so any modeling of the =oon)s effect upon &arth)s internal heat budget would be at best a very rough appro%imation.)$ (ritics of an enhanced lunar role will argue that the =oon)s mass is too small to have such a striking impact upon &arth)s geological history and the rise of life on the planet. 2hat, then, could account for the different geological pathways followed by the two planetsW 1imilar si!es, masses, distance from the 1un, and densities argue for similar histories. &arth has a slightly higher density, but if astronomers are correct about the =oon)s creation, greater average planetary density would have resulted from the loss of crustal and mantle material in the collision with *heia that created the &arth)s satellite. Mne could then argue that &arth)s loss of part of its mantle helped facilitate plate tectonics, but that benefit would have to include an offset for easier heat loss through a thinner mantle, which ought to have helped cool the planet and slow down, or even end, plate tectonics if there were no other source adding to &arth)s heat budget. It should also be noted that the =oon once orbited the &arth considerably closer than it does today. )" *he =oon is gradually spiraling outward due to tidal (gravitational) forces. *he gravitational energy that slowed the =oon)s rotation, locking one face toward the &arth, and is causing the =oon to ever'so'slowly spiral outward, winds up adding energy to the &arth, ultimately contributing to its heat budget. 1o far, the &arth has, as a storage battery, retained enough heat internally to both keep the outer core molten and drive plate tectonics, providing the planet with its protection from the solar wind and the runaway greenhouse effect that choked off any possibility for life or for continuing life on Fenus. &arth, then, becomes the e%ception to the rule that Fenus sets# terrestrial bodies of appro%imately the &arth)s mass and diameter would cool and lose the plate tectonics and magnetic fields that would make them hospitable to life unless they had a large companion satellite that increased their internal heat, helping to keep those two processes active longer than would be e%pected on a solitary planet.

E8iden'e %or 7ra8itational Heating %rom Else4here in the /olar /ystem

&vidence for gravitational heating elsewhere in the 1olar 1ystem is very recent in its origin and it did not become evident until the 0A1A Foyager probes caught dramatic photographic evidence for it. *he first evidence of such heating came from Foyager)s images of ,upiter)s innermost $alilean moon, Io. $reat plumes of sulphur were being blown out of volcanic cones, with some of those e8ecta forming a torus of sulphur surrounding ,upiter. Io is affected by ,upiter)s gravity as well as that of the moons &uropa and $anymede, which are locked into mathematically simple orbital resonances with Io. &uropa has a global ice crust, which has a smoothness that indicates a resurfacing that must be driven by internal heat likely caused by gravitational heating of the moon)s interior. $anymede)s surface is meanwhile a mi%ture of ancient and relatively young rocky and icy regionsA some warming force X again likely gravity X must be heating the interior to drive out the e8ecta that produces the newer regions. <urther out, (allisto has a dark surface speckled with bright, icy e8ecta. A subterranean ocean serves as a reservoir for the bright e8ecta. $ravity and pro%imity provide the energy that warms the moons) interiorsA they are far too small to have retained any internal heat from their accretion or from radioactive elements. =ercury, which is smaller than $anymede, has some source for its internal heat. Although there is no current volcanism on the planet, it seems to still possess a molten outer core that enables it to possess a magnetosphere. Fenus does not have a magnetosphere even though it is considerably larger than =ercury, so something must still be acting on =ercury that does not have a similar effect on Fenus. =ercury (with an orbital semima8or a%is of :>.5 % 47 3 km.) e%periences roughly eight times the tidal effects as Fenus (with a semima8or a%is of 47;.2 % 473 km.). In addition to that, =ercury)s orbit has the greatest eccentricity of any of the eight planets (7.27:3) while Fenus has the least (.773;). )) *idal heating due to =ercury)s pro%imity to the 1un combined with the planet)s orbital eccentricity appears to heat the interior enough, on combination with the other, standard internal heat sources to keep some of the core molten and thus able to generate an albeit weak planetary magnetic field. )6 In 277:, 0A1A)s (assini spacecraft found a large plume of salt water erupting from &nceladus, a small, icy moon of 1aturn, about 4K3 th the diameter of &arth)s =oon. 0A1A scientists announced Mctober 3, 2747 that

474
Itidal heatingJ combines with a wobble in &nceladus) rotation to generate the heat that powers those geyser eruptions. 9adioactive decay heating would not be enough to prevent cooling and the water)s solidification. *he diminutive moon)s oval'shaped orbit brings &nceladus closer to 1aturn and then takes it farther away, Ithe gravity s+uee!ing the body)s insides GvaryingH accordingly, creating friction and thus heat.J )< <ollowing that determination, it was announced at the 8oint meeting of the &uropean "lanetary 1cience (ongress and the @ivision for "lanetary 1ciences Mctober 3, 2744 in 0antes, <rance that some areas of &nceladus) surface have snow crystals piled up to a depth of 477 meters, which scientists believe have taken millions of years to accumulate as the result of the spray from the moon)s geysers.)1 *hose snowy piles demonstrate that the geysers are not a transient phenomenon. Mne final clue to the sources of &arth)s total heat budget comes from geologists who also wonder from where it all originates. If they still ponder from where the total internal heat budget originates, then room remains in the e+uation for gravitational or tidal heating. Astronomers and geologists observe it occurring on other worlds and moons, ranging outward from =ercury to the gas giants) satellites. *he =oon does not benefit from its pro%imity to &arth and the tidal tug of war between its primary and the 1un because its other sources of internal heat have long since failed to produce enough heat to keep the interior molten in combination with gravitational heatingA it is a clear indication that worlds) interiors will eventually go (relatively) cold when radiational heating and heat from the early formation are e%hausted. owever, the =oon)s maria stand as reasonable arguments for an ancient molten interior that is now cooled, evidenced by its present lack of a magnetosphere.

*mpli'ations o% Ha8ing a ,a5or ,oon

*he (ytherean hostility to life as it is known on &arth has significant implications concerning searches for e%tra'terrestrial life, including 1&*I X particularly now that new techni+ues and technology have found well over 4,277 planetary candidates, and technology is being improved to enable astronomers to locate &arth'si!ed e%tra' solar planetary bodies. Instead of locating new &arths that could be candidates, they may well be finding new Fenuses that will not be abodes for life. &arth needed its satellite to generate the internal, gravitationally'induced heat that powered the plate tectonics that kept the planet hospitable to life. As there is little difference in si!e or general planetary composition between Fenus and &arth, only the e%istence of the =oon kept plate tectonics active on &arth. *hose on Fenus would have died out far too early for life to have continued thereA radiational heating of the (ytherean mantle and core could not be sustained. *he entire core of Fenus solidified (or fro!e) due to lack of sufficient heat to keep the outer core molten enough to generate a magnetosphere, and that strongly suggests that the mantle was not kept plastic and active enough to power tectonics. (arbon was not therefore recycled and Fenus became an uninhabitable hothouse. &arth had the =oon, and, as with an estimated ;'plus percent of &arth'si!ed planets as predicted by computer modeling,); &arth had the good fortune to have a nearby body that could generate the gravitational heat to keep tectonics active. 9eferring back to *able III, nearly half of the 23;/, roughly seven'eighths of the 67-, and appro%imately 4: percent of the 232*h present at &arth)s birth has already decayed, generating shorter'lived radioactive elements to continue producing internal heat. &arth also has a large, solid inner'core, which suggests that the cooling process is well under way. *he e%istence of the =oon is the big difference between the two planets, and by process of elimination, its gravitational heating of the &arth)s interior seems to be the primary reason why life'sustaining tectonics have continued on &arth while they are not evident on Fenus. *hough considerable computer modeling would be needed to ascertain the possibility, it is even possible that tectonics did not get started on Fenus because the planet may have needed a large, close satellite to provide enough heat to initiate the tectonic process. If it did get started on Fenus, the planet lacked enough internal heat to continue it, condemning any life that might have gotten started there to an early e%tinction as the planet)s water boiled off and the (ytherean atmosphere became to%ic to o%ygen'breathing life. 2hile the =oon)s gravitational attraction affects all parts of the &arth, it creates notable tides within &arth)s three great oceans. *he crust and mantle are also sub8ect to the =oon)s pull, but their measurable movement is very slight. Mn the other hand, &arth)s oceans, where measurable, evidence ma8or bulges or tidal swells. *wo of &arth)s great oceans are unbounded, so tides can be observed as rises and falls in their surfaces. *he water ocean X the one best known to most people X has tides that, due to the interplay between the =oon)s gravitational attraction and &arth)s rotation, actually run ahead of the =oon)s local !enith. @ue to local factors the magnitude of the water ocean)s tidal bulge varies by location. &arth)s great ocean of air is also attracted by the =oon)s gravity. As the atmosphere involves less mass than the water ocean, )C the atmospheric ocean has the least impact upon the &arth)s

472
overall heat budget. 0either the water'ocean nor the atmosphere is bounded as their upper surfaces can e%pand, with the ocean)s water against the yielding atmosphere and the atmosphere ultimately against the vacuum of space. *he third great ocean has by far the greatest mass. &arth)s outer core comprises an ocean of molten metal X primarily iron X that completely envelops the solid inner core and is, in turn, bounded by &arth)s mantle. It possesses a viscosity lower than that of water and has a thickness of 2,347 km (4,3>7 mi). aving a low viscosity, the outer core is sub8ect to lunar gravity, but because it is bounded on its top and bottom by essentially unyielding, solid material, it reacts to lunar attraction with tidal bulges that are forced into becoming density waves bounded or constrained by the mantle above and the inner core below. *hat density wave would create pressure against both the mantle above and the inner core below, and pressure creates heat. "ressure would increase the heat in the molten outer core and in both the lower mantle and the upper part of the inner core. *he density wave would also generate friction as the current created by the moving density wave pushed laterally along the underside of the mantle. 1imilarly, there would be pressure and friction applied against the surface of the solid inner core. *hat density wave may be thought of as a piston creating pressure in a cylinder, like a manually operated tire pump does when it creates pressure to force air into a tire. *he pump)s cylinder reacts to the pressure and friction with the creation of waste heat, only inside the &arth that heat is not wasted. Instead, convection and conduction push heat up into the mantle, eventually helping to drive plate tectonics, and downward into the inner core helping to slow the outward spread of its solidification. As the density wave passes through the outer core, it leaves turbulence, like eddies, in its wake, making the outer core harder to model, but it does help mi% the heat and may well add to the generation of the *erran magnetic field. All of this suggests that more computer power will be needed to fully model &arth)s heat budget and how that heat mechanically drives the plate tectonics that so fortuitously accommodate terrestrial life. *he foregoing means that those searching for &arth'si!ed worlds would need to modify their searches in one of two ways. <irst, they could search for &arths with relatively large satellites like the =oon. *hat could re+uire more sensitive e+uipment than would be necessary to search for e%tra'solar &arths, but the e%istence of such moons would give greater hope for life on any worlds that they do discover. *here would, of course, be possible spectral signatures for o%ygen on habitable worlds that would also help distinguish habitable worlds from their inhospitable siblings. 1earchers could also seek out I1uper &arthsJ which ought to have enough mass to retain heat from their initial formation and enough radioactive material to have sufficient internal heat to drive plate tectonics without the e%istence of a ma8or satellite. )A A combination of the two strategies X seeking planets with large satellites plus greater si!e than &arth X could also work, but there would be limits imposed by e%cessive plate tectonics and volcanism that would inhibit the rise of life rather than foster it, as the =oon has fostered life on &arth. *he age of the planet would also be an important factor because moons can gradually spiral away from their primary and because plate tectonics are a cooling processA after sufficient time, any planet)s interior would cool off and the planet would become less hospitable because the tectonic process would no longer remove carbon that would otherwise contribute to a (M2'driven greenhouse. 1eeking &arths with large moons and 1uper &arths would be the likeliest, best strategies for locating life'bearing planetsA planets of &arth'Fenus masses without satellites would very probably be barren, barring some other mechanism for limiting the (M2 build'up in their atmospheres. 2hile it certainly will be argued that the =oon)s influence on &arth)s internal heat budget is not that great, some mechanism must e%ist to e%plain the difference between &arth)s still'viable plate tectonics and the lack of them on Fenus. <ollowing Mccam)s precept, lunar gravitational heating represents the simplest e%planation, and therefore the more likely correct one, given the known and hypothesi!ed factorsA any other e%planation will be considerably more complicated, re+uiring greater certainty in its data. &arth has had more internal heat than its near'twin even though, from their inner'system pro%imity, the two planets ought to have similar compositions. (onsiderable evidence e%ists elsewhere in the 1olar 1ystem that validates gravitational heating enough to make it feasible for it to have been an important factor in sustaining plate tectonics. *he data concerning &arth suggests that radioactive heating and residual accretion heat ought to have lessened as they did on Fenus and that gravitational heating has also decreased substantially since the =oon has steadily receded from its remaining parent. "late tectonics will therefore have a limited remaining lifespan on &arth, geologically speaking.

Dhat *s Ahead %or EarthQ

*he evolution and aging of the =oon)s gravitational heating relationship with &arth finds both support and concern with emerging discoveries about what is happening within the *erran core. According to a =ay 25, 2742 ?ew Gor* Times story reporting on a ?ondon /niversity (ollege study, lead researcher @ario Alfe and his

473
colleagues have discerned that outer core iron is rapidly releasing its heat through conduction rather than through the convection that drives planetary plate tectonics. 6# *he research team)s findings, initially publici!ed in ?ature, state that, I*he theoretical conse+uences of this discrepancy are far'reaching. *he scientists say something else must be going on in &arth)s depths to account for the missing thermal energy in their calculations.J A series of possible mechanics have been proposed as a result# =ore radioactive material e%ists than previously suspectedA Inner core iron is solidifying faster than e%pected and releasing latent heat of crystalli!ationA (hemical reactions among the core)s iron alloys and among the mantle)s silicates are fiercer and more energetic than previously believedA and, 1omething novel and bi!arre is happening, but is as yet undetermined. *aken in the broadest view, this new data indicates that the &arth)s core is rapidly cooling on a geological time scale and, that over such a time scale, plate tectonics will be facing cessation to the detriment of climate and the continuing e%istence of life on the planet. &arth)s rapid dissipation of the heat through conduction is likely a good e%planation of what happened on Fenus. *he (ytherean core cooled, tectonics slowed, then stopped, and the generation of the planet)s magnetosphere stopped. As no simple e%planation has emerged as to why Fenus would have considerable less radioactive material relative to &arth and why its heat from accretion should be significantly less than &arth)s, it must mean that the =oon in its orbit revolving around &arth has provided mankind)s home with considerable internal heat due to gravitational action stirring the *erran interior. *he ?ondon findings suggest that radioactivity is likely lessening within the &arth as it had to have done inside Fenus for the observable differences between the planets to e%ist. *he same would hold true for any latent heat from accretion. *hat would leave &arth with the advantage of gravitational heating due to the =oon carrying on its constant churning of the &arth)s interior, but as the =oon)s orbital semi'ma8or a%is has been gradually increasing, that too is of ever'lesser efficacy in heating &arth)s interior. &arth is simply cooling off and it is evolving into another Fenus. Its plate tectonics will cease before volcanoes totally die out, so sulphur dio%ide will be released into the atmosphere as a source for sulphuric acid clouds. (arbon would no longer be recycled, building up the (M2 in the atmosphere that would eventually lead to a runaway greenhouse effect. *he oceans would boil off, with the result that water molecules would be split apart by incoming radiation that is no longer blocked by a magnetosphere that died out when the outer core crystalli!ed, thereby losing its ability to generate a magnetic field in con8unction with a contrasting solid inner core. 0one of that would happen instantaneously, but as the tectonics gradually lessened, sulphur and carbon would become increasing burdens for *erran life, as may well have happened to nascent life on &arth)s twin. A tipping point would be reached, but it is more likely to be on a geological timeframe, with effects being noticed only in minute increments. *hat does not mean that humanity could not produce a runaway independently of planetary geology by increasing its emissions beyond &arth)s ability to recycle deleterious waste products. Fenus and &arth may well therefore be the once and future twins.

Notes
$ "

*he author prefers using the ad8ective I(ythereanJ over IFenusianJ when referring to Fenus. .y removing a si!eable portion of &arth)s carbon from the biosphere, plate tectonics help keep carbon from combining with o%ygen in a runaway greenhouse effect. A lower availability of carbon means a lesser chance for a runaway to get started. Mther carbon has been bound up and buried in the substances used today as fossil fuels. ) *he most recent scientific theory suggests that today)s =oon resulted from the merger of two breakaway bodies that were parked in close orbital pro%imity to each otherA that is not to be confused with &arth)s recent, temporary second moon (277>';), a captured tiny asteroid. 1ee IA second moon for &arth.J
6

Any water resulting from the accretion process would not have been able to condense on the hot planetary surfaces still cooling from the accretion. *hat water would have evaporated into the atmosphere where radiation would have disassociated the moleculesA the hydrogen from that process would have escaped off into space.
<

*he turbulence and spinning of the outer li+uid core generates the strong electric currents that must surround a spinning solid inner core in order for a terrestrial planet to generate a magnetic field. *errestrial planets cool from the outside in (crustal cooling) and the inside out (core cooling, or free!ing). Inner core cooling had to have begun before a magnetic field could have been generated. *hat strongly suggests that Fenus possessed a magnetic field

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while its interior cooling was still incomplete. Fenus is now believed to have a totally solid core because the planet has no magnetic field.
1

=ercury seems to be a modest e%ception because its core is, for the planet)s diameter, proportionally larger than &arth)s, but astronomers now hypothesi!e that =ercury, like &arth, suffered a collision with another large, planet' si!ed body that blew off much of the planet)s crust and mantle. .ut in =ercury)s case, either no moon formed or, if one formed, it did not remain in orbit very long due to the 1un)s pro%imity and the disruptive power of its intense gravitational field. As &arth and =ercury would still have been semi'plastic at the times of those proposed early collisions, the planetary scarring from those impacts would have filled in, leaving nothing other than &arth)s satellite and =ercury)s relatively large metallic core as testimony to those events.
;

@euterium (" ), being heavier than regular hydrogen, is retained more easily. It can serve as a marker for early water in the inner 1olar 1ystem.
C

*he giant planets are believed to have accreted faster than the terrestrial ones. *he terrestrial bodies accreted within a 477 million year span that began with the outset of the condensation of the solar nebula.
A

*here were appro%imately 477 times as many asteroids and -uiper bodies at that time than now remain in the 1olar 1ystem
$#

*heia, a *itan, was said to have been the mother of the =oon, hence the selection of that name for the protoplanet that collided with &arth, creating the =oon as one of the results of that collision.
$$

"lanetary scientist &rik Asphaug of the /niversity of (alifornia, 1anta (ru!, And =artin ,ut!i of 1wit!erland)s /niversity of .ern have run computer simulations that indicate a high likelihood that &arth)s present satellite formed from the collision of two predecessors in close orbit to each other. =ore recently, &arth captured a very small asteroid from near'&arth orbit, with the tiny moonlet going into a polar orbit for 43 months in 2773'> before it escaped back into a heliocentric orbit. ?i! -ruesi, IA second moon for &arthWJ Astronomy, <ebruary, 2744, p.36.
$"

*he ill 1phere is that region surrounding a planet where the planet)s gravity e%ceeds that of the 1un. 1atellites generally have to orbit within the inner half of the sphere in order to have a chance for a stable orbit. =ercury, being e%ceptionally close to the 1un has a miniscule ill 1phere, which means that it would have little chance of retaining a satellite.
$)

*he .orealis .asin was recently discerned from data provided by the =ars 9econnaissance Mrbiter and the =ars $lobal 1urveyor. It is at least 3.5 billion years old and it covers an area of ;,:77 km across by 47,377 km long, covering roughly 67R of the planet)s surface. "ro8ect scientists determined that the impacting ob8ect was at least 2,777 km in diameter and it struck =ars at a 6: o angle. *he northern hemisphere basin it left behind presents the smoothest terrain on the planet, leading some geologists to believe that it was once covered by an ocean Gsee I.orealis basinJ and (handlerH. An ocean forming in the basin would have done much to erode away impact scars from the event and any impacts from the ? ., negating the need for plate tectonics and volcanic resurfacing to eliminate impact scars from that collision.
$6

=ars is believed to have e%perienced at least five ma8or collisions, with one with a "luto'si!ed planetesimal creating a vast crater or depression known as the .orealis .asin GaboveH, discovered through data from =ars orbiters. *here would have been some reduction in the 9ed "lanet)s mass, but it would have been smaller than the ma8or collisions that blew off considerable parts of the crusts and mantles of both &arth and =ercury. As they are not in retrograde orbits, @eimos and "hobos may well have aggregated from materials blown into orbit from one of those collisions, but with less material available and ,upiter e%erting its influence, the moons did not become ma8or satellites. According to recent information, "hobos)s interior is about one'third porous space.
$<

Mriginally developed at the (ote d)A!ur Mbservatory near 0ice, the 0ice =odel was proposed by 9. $omes, ?evinson, Alessandro =orbidelli, and -leomenis *siganis in three papers published in ?ature in 277:. 43?i! -ruesi, I(aptured moons of the giant planets,J Astronomy, <ebruary, 2744, p.37.

al

47:
$;

,upiter had a tremendous gravitational impact upon the Asteroid .elt. ,upiter)s orbit would have shrunk if it was gravitationally casting more asteroidal material, mass'wise, out of solar orbit than it was sending -uiper and Mort ob8ects sunward.
$C

In a ,uly, 2742 report in 9eophysical Iesearch $etters, 0A1A)s ?unar 9econnaissance Mrbiter has provided data that indicates that 1hackleton (rater, near the southern lunar pole, has crater walls composed of :'47 percent water by weight. *he 3 km deep crater is in permanent shadow and is therefore cold enough for ice to be retained.
$A

Ice can be found in the higher =artian latitudes, especially during winter. *he new 0A1A rover (uriosity will search =ars for signs of ancient life, which would have re+uired 2M. *he rover will investigate clay'like sediments in the $ale (rater that could have sheltered life. =eanwhile, the &uropean 1pace Agency)s &%press orbiter discovered that much greater amounts of water than suspected e%ist in the =artian atmosphere, which at times becomes supersaturated.
"#

Arecibo)s radio telescope had previously imaged locations at both of =ercury)s poles that had a high likelihood of being ice. 0A1A)s =essenger probe team announced 0ovember 25, 2742 that ice and organic compounds had been found in deep polar craters based upon observations for which they are the best fit answers. www.telegraph.co.ukKscienceKspaceK5>43443Kice'found'on'=ercury.html
"$

@euterium, which is not as +uick to escape into space as the more common lighter isotope of hydrogen, has been detected in the upper levels of the (ytherean atmosphere, providing evidence for an earlier e%istence of a (ytherean hydrosphere.
""

9eported online in ?ature and in IA @elivery <rom 1pace *hat =ade a .ig 1plash,J The ?ew Gor* Times, Mctober 44, 2744, p. @3.
")

&arth)s oceanic crust, which comprises roughly three'+uarters of the planet)s total crust, runs :'47 km in thickness while continental crust (the continents and the continental shelves) is 37':7 km thick. =agellan mission gravity measurements have indicated that the (ytherean crust is :7 km thick. *hat result would be e%pected if the planet)s interior was cooling while declining convection was no longer powering plate tectonics.
"6

(ontinental'si!ed uplands X Ishtar *errain in the (ytherean southern hemisphere and Aphrodite *erra along the e+uator ' may show evidence of much earlier plate tectonics. In any case, no sign e%ists of active tectonics either today or in recent geologic times.
"<

&arth)s magnetic field does not have the same a%is as the planet)s overall a%is of rotation. It has also slowly wandered over time relative to the geographical poles, suggesting that the inner, solid core rotates on a different a%is than the &arth as a whole. *hat would not be impossible, given that the outer core is molten. *he viscosity of the outer core would moderate drastic changes in the orientation of the inner core)s a%is of rotation, but it would not prevent variability in the magnetic a%is) alignment relative to the planetary a%is. *he two a%es could have been set on different orientations by earlier impacts that came after the differentiation of iron and nickel out of the mantle and into the core. *hat thinking is not too different than that e%pressed by a team led by @r. (hristina @wyer from the /niversity of (alifornia at 1anta (ru! and by =ichael ?e .ars of the 9esearch Institute for Mut'of'&+uilibrium "henomena of =arseille, <rance. .oth tackled the cause behind the magneti!ation of some of the rocks brought back from the =oon by Apollo 44A coming to different conclusions about how the magneti!ation came about, the researchers posited that the =oon)s mantle rotated against the outer core, creating a lunar magnetic field G-ingH. Fariations in rotation are thus not 8udged to be impossible. *he inner and outer cores need not be locked onto one a%is of rotation with the mantle and crust.
"1

1ome of that density difference would be accounted for through the =oon)s violent birth, with lower'density *erran crust contributing to the =oon)s mass. "; ,upiter has enough gravitational force to affect =ercury)s orbitA disrupting the orbits of the planetesimals and planetoids that aggregated into =ars would not be beyond its power.

473
"C

$ravity did not retain hydrogen in (ytherean atmosphere, leaving the atmospheric o%ygen free to bind with other elements, particularly carbon.
"A

$eophysics professor .ruce .uffett at /( .erkeley)s @epartment of &arth and "lanetary 1cience notes that the cores like &arth)s that still generate magnetic fields need to keep generating heat# I"lanets do die. *hey run out of heat and wind down. 1o the &arth has to keep regenerating.J http#KKphys.orgKnewsK2747'planetary'magnetic' fields.html
)#

*hose three elements are known to be rock'loving rather than metal'loving. *hat accounts for their abundance in the mantle versus the core. )$ "rofessor .uffett (see note 25) meanwhile sees computer modeling of the &arth)s interior in its infancy. II would claim that the models are very far from being realistic, and therefore the inferences we draw from the about the &arth are going to be +uestionable.J Mne serious problem with the modeling is the scale on which the planet)s interior can be modeled. Another problem is with the viscosity of the outer core used for the models, because Ithe viscosity of the li+uid core is so low X more fluid than even water X the stirring motions there span the whole range all the way down to one'meter scales, which the models cannot handle.J http#KKphys.orgKnewsK2747'planetary' magnetic'fields.html
)"

?unar recession has been measured by laser ranging employing mirrors left on the =oon by Apollo mission astronauts. *he current rate is appro%imately 3.2 cm per year, which would give a much closer past orbital distance regardless of whether or not the rate varied in the past. *idal forces vary inversely by the cube of the distance, which means that lunar tidal forces would have been considerably greater in the past, which in turn would have meant greater internal heat production from the effects of lunar gravity on the &arth.
))

Interestingly, the =oon has the greatest orbital eccentricity of the 1olar 1ystem)s larger planetary satellites at 7.7:65, nearly twice that of number two *itan)s 7.72;;. Its orbital eccentricity would contribute to the =oon)s ability to stir up &arth)s interior and thereby generate internal heat. In return, there is some evidence for &arth stirring up the lunar interiorA to other proposed e%planations for lunar magnetism lasting longer than it should have due to a molten outer core, one needs to consider *erran gravity churning up the lunar interior and thereby allowing the =oon to retain a molten outer core like &arth)s longer than original thought through gravitational heating.
)6

1ee, for e%ample, I"ast and present tidal dissipation on =ercury,J A. 9ivoldini, =. .euthe, and *. Fan oolst from the 2747 (opernicus meeting at http#KKmeetings.copernicus.orgKepsc2747KabstractsK&"1(2747'3>4.pdf. *he authors state# I*idal forces from the 1un deform =ercury and because of internal friction generate heat. *he amount of generated heat depends on the internal structure of the planet, its rheology, and on the tidal potential.
)<

.ill Andrews, I=ysterious water on &nceladus results from lunar Pwobble,)J Astronomy, <ebruary, 2744, p.24. ?i! -ruesi, I&nceladus is a snowy moon,J Astronomy, <ebruary, 2742, p.4;.

)1

);

,ason "almer, ..( 0ews I=oons like &arth)s could be more common than we thought,J www.bbb.co.ukKnewsKscience'environment'433754:3 reports on computer simulations run at the /niversity of Yurich)s Institute of *heoretical "hysics and the /niversity of (olorado)s ?aboratory for Atmospheric and 1pace 1ciences. *he simulations found a 4 in 42 chance of generating a system in which a planet with at least half of &arth)s mass had a satellite of at least half the =oon)s mass arose, with the full range of probabilities running from 4 in 6: to 4 in 6.
)C

*hat can be seen by the entire mass above a given location at sea level producing only one standard atmosphere of pressure while 8ust 33 feet of water generates one atmosphere of additional pressure above a diver.
)A

arvard researchers @imitar @. 1asselov and @iana Falencia hypothesi!e that super'&arths would have more radioactive materials and greater retained heat with which to generate more vigorous mantle churning. I"lanets 2e (ould (all ome,J Scientific American, August, 2747, pp.3;'63. "lanetary cores of super'&arths could also be completely solidified through great pressure, dampening any magnetosphere and limiting opportunities for life thereon. "rospect s for life might therefore re+uire a limited range of planetary si!es without the e%istence of a large satellite.

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6#

0atalie Angier, I*he &nigma 4,;77 =iles .elow /s,J The ?ew Gor* Times, =ay 25, 2742, p.@4.

Author.s Biographi'al *n%ormation

At the advice of others, the author has included biographical information by way of his professional resume. 2hile having had a career in government research as well as a lesser one in education, the author is not a mathematician or a scientist per se. e has been one who takes on seemingly impossible, or at least fairly difficult, challenges, mostly because he en8oys difficult challenges. e disassembles problems into their smallest data components and then e%amines how that data interrelates, in essence discovering the system that drives a particular problem. In his work on /lam)s 1piral 1+uare, for e%ample, he found a repetition (read modularity) of the positions in the number system that permits primes, easy to spot in base'3 but e%ceedingly difficult with which to work in base'47. *hat was already known to mathematicians, but that pattern was not applied previously in con8unction with the pattern of embedded (n#! spiral) s+uares that establishes the problem. Mbviously, the problem was not impossible, it had 8ust not been seen in the manner that would contribute most efficiently to its solution. "roblems are systems. Mne needs to analy!e how they work to solve them. 9educing problems (or systems) to their smallest components has thus been the author)s strategy. *he foregoing solutions have been put forward for your en8oyment. *he author will add to them as he is able to do so. If someone has a seemingly impossible problem re+uiring analytical help, they may contact the author via e'mail.

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Albert H. deAprix !r. ; Dalla'e /treet /'otia NY $")#"@")#C

E@mail+ adeaprixZny'ap.rr.'om

Edu'ation+
=.A. "olitical 1cience. $raduate 1chool of "ublic Affairs, 1/0N Albany. (oncentrations in American politicalKgovernmental system, political history, behavior analysis, and research methodology. 9eceived research assistantship. =asters) essay e%amined history and impact of segregationist attitudes on 1outhern voting behavior. ..A. Mhio 2esleyan /niversity. istory and 8ournalism ma8orsA political science, education, &nglish, and astronomy minor e+uivalents. (opy editing intern 1chenectady /nion 1tar as part of 8ournalism ma8or. 1tudent teacher at Mlentangy .1. (Mhio). Astronomy @epartment laboratory (teaching) assistant. -appa @elta "i (education) and "hi Alpha *heta (history) honoraries. istory senior research seminar e%amined segregationist voting in AlabamaA 8ournalism senior seminar tested for bias in 456; presidential campaign news coverage. "ossess a 0ew Nork 1tate "ermanent (ertificate in secondary social studies (>'42). 1cored 2;3 on teaching methodologies, 2;3 on ?A1*, and 2;> on social studies content e%aminations (477'377 scoring curve) taken for recertification.

7o8ernment and ,anagement Training Ee'ei8ed+

Intergovernmental "ersonnel Act training in civil service management with 0.N.1. (ivil 1ervice (ommission. Intensive si%'month programA e%amined legal basis for classification, position classification techni+ues, designing and conducting e%aminations, and salary studies.

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(ollective .argaining with /.1. (ivil 1ervice (ommission and with "ace /niversity Institute for 1ub'urban $overnance. .oth programs dealt with collective bargaining techni+ues and fiscal research in the public sector. $overnmental Affairs ?eadership 1eminar with /.1. ,aycees. participation in politics and development of model legislatures. 2ashington training program focused on

ugh M).rian <oundation ?eadership training seminar for &ast 9egion. @ealt with program administration and leadership training techni+ues. Mfficers) *raining 1chool with /.1. ,aycees. <ocused on leadership training, finance, and program management. ?egislative <unctions with (ornell (ooperative &%tension and 0.N.1. 1chool of Industrial and ?abor 9elations. &%amined operations of county legislatures and other local policy'making bodies.

7o8ernment Eesear'h &oli'yma9ing and Administrati8e Experien'e+

?ocal <iscal Impact 0ote (oordinator# (0.N.1. 1enate). &%amined all state legislation to determine if it had a local fiscal impact, re+uired production of fiscal notes, maintained database, and advised legislative staffs on how to calculate fiscal impacts. /ndertook special research pro8ects regarding legislative issues. 9esearched special reports. "olicy AnalystK9esearch Associate# (0.N.1. 1enate 9esearch 1erviceK*ask <orce on (ritical "roblems). @uties included redesigning and managing 1enate)s model student legislature and supervising the staff developing educational packets for participants. (onducted research on a wide variety of local government, public employee, and economic development issues and wrote papers from five to 277C pages on issues of legislative concern. =unicipal "ersonnel *echnician# (1chenectady (ounty (ivil 1ervice (ommission and (ounty =anager)s Mffice). @uties involved conducting personnel studies and deriving cost estimates for (ounty =anager, researching contract negotiation data, and representing county on $overnor)s =anpower @evelopment (ouncil. 9esolved a long' standing scheduling problem for county air traffic personnel. 1chenectady (ounty ?egislator# 1cotia'$lenville'0iskayuna eld numerous leadership positions, including# =a8ority ?eader, @eputy (hairman (haired &ducation and "lanning (included library and college matters) and 2ays and =eans (ommittees 1pecial accomplishments included# (haired selection process for new county manager 9eapportioned county legislature after .oard of &lections was unable undertake it ?ed legislative efforts that established 0iskayuna and $lenville branch libraries ?ed intergovernmental cooperation efforts 1erved on interview and selection panels "ersonnel @irector Information *echnology =anager (o'chaired (ultural and &ducational 1trategy 1ubcommittee, unter "lan Implementation *ask <orce Mversaw county contract negotiations team for county legislature 1/0N Albany 9esearch Assistant to @r. (lifford .rown on his election analysis, *he ,aws of Fictory monitored presidential polling, assembled contribution data

Tea'hing and Edu'ation Experien'e+

447
1ocial 1tudies *eacher# ((ana8oharie (entral 1chool @istrict) $lobal 1tudies I and II, American istory and $overnment, &conomics, and "articipation in $overnment. &nriched courses with public opinion polling (conducted in'school), a mock election, a model legislature, and a mock investment portfolio. 1erved as a cooperating teacher with 1t. 9ose)s teacher training program. (?imited to two years by state retiree earnings cap). "olitical 1cience Instructor# (1chenectady (ounty (ommunity (ollege) /nited 1tates $overnment and "olitics ("M?423). &nriched course through a public opinion surveyA worked with a computeri!ed class management platform (Angel). 1ummer 1chool *eacher# (1chenectady (ity 1chool @istrict) American istory and $overnment and substituted in other sub8ectsA graded 9egents) e%ams. 1ubstituted in summer school two more years and graded 9egents) e%ams. 1ubstitute *eacher# ((apital 9egion .M(&1, si% years). 1erved as a substitute middle school and high school teacher through the .M(&1 substitute coordination service in the 1chenectady, (ohoes, =ohonasen, Foorheesville, 0iskayuna and 1outh (olonie school districts and the .M(&1 special education program. 1erved as a long'term substitute in special education in .uckeye Falley 1chool @istrict, @elaware, Mhio. *rustee with 1chenectady (ounty (ommunity (ollege (hairman, Fice (hairman, *reasurer 0egotiated additional funding from sponsor elped organi!e .oard training sessions @eveloped efforts to provide trustees with greater e%posure within 1((( community (o'originator of community conference to focus on needs 1((( could fulfill Active with statewide community college trustees association (A.(K0N((*) "resenter, 0N((* Annual (onferences Iole of the $egislator-Trustee in &acilitating Sponsor Support The $egislator-Trustee and 4nformation &low "resenter, A.( *rustee Institutes /eveloping Successful Ielationships with $ocal Sponsors "articipant and @elegate, A.(K0N((* Annual (onferences and Institutes =ember, 0N((* &ducation (ommittee $uest 1peaker, <aculty (ouncil of (ommunity (olleges Community Colleges &ace Challenges from the State!s Strategy of Iaising the .ar Academically Assisted 0.N.1. (ivil 1ervice @epartment)s =unicipal 1ervices @ivision with I.".A. program <acilitator, county government and public administration training Mral test panel member 0.N.1. 1enate (oordinator of 1enate 1tudent "olicy <orum redesigned and managed 1enate)s model legislature 1upervised staff development of educational packets for over 677 annual participants (supervised work of over 27 team members) @esigned and initiated model legislature for 0.N.1. ,aycees Interviewer for @r. ?eigh 1tel!er)s (1/0N Albany) surveys on attitudes toward public education =ember, 1cotia'$lenville 1chool @istrict omework (ommittee =ember, =iddle 1chool 1ubcommittee "rovided in'service training program on county government health issues for capital district nursing directors) association ugh M).rian Nouth <oundation

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(haired initial Nouth ?eadership 1eminar 0.N.1. &ast 9egion Assistant ead (ounselor, (ounselor 0.N.1. 1outh ,udge, 0.N.1. 1outh 9oundtable <acilitator on careers in government Mrgani!ed 1chenectady ,aycees (ounty $overnment for a @ay program ?ed seminar on county government and helped students prepare model county legislative meeting Instructor for 0.N.1. ,aycees at annual Mfficers) *raining 1chool @eveloped and conducted training programs for ,aycees on pro8ect management, chapter management, public speaking, and press release writing (including development of training manuals)

Eesear'h Driting and Eelated Experien'e+

1tate ?egislative "ublications# Z The ?GS Senate Minority Conference $egislative 1roposals . 0.N.1. 1enate ?ocal <iscal Impact 0ote Mffice Z .olstering ?ew Gor* State!s #uman Services:Any BolunteersJ 0.N.1. 1enate *ask <orce on (ritical "roblemsA e%amined impact of volunteers and incentives for increasing volunteer efforts in 0N1 Z The 0conomic 0clipse of ?ew Gor* State:The Shadow is 1assing . 0.N.1. 1enate *ask <orce on (ritical "roblemsA reviewed 0N1)s economic progress and proposals for strengthening state)s economy Z The );K( Census:Dhere #ave All the 1eople 9oneJ 0.N.1. 1enate *ask <orce on (ritical "roblemsA publication helped uncover a half'million undercount in 0ew Nork)s 45;7 (ensus total and save V:7'477 million in federal local aid per year through the stimulation of timely local efforts Z The 9overnor!s 1romises vs. The 9overnor!s Actions (editor). 0.N.1. 1enate 9esearch 1ervice Z /eregulation:An 4dea Dhose Time #as Come. 0.N.1. 1ubcommittee on $overnment 9egulation of .usiness Z 9overnment Costs Can .e Cut. 0.N.1. 1ubcommittee on $overnment (ost'1aving 1ystems Z &ederal Aid:Dhere /oes ?ew Gor* State StandJ 0.N.1. 1enate 1tanding (ommittee on *a%ation Z 2rote numerous short papers on state issues (Issues in <ocus) and annual issue'area summaries (1ummary of ?egislation) for 0.N.1. 1enate 9esearch 1ervice ,ournalistic 2ork# Z n-healthy debate8 Attac*s on Canada!s system are unwarranted scare tactics . *he 1unday $a!ette Mp' &d piece Z $osing freedom to gain security8 #omeland efforts go overboard in name of protecting citi5ens . *he 1unday $a!ette Mp'&d piece Z 1arty politics at %ail. *he 1unday $a!ette Mp'&d piece Z $et county ta*e lead on development. *he 1unday $a!ette Mp'&d piece Z /owntown vital part of county. *he 1unday $a!ette Mp'&d piece Z M0I90I /0.AT08 Streamlining services feasible, necessary for revitali5ation . *he 1unday $a!ette Mp' &d piece Z S1"ITS8 Schenectady Iugby. (apital @istrict Insight (co'author) Z 2rote numerous sports stories and drafted over 4,777 press releases for politics, government, and community service organi!ations Z Mhio 2esleyan /niversity 8ournalism e%perienceA M2/ *ranscript (student newspaper) reporter <astimes (faculty'staff newsletter) editor'reporter =athematics#

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Z 0-amining Certain "pen Luestions in ?umber Theory published on http#www.scribd.comKAlR27deApri%A a compilation of mathematics and science articles organi!ed as a developing e'book, 2744'2A articles to' date include# o lam!s Spiral Square 1atterns 0-plained (reached [4K45,577 on Nahoo in 2K42) o 9oldbach!s Con%ecture8 Analysis and Balidation (reached [27K455,777 on Nahoo in 5K42) o 9enerating 1ythagorean Triples sing "nly a (reached [2;K464,777 on Nahoo in 5K42) o The 1attern to 1ythagorean Triples (reached [2;K464,777 on Nahoo in 5K42) o Balidating #ardy and $ittlewood!s Con%ecture & (reached [4K43,;77 on Nahoo in 5K42) o Feno!s 1arado-es8 /iscovering Motion!s Signature at a /imensionless 4nstant of Time o The Twin 1rime Con%ecture8 A Structural Approach o .eyond Twin 1rimes8 1roving de1olignac!s Con%ecture Internet publications were accessed in a minimum of 33 countries by 6K4K46

<iction# Z Annually contributed poetry to Ihythms, the 1chenectady (ounty (ommunity (ollege literary publication Z 2rite poetry and short stories 1cience# Z @eveloped a coherent theory e%plaining why plate tectonics ceased on Fenus, leading to its thick (M 2 atmosphere and its importance to 1&*I investigationsA published on http#KKscribd.comKAlR27deApri%, 2742 Z (reated a series of short pieces on unusual or interesting observations for publication on http#KKwww.scribd.comKAlR27deApri% Z @isproved Teno)s arrow (motion) parado% by discovering how motion leaves a signature on dimensionless instants of timeA published on http#KKscribd.comKAlR27deApri%,2742 Art# Z Z "hotography (reate pencil'sketch art pieces

Community /er8i'e Experien'e#

,aycees Z "resident, vice president (twice), treasurer 1chenectady ,ayceesA led chapter to ma8or programming awards Z @istrict director (three times), state programming chairman (four times), state treasurer, state vice president 0ew Nork 1tate ,aycees 1chenectady (ounty (hristmas .ureau Z 9escued program and e%tended its service efforts to over 6,777 persons annually Z $eneral chairman andKor president for 46 years uman 1ervices "lanning (ouncil Z (haired various programming committees, studies, and community conference groups <reedom "ark <oundation Z .oard member Z 9esponsible for program collections (enter $lenville /nited =ethodist (hurch Z =ember, operations board Z =ember, .oard of *rustees

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1chenectady 1alvation Army Advisory .oard Z (hairman and vice chairman Z (apital @rive fundraising cabinet Folunteered with .oy 1couts, 1cotia'$lenville track and cross country, Alcoholism (ouncil, /nited 2ay, N=(A

&ersonal+
Z Z Z 9ecreational activities include running (27 miles per week)A campingA snorkelingA creative writingA sketching and photographyA number theoryA and reading science fiction stories and history, science, and astronomy articles. 1erve as school track official in (apital @istrict 1ports participation has included track, rugby, and softball