Interferon

Aayudh Das

Interferon (IFN) was discovered more than 50 years ago as an agent that inhibited the replication of influenza virus. The IFN family of cytokines is now recognized as a key component of the innate immune response and the first line of defence against viral infection. Expt- First culture media is exposed to influenza virus. The active component on the conditioned media was termed as interferon & subsequently identified as glycoprotein. Its a 166-170 amino acid long glycoprotein part of a mutagene family. Interferon can be separated by Lectin column chromatography.

Plaque assay[The plaque assay can be used to purify a clonal population of virus or to determine viral titer as plaqueforming units per ml (pfu/ml) so that known amounts of virus can be used to infect cells during subsequent work. A viral plaque is a visible structure formed within a cell culture, such as bacterial cultures within some nutrient medium (e.g. agar). The bacteriophage viruses replicate and spread, thus generating regions of cell destructions known as plaques. Counting the number of plaques can be used as a method of virus quantification. ]

A simple and rapid microplaque assay for Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) was developed. Discrete plaque formation was consistently observed on baby hamster kidney (BHK-15) cells. The microplaque assay could be accurately applied to measuring interferon activity. Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) infected to BHK cells

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cells will die serially dilute the media (interferon conc. diluted).

take the conditioned media

Interferons are detected by their ability to reduce the no. of virus plaque obtained following infection with VSV conc. As low as 10-14M are detected by this assay. Fewer than 50 molecules are apparently sufficient to protect one single line. Why the curve is not linear? - As the interferon binds to the receptors there should be minimum no. Of receptor binding site and after saturations the receptors, there will be no further inhibitors.

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Types of interferonThree classes of IFN have been identified, designated types I to III, and are classified according to the receptor complex they signal through1. Type I IFNs, which in humans comprise 13 IFN subtypes, IFN, IFN, IFN, IFN, IFN and IFN, engage the ubiquitously expressed IFNAR (IFN receptor) complex that is composed of IFNAR1 and IFNAR2. 2. The type II class of IFN comprises the single IFN gene product that binds the IFN receptor (IFNGR) complex, and mediates broad immune responses to pathogens other than viruses. 3. The type III IFNs include three IFN gene products that signal through receptors containing IFNLR1 (IFN receptor 1; also known as IL-28Ra) and IL10R2 (also known as IL-10R).

Functiona) It alters the cell metabolism in ways which makes it less suitable for viral replication. b) They block viral transcription and degrade viral RNA.

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PKR (protein kinases)

PKR was initially identified as a regulator of the antiviral response through studies of protein synthesis in cellfree lysates from IFN- and dsRNA-treated cells. PKR belongs to a small family of protein kinases that respond to environmental stresses to regulate protein synthesis.

The classical activator of PKR is dsRNA that co-operatively bound by tandem RNA-binding motifs (RBMs) in the Nterminal of PKR. All RBMs that have been tested bind dsRNA independently of sequence, but recognize a specific higher ordered structure. Although RBMs have been shown to bind to just 16 base pairs of RNA, longer RNA moieties are required to engage both of the RBMs in PKR and to activate the kinase function. Consequently, dsRNA that is longer than 30 base pairs activates PKR most effectively. Also, ssRNAs of 47 bases that have limited ternary structure activate the kinase if they contain 5-triphosphates. As cellular RNA transcripts predominantly have 5-monophosphates, this enables PKR to specifically target viral RNAs. Phosphorylated EIF2 at serine residue 51, resulting in sequestration of the limiting guaninenucleotide exchange factor EIF2.This prevents recycling of GDP, halting translation, and therefore allows the cell to reconfigure gene expression. How we can test that phosphorylation occurs in ser51? SDM in Ser51 to Ala (inactive mutant) as it does not have OH group so no phosphorylation. SDM in Ser51 to Glu then translation occurs and no phosphorylation.

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What is the evidence that PKR is actually involved in mediating host immune response in vivo?
Knock out PKR and infect with virus - The role of PKR in antiviral responses has been investigated in mutant and transgenic mouse models. Transgenic mice expressing a trans-dominant negative mutant of human PKR is defective in kinase activity (Lys296Arg). These transgenic mice have impaired antiviral responses and show increased susceptibility to VSV, influenza virus.. Experiments in PKR-deficient mouse embryonic fibroblasts show that PKR is involved in protection against infection with several RNA viruses, including HCV, hepatitis D virus. PKR polymorphism- In human it shows resistance to HCV infection. Host that have frequent infection have polymorphism in PKR that will provide immunity hosts and their parasites co-evolve.

The OAS and RNaseL pathway

Initially identified as IFN-induced proteins that generate low-molecular-weight inhibitors of cellfree protein synthesis, the proteins are distinguished by their capacity to synthesize 2,5linked phosphodiester bonds to polymerize ATP into oligomers of adenosine. These unique 2,5-oligomers specifically activate the latent form of RNaseL, which can then mediate RNA degradation. In this way, OAS in combination with RNaseL constitutes an antiviral RNA decay pathway. The four OAS genes identified in humans, termed OAS1, OAS2, OAS3 and OASL (OAS-like), have been mapped to chromosome 12 (chromosome 5 in mice). They undergo alternative splicing (OAS2 produces four alternatively spliced transcripts that encode two proteins of 69 and 71 kDa) and they can function as monomers, dimmers and tetramers. A tripeptide motif (CFK) within the OAS domains of OAS1 and OAS2 mediates oligomerization, so the catalytically active form of these enzymes is a tetramer and dimer for OAS1 and OAS2, respectively. The polymerization of OAS monomers influences their processivity. The direct importance of OAS proteins in the antiviral response in humans is highlighted by genetic studies showing that polymorphisms within a splice-acceptor site of the OAS1 gene (producing two isoforms of the enzyme with different activities) significantly correlate with the antiviral response to the yellow fever vaccine in immunization clinical trials. Nevertheless, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at a splice enhancer site in OASL have been correlated with susceptibility to infection with WNV (West Nile Virus). Intriguingly, the capacity to accept GTP implies a potential role for OAS in RNA splicing, whereby the enzyme generates a 2,5- phosphodiester bond between the guanine at the 5 end of an intron, and the adenine of a 3 splice signal in the splicing intermediate structure.

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Mx GTPases
Type I IFNs induce the expression of several guanine hydrolysing proteins. There is evidence that four families within this protein class are involved in host resistance to pathogens, one of them Mx proteins have a wellcharacterized antiviral role and show a strict dependence on type I and III IFNs for their expression. The Mx family GTPases, which comprise MxA and MxB in humans and Mx1 and Mx2 in mice, were first identified as antiviral proteins by the observation that the sensitivity of many inbred mouse strains to orthomyxomavirus was solely due to mutations within the Mx locus on chromosome 16. This sensitivity could be rescued by restoration of Mx1 expression. Strikingly, constitutive expression of the human equivalent of mouse Mx1, MxA, in IFNAR deficient mice confers full resistance to otherwise fatal infection with Thogoto virus, LaCrosse virus or Semliki Forest virus. Human MxA has been shown to inhibit all infectious genera of the Bunyaviridae family (orthobunyavirus, hantavirus, phlebovirus and dugbe virus). In addition, genetic studies of human populations have shown that a polymorphism in the MXA gene correlates with increased susceptibility to HCV56, HBV57 and measles virus, with the latter associated with higher rates. Appropriately, Mx proteins are expressed by various cell types in peripheral tissues, for example, by hepatocytes, endothelial cells and immune cells, including peripheral blood mononuclear cells, plasmacytoid dendritic cells and myeloid cells of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. The Mx proteins have a large (relative to many other MxA GTPases) Nterminal GTPase domain, a central interacting domain (CID) and a Cterminal leucine zipper (LZ) domain. Both the CID and the LZ domain are required to recognize target viral structures. The main viral target seems to be viral nucleocapsid-like structures. By virtue of their location near the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Mx proteins can survey exocytic events and mediate vesicle trafficking to trap essential viral components, and in so doing, they prevent viral replication at early time points. Both MxA and Mx1 associate with subunits of the influenza virus polymerase (PB2 and nucleocapsid protein) to block viral gene transcription62. This is a potent antiviral measure, which effectively prevents the generation of viral mutants that escape Mx-mediated antiviral mechanisms. As a result, few viral countermeasures against Mx proteins have been identified. Most viral escape mechanisms that have been described target type I IFN signalling: for example, highly virulent strains of influenza virus increase their replicative fitness to effectively out run the IFN response. More directly, the HBV precore or core protein has been reported to interact with the MXA promoter to prevent MXA gene expression.

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ISG15
One of the most prominent ISGs to be induced during viral infection and the ensuing type I IFN response is the ~15 kDa protein ISG15 (IFN-stimulated protein), a ubiquitin homologue. This response, as mediated by ISGs, is referred to as ISGylation. ISG15 is expressed as a 165 amino-acid precursor that is subsequently processed to expose the Cterminal sequence LRLRGG. The equivalent diglycine residues within this motif in ubiquitin are adenylated and conjugated by a thiolester bond to cysteine residues of three enzymes, a ubiquitinactivating enzyme (E1), a ubiquitinconjugating enzyme (E2) and a ubiquitin ligase enzyme (E3), before being transferred to lysine residues on protein substrates. Ubiquitin activating enzyme (E1) Ubiquitin conjugating enzyme (E2) Ubiquitin ligase enzyme (E3)

ISGylation is reversible and several enzymes like ubiquitinspecific protease 18 (USP18) catalyse the hydrolysis of ISG15 called deISGylation.

Antiviral responsesa) At least 158 putative ISG15 target proteins have been identified so far. Many of these substrates have important roles in the type I IFN response, including the signalling components JAK1 (Janus kinase 1) and STAT1, the PRRs, such as RIGI (retinoic-acidinducible gene I), and the antiviral effector proteins MxA, PKR and RNaseL. b) ISG15 is secreted in large amounts and has been shown to act as a cytokine to modulate immune responses. Consistent with its designation as an antiviral protein, mice deficient in ISG15 have increased susceptibility to the influenza A and B viruses, Sindbis virus, herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV1) and murine herpesvirus. c) In addition, infection of Ifnar1/ mice with a recombinant chimeric Sindbis virus expressing ISG15 protected against the Sindbis-virus-induced lethality that occurs following infection with wild-type virus. d) Similarly, ubiquitylation of the HIV1 proteins Gag and Tsg101 is inhibited by ISG15. e) Non-structural protein 1 (NS1) of influenza B virus binds ISG15 at the N-terminus and blocks ISGylation. f) Finally, several viral proteases from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus, equine arteritis virus, porcine respiratory and reproductive syndrome virus, and Sindbis virus have been found to mediate deISGylation.

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