Multiple Roles and Identities: Factors Influencing Self-Esteem Among Middle-Aged Working Men and Women Author(s): Donald

C. Reitzes and Elizabeth J. Mutran Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Dec., 1994), pp. 313-325 Published by: American Sociological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2787158 . Accessed: 02/01/2011 19:28
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Social Psychology Quarterly 1994, Vol. 57, No. 4, 313-325

Self-Esteem Factors Influencing MultipleRoles and Identities: amongMiddle-AgedWorkingMen and Women*

DONALD C. REITZES
GeorgiaStateUniversity

Carolinaat ChapelHill University ofNorth

ELIZABETH J. MUTRAN

menand women interviews with 818full-time working Data derivedfrom in-depth telephone Hill metropolitan area are used to age 58 to 64 who live in theRaleigh-Durham-Chapel Findings of roles and identities on self-esteem. explorehypotheses about the influence of theroles includethe role accumulation norspecific combinations following: 1) neither to theworker, spouse,and parentalroles increases influence self-esteem; 2) commitment on self-esteem varies by role and and 3) the influence of identity meanings self-esteem; gender.

of working, middleRoles are key units of social structure. ings on the self-esteem They link individuals with the social and aged menand women. in exploring material resources of social groups and Although we areinterested the institutions, and thereby provideindividuals implications roles and identities, of multiple with an externalsource of rewards and our empirical focusrequires thatwe address Roles also provideindividuals two particular opportunities. issues. First,we mustsituate with an internalframework on which to middle-agedworkersin the preretirement develop a sense of meaning,purpose,and stageofthelifecycle.Preretirement a reflects agency (Foote 1951;Gecas 1986;Park[1926] timewhenanticipatory socialization to retire1950). One of the underlying tenets of ment may begin in earnest (Ekerdt and role theory was the untested structural as- DeViney 1993). At this time, too, the sumption role responsibilities that multiple roleswith diverse ofparenthood maybe reduced partners create psychological stress. Sieber becausechildren are likely to be olderand/or (1974), however, a new direction offered for notliving at home.In addition, intact couples roletheory whenhe argued that multiple roles may experience heightened marital satisfacneed nothave negative consequences; on the tion(Kalish 1982). Ourfocuson middle-aged with workers contrary, theymay provideindividuals highlights Mead's (1932) theme that role privileges, status security,personal the past and the future in the commingle and ego gratification. enrichment, of the present(Maines, social construction identi- Sugrue, and Katovich 1983). Preretirement Multipleroles also mean multiple and subjective ties, selfmeanings, responses reflects boththeanticipation of future retireto roles. In this researchwe propose that ment and the acquisition of past roles identitymeanings and role commitments(Thornton and Nardi 1975). Further, prereprovide people witha sense of purposeand tirement the fact that roles are highlights direction thatmay contribute to a positive temporal and dynamic. The opportunities and assessmentof self-worth. We investigate demandsof parenthood, as well as of work middle-aged workingmen and women, in careersand marital ties, change over time. partbecausetheyoffer us theopportunity to Thus the effecton self-esteem of being a in adult roles thatmay parent, exploreindividuals or even commitment to the parental offer resources multiple andmultiple opportu- role,mayvarythroughout thelifecycle. nities foridentity gratification andfulfillment. Second, our empiricalfocus on middlewe areinterested in theinfluence Therefore of aged workers demandsthatwe consider the role accumulation and specific combinations issue of gender. It is now widelyrecognized of work and familyroles, as well as in thatgender shapeslifeexperiences, and that in commitment variations and identity mean- even in similarroles men and womenmay encounter different of opportunities patterns * This research is supported by a grant from the and constraints (McAdams 1992). Although National Instituteon Aging. both men and women may be employed 313

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full-time, womentendto be overrepresented lating roles will lead to greater social in work careerscharacterized by relatively integration, possiblyto greater power,preslow earnings, few fringe benefits, and little tige, resources, and emotional gratification, job security (Minkler and Stone 1985). The and therefore to higher levels of self-esteem. role of worker may have different rewards All ofourrespondents occupy theworker role I and identity meanings for men and for butcan occupy as many as 12 different roles. women,as well as exerting different influ- Followingthe role accumulation argument, ences on self-esteem. Similarly,being a we wish to learn whether increasedoccuworking spousedemands moreof a woman's pancyof theserolesbolsters self-esteem. time and energythan a man's (Hochschild Hypothesis 1. The greater thenumber of roles 1989), so the role of spouse may have a held by individuals,the greatertheir selfdifferent influence on men's and women's esteem. As we consider self-esteem. theimplications perspective suggests thatspecific of multiple roles,possiblegender differences Another combinationsof roles, rather than role mustbe taken intoconsideration. accumulation, lead to positive outcomes. Menaghan(1989) notedthat80 percent of REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE AND men age 50 or olderin herChicago sample RESEARCH HYPOTHESES were either employed-married-childrearer, or married only. For We beginwithrole accumulation and the employed-married, were that recognition rolesprovide individuals with womenof thesame age, modalpatterns occupiedthethree a sourceof integration and material rewards. less clear:only38 percent categories of no roles, married only, a Durkhe- largest Gove and Geerken (1977) invoked Genderdifferences imian ([1897] 1951) perspective when they and married-childrearer. in the effects of different role suggested that one reason why married were evident on mental health. Psychological have poorer combinations womenwho are not employed werehighest menwith for marriedhealth menis that symptoms mental scoresthanmarried roles or no roles, and lowestfor social childrearer of theworkrole increases theaddition or marriedintegration and reducesalienation and social men with married-employed role combinations; for isolation. that husbands employer-childrearer Theyfound employed werehighsymptoms had lowermeanpsychiatric scores women,psychological symptom of childrearer thanemployed had lower est forthe role combinations wives,who in turn wives. They found onlyor no rolesand lowestforthecombinascoresthanunemployed marwhencontrolling for tions of married-employed-childrearer, no differences, however, and emmarried-childrearer, of incessant feelings demands,desireto be ried-employed, was that pattern Gove and Zeiss (1987) ployedonly.The emerging alone,and loneliness. distressis more likely when theimpact of thework, and psychological explored marital, departsfromnormal, parental roles on adults' happiness and one's role repertoire concludedthat in general,the greaterthe expectable situationsfor one's age and the gender. numberof roles occupied, the greater a New (1983), using paneldatafrom increased happiness.Employment happiness Thoits found that individustudy, mothers with children at Havencommunity forall women except of beingmarried and als who possess moreroles tendedto report home;thecombination In later less psychological stress. thehighest meanhappiness significantly working produced scores for women. In 1986, in a rare work (Thoits 1986, 1992), however, she role combinations influlongitudinalstudy, Moen, Dempster-Mc- arguedthatspecific distress.Thoits (1986) Clain, and Williams (1992) reinterviewedence psychological that and having children beingmarried in a 1956 study. found whohad participated women forwomenbut that They found that the numberof roles the tendsto reducedistress women had occupied 30 years earlierwas to functional relatedpositively abilityand individuals can occupyother rolesas well, I Clearly, to the worker role, the subjectiveratingof theirhealth in 1986. but our set covers,in addition rolesof husband/wife/partner, dating relationship, roles was interpreted as family Occupying multiple grandparent, son/daughter, sibling,and cousin/ an indicator of social integration, and served parent, other relative roles,as well therolesof friend, neighbor, to prevent social isolation. and volunteer/member of a community religious person, accumu- organization. that Our first hypothesis proposes

MULTIPLE ROLES AND IDENTITIES

315

in whichone Hypothesis 2. Role combinations for holdingall threeroles is more stressful or more of the threeadult roles are absent, women than for men, whereasbeing emwhenthemarital and/or roles parental ployed tends to be more psychologically especially are absentfor women, should decrease selfThoits(1992) formen. Similarly, beneficial esteem. being found that among husband-fathers, Roles also provide thesocial anchorage for unemployedincreases distress and being whereas thecom- identities and the organization of identities reducesdistress, employed is less beneficial for into self conceptions (Stryker 1980). Symbination ofparent-worker bolic interaction theoryrests on two key women. (Rose 1962). The firstis that The second hypothesis focuses on the assumptions of roles. humanbehavior combination is influenced powerfully by impactof the specific and The familyroles of spouse and parentare symbolic of self, others, interpretations for both adult thesocial setting. Roles are symbols-shared perceivedas very important arelearned the theroleofworker, although socialmeanings-that menandwomen; through but new emergent than familyroles for both process of socialization, less important in the actual formen meaningsmay be negotiated as important sexes, is stillperceived forwomen situation.The second assumptionis that lesserextent, and,to a somewhat "internalindividuals do notmerely passively (Pleck 1985; Thoits1992).2 discrete combi- ize" rolesand roleexpectations, butactively This study focuseson four adultroles:worker roleswithintrinsic, of thethree only, shapeand infuse nations subjecand worker- tive,and selfmeanings (Turner worker-parent, 1956). Stone worker-spouse, men (1962) and Reitzes and Burke (1983) proFor middle-aged working spouse-parent. entails twoprocesses: a mild stigmamay be associatedwithnot posedthat rolelearning or nothaving butwe 1) "identification of" roles, or learning the children, beingmarried for sharedmeaningsand expectations of roles; expect thatit would be much stronger that are and2) "identification with"roles,or infusing women. Thus role combinations withthetraditional consistent gender norms, of roles with self meanings,values, and whichemphasize theworkrole formenand motives. to support The third family rolesforwomen,are likely on the hypothesis concentrates whilerole combinations thatare individual's self-esteem, to roles.The subjective response withthese expectations less consistent may "identification with" process suggeststhat Middle-aged womenwho commitment lowerself-esteem. and centrality are two of the areemployed butdo notoccupyeither family ways in whichindividuals investroles with scoresthan purpose,meaning, role mayhave lowerself-esteem and affect. Commitment women who hold all three roles. This refers to a person'sbelonging or attachment em- to a role; individuals expectation may not hold for younger varyin their degreeof womenexperienc- role commitment ployedwomen,especially (Burkeand Reitzes 1991). with full-time Although associated ingtheroleoverload commitment to theworker rolehas work and childbearing.For middle-aged long been understood to influence perforwomen witholderchildren, however, parent- manceon thejob (Jans1982; Morrow 1983), Similarly, for we are interested in whether hood maybe less demanding. commitment to middle-agedwomen, some of the strain worker, roles influences spouse, and parent with associated full-time workand self-esteem. combining Individuals also orderroles by maritalresponsibilities may be less severe theirimportance or centrality (McCall and than for youngerwomen, eitherbecause Simmons 1978; Rosenberg 1979). Thoits andwiveshaveaccommodated husbands their (1992) foundthatcentrality did not reduce to role demands or because psychologicalsymptomsof distress, but expectations coupleswho have notbeen able to deal with Strykerand Serpe (1994) reportedthat thestrain have dissolved their marriages. has a positive effect on timein the centrality role. 2 We expect that both commitment and In ourdataset,76 percent and 81 percent of themen of thewomennamedthe centrality and 60 percent and 82 percent witha sense providean individual roles of spouse and parentamong theirthreemost of meaning, and satisfaction, which purpose, important roles.In bothcases theseroleswerethemost self-esteem. Commitment to and The roleof worker was mentioned can increase frequently mentioned. of a role, however, also may of themen(fourth mostfrequent) and 13 centrality by 22 percent of thewomen(fifth mostfrequent). percent increase a person's vulnerability to role

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strains (Simon 1992). In addition, as a result ing of being competent(Wood, Rhodes, and of differential gendersocialization, commit- Whelan 1989). mentand centrality regarding primary relaHypothesis 4. Individuals who perceived themtionships, suchas family roles,mayinfluence selves as moreconfident, morecompetent, and self-esteem morestrongly forwomen,while moresociablein their worker, spouse,or parent commitment andcentrality regarding achieveroleswillhavehigher scoreson self-esteem than ment-related roles, such as the work role, willother roleoccupants. may have a greater effecton men's selfA finalcautionis in order.We recognize esteem(Thoits1992). that the relationship between roles and whoattribute 3. Individuals Hypothesis greater self-esteem is probably reciprocal, but our and commitment centrality to theirwork, cross-sectional data prevent us fromclearly spouse,or parental roles will have higher distinguishing causal order.For logical and self-esteem than individuals whoattribute less theoretical reasons, we focuson the however, orcentrality commitment tothese roles. influences of roles and identities on selfhypotheses followthe The fourth hypothesis also is derived from esteem.Our structural thatthegreater social integration the "identification with" process. Identity assumption accompanies roleaccumulation andthe meanings arethosewhich persons attribute to which expectations associatedwithspein a role (Burke 1980; Stryker normative themselves influence the forma1980). Individuals use their identity meanings cificrole combinations tion and maintenance of self-esteem. As for as reference pointsto assess theimplications hypotheses, followingBurke of theirown behaviors.For example, the our identity and specific creationand maintenance of an identity as (1980), we argue thatsituated contexts of identities encourage individuals to intellectually curiousmay encourage college be sensitive to the identity-confirming (or students to excel in their academic work of others responses and to the (Reitzesand Burke1983). More comprehen- -challenging) of behaviors. As a result, individuHeise (1988) developed affect control outcomes sively, als receive frequent confirmations (or chalto explorethereciprocal theory relationships and identities are betweenthe meaningsof identities, situa- lenges) to theiridentities, relatively easy to modify. a Self-esteem, as tions,and behaviors. global is influenced not self-evaluation, only In this studywe can probe the effect of identities but also by past experiinthethree rolesofworker, by current identity meanings ences and pressures for self consistency; on self-esteem. spouse,andparent Mortimer, therefore self-esteem more slowly. changes Finch, and Kumka (1982) defined four the Thus, although is reciprocal, relationship late adolescents dimensions meaning among more commonlyand more frethat remained stableovertimeand influenced identities influence The desireto self-esteem. adaptationto adult roles. Three of these quently confirm a and support positive self-esteem, that are dimensions suggest identity meanings motivates both identities andbehavto rolesin middle andold however, generally applicable 1979). is similar to Osgood,Succi, ior (Rosenberg age: 1) competent dimenand Tannenbaum's (1957) evaluation dimension or Bales's (1951) task-directed METHODS instrumental meansion,and reflects identity Turner's(1968) Data ings; 2) confident captures and reflects emodimension identity-directed and 3) The data forthis studywere collectedas tionalor affective identity meanings; in othersand is the1992panelofthestudy sociable taps an interest titled "Roles" and dimen- Self: Factors in Developmentand Retiresimilarto Bales's (1951) expressive " The samplingprocedures will ment. sion. We expectthatidentity were demeanings on self-esteem forboth signed to identify have positive effects 400 menand approximately menand women.If traditional norms 400 women at gender age 58 to 64 whowereworking womenmayplace least 35 hours a week and living in the are in operation, however, on theaffective and expres- Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill (North Carogreater emphasis area.To gather sive identity of beingconfident and lina)metropolitan oursample, meanings thedriver files sociable, while men may place greater we beganby obtaining history on the instrumental mean- maintained Carolinadepartment by theNorth emphasis identity

MULTIPLE ROLES AND IDENTITIES

317

to Variables of MotorVehicles. The file is estimated of the entire includemore than80 percent are used in thedata population in this age group and a higher Four sets of variables variable workers.From the analysis.The dependent percentage of full-time self-esteem, list, whichrecordsapplicants'age, gender, derivedfrom Rosenberg (1965), has proved or to be a durable and useful measureof a telephone number andaddress butnottheir or global assessment we randomly selectednamesin person's summary workstatus, of proportion to the size of the threecounties self. The scale includes10 itemssuch as "I area.Following Dillman feelthat included in thestudy I'm a person of worth, at leaston an letters equal basis withothers,""I am able to do (1978), we sentout two introductory (threeweeks apart) things and screening postcards as well as mostother people," and "I telephone calls (up to 12 wishI could have morerespect and madefollow-up formyself" tries) to verifytelephonenumbersand to (recoded).Responsesrangedfrom"strongly working subjectslivingin agree"(4) to "strongly identify full-time disagree" (1) (alpha= thearea.3 .87). Six healthand statusmeasuresserve as procedures produced1,332 The screening in thestudy, background characteristics. Poor healthis a persons eligibleforparticipation to measure consented of functional limitation of whom 826, or 62 percent, and is based in take part in our two 30-minute telephone on a seven-itemscale of difficulties interviews. Our analysisis based on the818 activitiessuch as walking, using stairs, forlongperiods, or sitting respondents (397 men and 421 women)who standing bending, responses on the self-esteem lifting weights up to 10 pounds,andreaching gave complete of "never," responses measure.The responserate was higherfor aboveone's head,with or "often"(alpha=.79). Our women (64 percentversus 60 percentfor "sometimes," topersons men), whites(64% versus54% forAfrican- sampleis limited age 58 to 64; thus and peoplelivingin ChapelHill theage variable, measured in years,coversa Americans), and seven-year of the range.Less than1 percent (76% versus62% forDurhamresidents 60% forRaleighresidents).4 We believethat sampledidentified themselves as Asian or as a diverseset of respon- neither our samplecontains whiteor black, so racial diversity is dents with a varietyof social background limitedto blacks and whites; white is a It allows us to proceedwith dummy characteristics. variable.Genderis measured witha and dummy hypotheses our primary goals of testing variablecoded as female.Incomeis of multiple the effects roles and derived from a question that exploring asks forthetotal of middle-aged 1991 householdincome with 10 response identities on the self-esteem working menand women. categories ranging from $7,500 or less through(1) $35,001 to $50,000 (5) to is based 3We originally contacted 4,594 peoplefrom theMotor $200,001 and over (10). Education Vehicleregistration list,but,we had to eliminate 3,262 on thehighest in schooland gradecompleted reasons:1) 1,073wereworking, butnot is coded in number for thefollowing of years. Occupation is full-time (35 hoursa week); 2) 1,228 werenotworking a measured by 100-point occupational pres(retired, disabled,had neverworked);3) 265 were not age 58 to 64; 4) 107 had diedsincetheir and tige scale using 1980 U.S. census occuparegistration; classifications and 1989NORC prestige 5) 589 agreed in thestudy to participate butbroke contact tional before we coulddetermine whether metourage and scores. Scores range from eighty-six they for workstatus criteria. and 75 for physicians to for news lawyers 19 4 A comparison withcensusdata (U.S. Bureauof the and 9 forshoe shiners (NORC 1991; Census 1990) formenand womenage 58 to 64 living in vendors the Raleigh-Durham area suggests thatwe U.S. Bureauof theCensus 1982). metropolitan mayhave oversampled whites and middle-class people. Role occupancy is measured in three ways. Our sample containsfewer African-Americans (18% Respondents were asked whether theyheld versus 23%), fewer peoplewhohavenotattended college 12 roles: worker, any one of the following (41% versus 91%), fewer and laborers precision workers neighbor, friend, husband/wife/partner, dat(13% versus 47%), and fewer peoplewith incomes under father/mother, grandparent, $25,000 (26% versus71%) thanthe census data. Our ing relationship, sample, however,is restricted by design to full-time son/daughter, brother/sister, religious person, a population thatmay be expectedto have volunteer/member workers, of a community organizahigher educational levels, occupational status, and relative. Role accumuincomes than the census population.The latteralso tion,and cousin/other of these12 rolesthat the includesmen and womenwho are unemployed or are lationis thenumber less than35 hours a week. employed individual occupied.To measure specific role

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a parent]"; husband/as 4) "I wouldfeela deep senseof a a wife/as loss ifI failed[in mywork/as personal 5 As suggested varies with parent]";5) "I wish I were not [in thisline of work/a earlier,active parenting and 6) "If I could,I would with parent]" (recoded); children, husband/a respondents stagein thelifecycle.Among (recoded). The have children livingat home give up being a [worker/wife/parent]" currently only 18 percent from at fourresponse categories ranged strongly agree(4) havechildren andonly3.5 percent age 18 or less living to strongly disagree (1). home.

variables als view themselvesat least somewhat dummy we construct combinations, worker- differently forthe role sets of worker-spouse, acrossdifferent roles. commitment, spouse commitment, parent, and workeronly (worker-spouse- Worker We and parent commitment category). consistof a scale parentservesas thereference six items that are adapted to fit the also include in some analyses the dummy containing to worker, spouse, and parentroles6(alpha= parentrole5(based on responses variables and .67, .88, and .85 respectively) or worker the question"Do you have children?") spousecommitment, andparent spouse role (based on responses to the commitment, to explorethe commitment. To measurethe importance or question"Are you married?") of a role,we beganwiththelistof influenceof these specific roles on self- centrality 12 roles used to measurerole accumulation esteem. to identify processes include mea- and asked each respondent his or Finally, identity and her three most important roles. Worker meanings,centrality, sures of identity refer centrality is scored 3 if the worker meanings role is to a role.Identity commitment to himself identified as themostimportant role,2 ifit is a person attributes to themeanings et al. (1982) thesecondmostimportant role, 1 if it is the in a role. Mortimer or herself which third mostimportant role,and 0 if it was not measure, a multidimensional suggested in the work and mentioned mostimportant as one of thethree we adapted to identities andparentcentrality theleadingphrase"As a roles. Spouse centrality roles. After family in the same way. Correlations worker, I am . . .," "As a husband/wife/ are measured I am," betweencommitment measuresacross roles I am . . .," or "As a parent, (partner), from.31 to .49). The (ranging we organized adjectivepairs in a semantic- are moderate format (Osgood et al. correlationsbetween centralitymeasures differential five-point dimension across roles are verylow (- .05, .07, -.10), is an instrument 1957). Competent a comparative of success or in part because theyreflect thatfocuseson self meanings in a role.It is measured The low correlations between combythree ranking. achievement within each role mitmentand centrality successful-unsuccessitems: active-inactive, (ranging from .09 to .30) suggest the (alpha= competent ful, and competent-not of the two variablesdespite spouse, and distinctiveness .59, .75, and .73 for worker, to an the apparent between refers similarity measures of Confident parentrespectively). and importance. thatcenterson feeling attachment affective dimension by the in a role,and is measured self-assured conflthreeitemsrelaxed-tense, happy-sad, dent-anxious(alpha= .56, .63, .65 for FINDINGS worker,spouse, and parentrespectively). Differences that Gender an expressive dimension Sociablereflects entails self meanings associated with an The data analysis beginswithTable 2 and style.It is measured interpersonal outgoing of zero-order differences the investigation by in others-interested by fouritems:interested in self-esteem, health and social gender and socialin self,warm-cold, open-closed, role occupancy, and identities. background, solitary (alpha= .62, .73, and .69 forworker, First, we find no statistically significant respectively). spouse,and parent in self-esteem betweenmiddledifferences the among thecorrelations Table 1 displays men and women. Thus in among the aged working variables. Correlations identity withearlierstudies(Antonucci and keeping identitymeanings within each role are Larson1978) that no Akiyama 1987; reported moderate(rangingfrom .40 to .67) and dimensions are tapping that thethree suggest 6 The items include1) "I feelI'm truly at homewhen so are thecorredifferent meanings; identity I'm [at work/with mywife/with mychildren]"; 2) "I'm across very meaning lationsof the same identity committed tomy[work/husband/children]"; 3) "It is individuthat roles(.46-.67), whichconfirm important to me that I succeed [in my work/asa

MULTIPLE ROLES AND IDENTITIES

Table 1. Correlation for IdentityVariables Variable 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

319
15

WorkerCompetent 1.00 .44 1.00 WorkerConfident .42 1.00 WorkerSociable .40 .24 WorkerCommitment .23 .20 1.00 .04 -.05 -.07 .09 WorkerCentrality Spouse Competent .49 .43 .39 .15 .55 .22 .41 .30 Spouse Confident .43 .54 .38 .15 Spouse Sociable .05 .05 .31 Spouse Commitment .12 .01 .01 .03 .07 Spouse Centrality ParentCompetent .46 .35 .38 .15 .33 .51 .31 .14 ParentConfident .37 .40 .16 .49 ParentSociable .09 .09 .37 ParentCommitment .10 .04 -.05 ParentCentrality -.05 -.02

1.00 -.16 -.11 -.15 -.07 -.09

-.10

-.10 -.16 -.09 -.13

1.00 .60 1.00 .67 .44 1.00 .26 .26 .24 1.00 .10 .30 1.00 .10 .05 .57 .40 .51 .09 -.01 1.00 .43 .60 .47 .16 .07 .60 1.00 .14 -.01 .50 .44 .67 .63 .49 1.00 .14 .14 .09 .49 .07 .26 .28 .29 1.00 -.01 -.02 .01 -.10 -.05 .09 .09 .09 .13 1.00

in well-being we find incomes,and have higher occupational presdifference by gender, controls working women. thatbefore are added,there appears tigethanmiddle-aged in theselfevaluations In roleaccumulation to be no difference of we find that employed working menandwomen.Gender differencesmenandwomen holdcomparable numbers of in health and social background highlight the the 12 common and community family roles. betweenmen and The menare morelikelythanthewomento social statusdifferences women: middle-aged working menarehealth- be marriedand/orto be parents.Among persons, menand womenare equally ier, are better educated,have largerfamily married
Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations, by Gender Men Mean Self-Esteem PoorHealth Age White Income Education Occupation Role Accumulation Parent Role Spouse Role Worker Only Worker-Spouse Worker-Parent Worker-Spouse-Parent Worker Competent Workerl Confident Worker Sociable Worker Commitment Worker Centrality Spouse Competent Spouse Confident Spouse Sociable SpouseCommitment Spouse Centrality Parent Competent Parent Confident Parent Sociable Parent Commitment Parent Centrality 33.997 9.954*** 60.667** .833 5.310*** 15.013*** 51.464*** 9.675 .952* .912*** .013*** .035 .076 *** .974*** 13.945 12.688 16.856 20.015 .350* 13.396 13.0473 17.155* 21.965** 1.877*** 13.053*** 12.858 17.582*** 21.530** 1.458*** SD 4.047 2.429 1.798 .374 1.632 3.453 14.243 1.592 .214 .284 .112 .185 .265 .332 1.474 2.098 2.789 2.461 .782 1.909 2.048 2.694 2.387 1.238 1.968 2.213 2.559 2.348 1.023 N 397 396 397 395 339 393 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 397 395 391 397 376 375 375 370 397 375 374 373 372 397 Mean 34.135 9.794*** 60.321** .795 4.372*** 13.660*** 46.152*** 9.641 .914* .568*** .052*** .033 .378*** .532*** 13.957 12.582 17.067 19.870 .228* 13.586 13.015 17.650* 21.398** 1.209*** 13.510*** 12.992 18.308*** 22.021** 1.781*** Women SD 3.962 2.881 1.868 .404 1.533 2.566 11.983 1.403 .280 .496 .223 .180 .485 .500 1.444 2.165 2.649 2.632 .658 1.876 2.194 2.523 2.841 1.311 1.852 2.215 2.111 2.350 1.095 N 421 412 421 419 398 420 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 421 419 417 421 266 266 266 264 421 382 284 383 381 421

tp < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

in earlier thosewere from thoseobtained analyses; tially fullinformation whoprovided limited to menandwomen 7 Interaction x genderin on all thevariables. terms(role accumulation x by gender x gender, In addition, identity we foundsignificant worker-parent (1), worker-spouse Equation among the worker(competentx gender, in Equation(2), and interaction and worker only x gender gender, x gender, and confident x gender, commitment in Equation(3) and spouse x gender parentx gender x gender) x (competent and spousemeasures in earlieranalysesbut theydid not exert centrality were entered x gender, but and sociable x gender) confident therefore theywere not gender, effects; significant statistically variables.For ease of in thefinalequations.We also coded missing not among the parentidentity included for equations present separate we therefore income, presentation, variables (poorhealth, valueson thebackground to mean scores in orderto men and for women when dealing with workerand and occupation) education, (see Simon1992; Thoits1986). spouseidentity variables theanalysis. facilitate

among familyroles and self-esteem. (worker-spouse); to be childless likely Equation (2) thanmennot shows thatcombinations womenaremorelikely of family parents, roles do Men notinfluence married (worker-spouse). self-esteem independently. Also to be currently is thefactthat there are no gender are more likely to occupy worker-spouse-surprising and differences in the effect of combinations of parentroles. Insofaras being married each otherby spouse and parent roles on self-esteem. We being a parentcomplement re- had suspected that traditionalnormative both emotionaland financial providing would centeron the workrole sources, our workingmen appear to be expectations for men, but we thought that for women advantaged. some inter- traditional variablessuggest normative wouldcenexpectations The identity as- teron family roles; in such a case, women esting challenges to taken-for-granted butnot married and who about gender.Despite the differ- who are employed sumptions men do nothavechildren wouldbe less consistent status,employed ences in occupational in their with genderexpectations and would have womendo not differ and employed to lowerself-esteem. in Equation(3) or commitment meanings Similarly, identity worker variablesforoccupying the the work role. Yet men place greater we add dummy rolesbutfind that role.The menin our spousalandparental neither on theworker centrality self-esteem. sample,however,not the women,perceive roleinfluences to the committed as morehighly themselves role of spouse and as attachinggreater TheInfluence ofRole Identities on role. On the other to the marital centrality Self-Esteem hand, the women have higher scores as role they sociable spouses; in the parental Table 48 explores therelationship between more subjective as more themselves competent, perceive of roles,outcomes of assessments and the "identification committed, sociable, and morestrongly with" process,and selfon being a esteem.Hypothesis they place greaterimportance 3 proposesthatas indiparent. vidualsinvest their roleswith commitgreater ment and centrality, they increase their Table 4 suggests forthe self-esteem. support on ofRole Occupancy TheInfluence For both men and commitment hypothesis. Self-Esteem to therolesof worker, women,commitment and is related to self-esteem. spouse, parent of the influence We begin investigating all 15 When role identity variables are withTable 3.7 roles on self-esteem multiple in the analysis,commitment to the that thegreater included 1 we proposed In Hypothesis is and the roles one of the worker spouse the numberof roles held by people, the theirself-esteem. Equation(1) suggreater of oursampleoccupiedthe does notdirectly 8 Because notall members roleaccumulation geststhat meanvalueson roles,we substituted spousalandparental that spousal We find, however, self-esteem. influence and identity dimensions, commitment, andparent and role accumula- centrality whensocial background werenot married whenrespondents measures tion are controlled,women have higher or parents,and added dummyvariablesto measure roles(see Cohenand ofthespouseand parent than men.In addition, poorhealth occupancy self-esteem we forboth Cohen 1975; Ross and Mirowsky1992). Also, on self-esteem effect has a negative thesocial missing dataamong substituted meanscoresfor men and women; income, education,and backgroundvariables, especially income (where a havepositive effects. status occupational andin thefew refused to answer), number ofrespondents data amongtheworker focuses on the cases in whichwe had missing The second hypothesis substanThe results do not differ dimensions. of identity combinations between specific relationship

MULTIPLE ROLES AND IDENTITIES

of Roles on Self-Esteem Table 3. The Influence
( 1)

321
(3a

~~~~~~(2a

Female
Age

.114b***
(.91 1)

-.034

White PoorHealth Income Education

Occupation

(-.074) .016 (.169) -.141***

(-

.102** (.369) .081* (.105) (.048) .023 (.077)

.061 ***

.210)

Role Accumulation Worker-Spouse Worker-Parent

Worker Only Parent Role Spouse Role

.021 (.456) .017 (.162)

(-

-.077 .149)

(-

R2 N

.09 818

.10 818

(-.085) .09 818

-.006 .095) -.009

t p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; * p < .001. a and occupation. education, income, poorhealth, age, white, controls forfemale, Equation b Standardized in parentheses. coefficients withunstandardized are presented coefficients

variables areconsidered (Equation self-esteem, as roleidentity strongest variables influencing formen, that to theparent roleforwomen. (1). In thespousalrole,we find is commitment is increased by perceiving oneself theimportance thatan individ- self-esteem Centrality, is notrelated to as a competent spouseand is reduced by perual placeson a role,generally oneself as a sociablespouse.An idenformenor forwomen.Although ceiving self-esteem as a confident our expecta- tity meaning this finding does not support spouseinfluences is limited with Thoits's (1992) self-esteem to only when theanalysis tions, it is consistent role.Forwomen, similar to centrality thespousal noneofthespoudiscovery thata measure An salidentity meanings influence self-esteem. well-being. Apdoes notaffect psychological of parently is thatthecentrality for self-esteem middle-aged women is unanticipated finding bycommitment tothe roleofspouse, self-esteem nega- influenced the work role influences in identity tivelyfor men. Attributing greaterpromi- notbyvariations meanings. Finally, to succeed the nenceto work maycreate pressure relationship between parental identity meanin a competitive InEquation role,and thusmayinadvert- ingsandself-esteem is modest. (3), whenonlytheparent identity meaning men's self-esteem. dimenently depress intheanalysis, roleswithselfmeanings sionsareincluded confident and Individuals infuse 4 pro- sociableare related and subjective responses. Hypothesis positively to self-esteem. of thesociabledimension is elimias The effect poses thatas individuals view themselves andmore so- nated,however, more competent, more confident, whenother identities are inwill in- cludedin theanalysis. ciable in their roles,their self-esteem with thework role,we find Takenas a whole,thefindings crease.Beginning suggest that has a theinfluence thatan identity meaning as competent of identity meaning dimensions forboth men on self-esteem positive influence on self-esteem does notappearto be general dimension butvaries andwomen. Formen,theconfident androle.The self-esteem bygender a positive the worker ofmiddle-aged alsoexerts effect when only menis influenced working more

322

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

(l)a, b

Table 4. The Influence of Identities on Self-Esteem (2) Women .133** (.365) ..062 (.114) .023 .245*** (.370) -.034
(-.206) (.035)

(3) Women Men .207*** (.568) (.042 (.080) .111* (.251*** (.416) - .068t
(.161)

(4) Women .103* (.284) (.022 (.039) -.009

(- .013)

Men Worker Competent Worker Confident Worker Worker Commitment Worker Spouse Competent Spouse Confident Spouse Commitment
Spouse Centrality Spouse Parent Competent Spouse Sociable Centrality Sociable

Men

.248*** (.681) .122** .236 .059 .319*** (.529) - .118**

(-.613) (.086)

.197*** (.298) .006

(.038)

- . 135** (-.209)

.366*** (.798) .125** (.254)

.056 (.148) .025 (.057) .209*** (.155)

.079 (.369)

(-.353)

- .015 (-.050) .056 (.795)

.191*** (.336)

- .227*** (-.350)

.253*** (.551) .014 (.029) .121** (.212)

.097 (.257) - .065 (- .149) .142** (.251)

.024 (.048)

- .023 (-.068) - .048 (-.388)

Parent Confident
Parent Sociable

.139*** (.261) (.127) (.201*** (.355) .010 (.036) -.013 (-.209) .061t (.492) .22 818
(.072t

.046 (.100)

.004 (.013) .034 (.480) -.056 (-.119)

Parent Commitment Parent Centrality Parent Female R2 N

b

(- .010) .082t (.145) .033 (.132) -.031 (-.598) .44 397

- .006

.107t (.203)

.005 (.014) - .065 (-.52) -.067 (-.155)

.115* (.215)
.039

(.077) .128* (.226) .060 (.217) -.029 (-.415) .30 421

.37 397

.23 421

.30 397

.19 421

a Equations forage, white, control poorhealth, income, t p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

and roleaccumulation. occupation, with in parentheses. Standard coefficients are presented unstandardized coefficients

DISCUSSION meanings thanis thatof by identity strongly Whenall thevaritheir femalecounterparts. We beganourinquiry intotheinfluence of inthe meananalysis, identity ablesareincluded roleson self-esteem with thehypothin- multiple and sociableworker ings as a competent encourages selfcrease self-esteem;perceivingoneself as esis thatrole accumulation esteem. Among our middle-aged working selfin theroleof spouseincreases competent menand women,however, theaccumulation oneselfas sociablein the esteem;perceiving of common adult roles did not influence and a parental spouserolelowersself-esteem; self-esteem. Occupyingmultiple roles may self- increase social integration, increases meaning as confident identity as Gove and womenare in- Geerken working esteem.Middle-aged butwe suspect that (1977) suggest, identity the effects by their muchless strongly fluenced operateonly indirectly, through In theroleofworker, thecompetent social network meanings. or social support patterns. as is to self-esteem, meaning is related identity In regard to theimpact of thecombination and parental of marital roles withthe work in theparent role. theconfident identity

MULTIPLE ROLES AND IDENTITIES

323

thatthenormative such role, we thought expecta- be influenced byinstrumental meanings, and to be a parent would as competence,while women should be tionsto be married be especiallystrong forwomen,so thatthe influenced and social identity by theaffective of workeronly, worker- meanings role combinations ofconfidence In the and sociability. would have a less roleof worker, spouse, or worker-parent forbothmenand self-esteem on women'sself-esteem than womenis influenced positiveeffect by identity of meanings would the worker-spouse-parent role combi- being competent. Identity meaningsin the nation.Alternatively, holdingall threeroles role of spouse are related positivelyto in combination be stressful forwomen self-esteem might onlyformen; beinga confident of family and sociable parentis relatedpositively becauseof thecompeting demands to and workroles(Thoits1992). We found that self-esteem forbothmenand women. none of the threecombinations exerteda on self-esteem. effect statistically significant of our In thisrespect thepreretirement status the findings. sample may have constrained CONCLUSION of Menaghan (1989) foundthatin her study 18- to 65-year-old menand women,psychoIndividual roles and the set of roles that of distresstendedto be individuals occupy provide material relogical symptoms lowest when role combinationsincluded sources, status andprestige, andopportunities work. In our studyof employedmen and for social interaction and integration. Roles women,however,we could vary only the are not merely external however. positions, forourrespondents Individualsactivelymake roles as well as roles.In addition, family menandwomenof taking (unlike samplesincluding them on (Turner 1956). This "identifiall ages and especially younger adults), being cation with" process(Stone 1962) includes or of children who of olderchildren parents of identities, the cognitive construction self no longer havemoderated live at homemight in a role,and thelinking meanings of selfto someofthestresses ofparenthood, especially role by commitment. Roles are not only workand parent roles. combining and objective, external but also personal and we Inspired by symbolic interaction theory, and subjective; the subjective responses next probed the influence of identity proto a person'ssenseof self-worth. We recognized that cesseson self-esteem. the contribute Our in findings suggestthat self-esteem between and self-esteem relationship identity middle for age men and working women does is probablyreciprocalbut argued that the morerolesor even and situated character of role-related notdependon occupying specific specific combinations of spouse and identities serves as data for the creation, holding roles. Self-esteem is in partto a parent tied and changeof globalor general maintenance, sense of commitment to adultroles person's self-evaluation. We hypothesized thatroleand to in work and identity meanings family commitment and related centrality would influence self-esteem. The commitment por- roles. Thus a sense of belongingto the tion of the hypothesis is one of the major worker,spouse, and parentroles, and of workerand a confident of our research: to the being a competent findings commitment seemsto provide intrinsic satisfaction roleswas related parent, worker, spouse,and parent forenhanced self-esteem. It to self-esteem for both men and or a foundation positively to be seen, as we followour sample women.We did notfindthat to remains commitment intoretirement, whether menand theroleofworker influenced self-esteem only of workers whoarecommitted to their work roles for men or thatcommitment to the family women will sufferan especially roles had a stronger influence on women. in preretirement transition as theyface the loss or This finding thatcommitment suggests oper- difficult of their worker roles. On theother ates as the antithesisof alienation. As alteration to individuals attribute commitment-a senseof hand,menand womenwhoare committed rolesmayfindthatthe parent attachment or belonging-totheirworkand spouse and/or intoretirement is less traumatic for family roles,theyappearto view themselves transition themthan for otherworkers because they morepositively. The influenceof identity meaningson have retained the sense of purpose or self-esteem variesbyroleandgender, butnot direction associatedwith commitment to a in theexpected manner, whereby menshould role.

324

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

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and co-principal investigator of Donald C. Reitzesis Professor ofSociology at GeorgiaStateUniversity and retirement between menand amongmiddle-aged a five-year study of the transition employment on theapplication interaction ofsymbolic theory to issues women. His current research interests center in retirement and aging. in the Department of Health Behaviorand Health ElizabethJ. Mutran is an AssociateProfessor Carolinaat ChapelHill. Her research Education, School of PublicHealth,at theUniversity of North mental health andphysical health ofmature persons. focusis on therelationships amongroletransitions,