Vectors 20130904

1 Introduction to Vectors
A vector is a mathematical object that has magnitude and direction. Graphically, vectors are represented by arrows. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the arrowhead represents the direction of the vector. C A B
Figure 1.1. The arrows represent vectors A, B and C. The arrows above the symbols indicate that the objects are vectors.
Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors
c Kari Eloranta 2013
1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)

A vector does not have a specic position in space. If we move a vector arrow from one position into another retaining its direction, it still represents the same vector.
A A Figure 1.2. Because a vector does not have a specic location in space, all arrows represent the same vector A.
1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)

The magnitude of a vector is denoted by modulus signs. For example, if the magnitude of vector A is three units, we write |A| = 3. Vectors A and B are equal (A = B ), if they are equal in magnitude and point at the same direction. Because vectors are represented by arrows, the magnitude is often referred to as the length of the vector. The beginning of the vector arrow is called the tail and end of the arrow the tip of the vector. tip tail
1.1 Zero Vector

Next we dene a couple of concepts that are important in vector algebra. First of all, we need to dene a zero vector: A zero vector 0 is a vector that has zero magnitude and undened direction. A zero vector is just as a point in space. B C A Figure 1.3. Zero vectors are represented by points, A = B = C = 0.
1.2 Opposite Vector

Let A be a non-zero vector. The opposite vector of A is denoted by A. It is the vector that is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to A.
A A Figure 1.4. A representation of vector A and opposite vector A.

1.3 Parallel Vectors

Non-zero vectors A and B are parallel (A||B), if they point at the same or opposite direction. By denition, the zero vector is parallel to all vectors. If the vectors point at the same direction, we write A B. If they point at opposite directions, we write A B. A B C Figure 1.5. Examples of parallel vectors. A B and A, B C.
1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)

In mathematics, in relation to vectors, real numbers are called scalars. Let A be a non-zero vector and k a scalar (real number) such that k = 0. Then, the vector k A is a scalar multiple of A. The magnitude of k A is |k A| = |k ||A|. If k > 0, then k A points at the same direction than A (k A A), k < 0, then k A is opposite to A (k A A).
1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)

Parallelism Let A and B be non-zero vectors. Vectors A and B are parallel if, and only if, there is a real number k = 0 such that A = k B. That is, A||B A = k B, k = 0 (1)
A B A = k B, k > 0 A B A = k B, k < 0
Exercise 258 on page 55:

Show that vectors a and b point at the same direction, when 3(a + b) = 5a b.
1.4 Non-parallel Vectors

Vectors A and B are non-parallel (A B), if they are not parallel.
A B Figure 1.6. An example of non-parallel vectors, A B. There is no real number k such that B = k A (B = k A for all k R).
2 Vector Sum
To be able to calculate with vectors, we need to dene vector addition and subtraction. First, we learn how to add and subtract vectors graphically. Later in the course we learn how the add and subtract vectors in algebraic form. Let A and B be vectors. The sum of the vectors is denoted by A + B. We can determine the sum of the non-zero vectors A and B graphically by moving the vector B such that its tail coincides with the tip of the vector A. Then, the sum of the vectors is represented by the arrow that starts from the tail of A and ends at the tip of B.
B tail of B
A tip of A B A+B A The sum vector A + B goes from tail of A to tip of B Figure 2.1. The green arrow represents the sum A + B. All arrows that are equal with A + B represent the same vector.
3 Vector Subtraction
Let A and B be non-zero vectors. The difference of the vectors is denoted by A B. The difference of A and B is dened as the addition of opposite vector B A B = A + (B ) We can determine the difference of non-zero vectors A and B graphically by constructing the opposite vector B , and moving it such that its tail coincides with the tip of the vector A. Then, the difference of the vectors is represented by the arrow that starts from the tail of A and ends at the tip of B.
A A AB Figure 3.1. The green arrow represents the difference A B = A + (B). All arrows that are equal with A B represent the same vector.
There is also an alternative way of determining the difference of two vectors. To determine the difference of vectors A and B , you may rst move the vector arrows so that their tails are at the same point. Then, if you draw an arrow from the tip of B to the tip of A, the arrow represents the vector A B. If you draw an arrow from the tip of A to the tip of B, the arrow represents the vector B A. The method above is very convenient, when the representations of vectors A and B already share a common starting point, and you have to express the third vector connecting the tips of the vectors in terms of A and B, as we see on the following page.
B A
AB B A
BA
Figure 3.2. On the left B + A = A B, and on the right A + B = B A. See Esimerkki 1 on page 21 for an example.
2.5 Base Vectors

When A and B are non-parallel vectors on a two dimensional plane, any other vector C on the plane can be expressed in terms of A and B, as illustrated on page 57 in the book. Let A and B be non-zero vectors such that A = k B, where k = 0 is a real number. Then, any other vector C can be expressed as a linear combination of A and B. That is, C = rA + sB where r, s R.
(2)
2.5 Base Vectors (cont.)

Linear combination means that we multiply the variables by scalars and sum the results. It is an important mathematical term. Vectors A and B in Equation ?? are said to form a base in a two dimensional vector space (plane). The vectors are called base vectors of the vector space. When we express vector C as a linear combination of A and B, we divide C into parallel components to A and B. Equation ?? is a component representation of C. Let vectors A and B form a base. Then rA + sB = tA + uB r = t and s = u. (3)
2.6 Scalar Product

The types of multiplication for vectors are the scalar product (dot product) and the vector product. We study scalar product in this course, and vector product in the IB course. The scalar product of non-zero vectors A and B is dened as
A B = |A||B| cos where is the angle between the vectors A and B.
(4)
If A = 0 or B = 0 then the scalar product is dened as A B = 0.

Note that the result of a scalar product is a scalar (real number), not a vector. The multiplication sign is not , and it cannot be omitted as in real variables where x y is usually written as xy . The expression A B is read as a dot b not a times b, because the scalar product is not an ordinary multiplication. The scalar product is important in several elds of mathematics and physics. For example in physics, the work done W by a constant force F is calculated by W = F d where d is displacement (the scalar product of force and displacement vectors, Topic 2.3).
2.6 Angle and Scalar Product

The angle between the non-zero vectors A and B can be solved from AB cos = , A, B = 0 (5) |A||B| Vectors A and B are perpendicular when = 90 A B = 0 AB where is the angle between the vectors A and B.
(6)
The following laws apply to scalar product A (B + C) = A B + A C (associative law) A B = B A (commutative law)
sA rB = srA B, s, r R (multiplication by scalars)
Exercise 2.1. Prove the commutative law above.
2.6 Scalar Product as a Projection

Let A and B be non-zero vectors. Then, |B| := |B| cos is the scalar projection of B in the direction of A (the symbol := means is dened as).
|B| cos
A
The scalar product can be understood as a measure of parallelism of two vectors. The scalar product is at maximum when A B (|A||B| cos = |A||B| cos 180 = |A||B| 1 = |A||B|). At minimum when A B (|A||B| cos = |A||B| cos (180) = |A||B| 1 = |A||B|). Zero when AB (|A||B| cos = |A||B| cos 90 = |A||B| 0 = 0). The scalar product A A = |A|2 because A A = |A||A| cos 0 = |A|2 1 = |A|2.
(7)
3 Vectors in xy -coordinate system

We can represent vectors in a plane by the xy -coordinate system. For that we use perpendicular unit vectors i and j. i is a unit vector that points at the positive x-direction. j is a unit vector that points at the positive y -direction. y 2 1 2 1
j i 1
x 2
1
Because i and j are perpendicular vectors, they form a base in xy coordinate system. Any vector A in xy -coordinate system can be expressed in terms of base vectors i and j such that A = x i + y j where x and y are real numbers. Since i and j are unit vectors, | i| = | j| = 1 . (8)
i and j form a so-called orthonormal base in xy -plane (from orthogonal meaning perpendicular and normal normalized to unit length)
You should note that i j= j i = 1 1 cos 90 = 0, and i i= j j= 1 1 cos 0 = 1.
y 3 2 A 4 3 2 1 1 A
2 i 2 j
x 1 1 2 A 2 3
Figure 3.2. Vectors do not have any specic position in xy plane. All three arrows represent the same vector A = x i + y j = 2 i + 2 j.
Let P = (x, y ), where x, y R, be a point in the xy -plane. Then, the position vector of P is dened as a vector arrow that emanates from origin O and ends at point P . In terms of base vectors i and j, the position vector is OP = x i + y j where x and y are the x and y coordinates of point P = (x, y ). The length of OP is the distance between the origin O and point P |OP | = x2 + y 2
(9)
(10)
The concept of position vector is fundamental in physics where displacement is dened as the change in position (the rst subtopic in Topic 5.1 in IB mathematics). During this course we learn how to construct lines and planes using position vectors.
y 3 2 1 O 2 1 1 1 2 x i 3 4 x OP y j P = (4, 3)
Figure 3.1. A position vector representation, where point P = (4, 3) and OP = 4i + 3j. The length of OP is |OP | = = xi + y j 2 2 2 2 x + y = 4 + 3 = 25 = 5. OP is an example of a displacement vector (in articial units).
3.6 Vector between Two Points

We can construct a vector using two points in xy -plane. In such a case we talk about the vector between the points, even though a vector does not have a specic position in space.
Let a = OA and b = OB be the position vectors of points A = (x1, y1) and B = (x2, y2). The directed line segment from A to B represents the vector AB = b + (a) = b a = (x2 x1) i + (y2 y1) j.
(11)
The distance between A and B is then |AB | = (x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2 (12)
y 3 B = (x2, y2)
=ba 2 AB
A = (x1, y1) 4 3
a=O A
1 O 1 1
OB =
x
Figure 3.3. In the gure A = (4, 1) and B = (4, 3). Vector AB = b a = (x2 x1) i + (y2 y1) j = (4 (4)) i + (3 1) j = 8 i + 2 j. The length of the vector (and the distance between the points) is |AB | = (x2 x1)2 + (y2 y1)2 = 82 + 22 = 68 = 2 17.
3.6 Scalar Product in xy -coordinate system

j, the scalar product is i + y2 j and B = x2 i + y1 If vectors A = x1 A B = x1 x2 + y 1 y 2 . Exercise 3.1. Prove Equation ??. (13)

Vectors 20130904

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1 Introduction to Vectors

1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)

1 Introduction to Vectors (cont.)

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

1.1 Zero Vector

1.2 Opposite Vector

A A Figure 1.4. A representation of vector A and opposite vector A.

1.3 Parallel Vectors

1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)

1.3 Parallel Vectors (cont.)

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

Exercise 258 on page 55:

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

1.4 Non-parallel Vectors

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

2.5 Base Vectors

2.5 Base Vectors (cont.)

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

2.6 Scalar Product

A B = |A||B| cos where is the angle between the vectors A and B.

If A = 0 or B = 0 then the scalar product is dened as A B = 0.

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

2.6 Angle and Scalar Product

sA rB = srA B, s, r R (multiplication by scalars)

Exercise 2.1. Prove the commutative law above.

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

2.6 Scalar Product as a Projection

3 Vectors in xy -coordinate system

You should note that i j= j i = 1 1 cos 90 = 0, and i i= j j= 1 1 cos 0 = 1.

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

c Kari Eloranta 2013

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

3.6 Vector between Two Points

c Kari Eloranta 2013

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

3.6 Scalar Product in xy -coordinate system

Pre-IB Mathematics: Course V: Vectors

c Kari Eloranta 2013

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