9/5/13

Latest Update >> Writing a law dissertation literature review

Construction contracts
My Account

Order online anytime - Need help?

Tel: 0115 966 7966

Like 2.8k

We're the most liked Law Essay Writing Service! > Home Prices Services Order Guarantees About Us Law Help

Contact Us

You are here: Law Teacher Free Law Dissertations Construction Contracts

Translate this page

Construction contracts
Chapter One The Law of Contract - Construction Contracts 1.0 Introduction
To be in the position of having to deal with the concept of the Contractor Design portion (CDP) one must be party to a binding construction contract. Therefore, it is opportune at this stage to outline in summary fashion, the Law of Contract as it applies in Scotland, offering some historical background and context, thus illuminating an understanding of the underpinning legal framework and principles applicable to a simple Building Contract, prior to more in-depth analysis of SBC/Q/Scot later in subsequent Chapters.

Select Language

Don't Get Ripped Off

How to avoid getting ripped off by other essay writing companies.

Find out more

Need A Law Essay Quote?

1.1 Scots Law - A Historical Perspective

Scots law is a unique and distinct facet of our national make-up and provides a legal framework that the nation should be proud of. Professors Hector McQueen and Joe Thomson note that the Law of Scotland, in relation to private law, is a leading example of what comparative lawyers call a 'mixed' legal system[1] which combines the major features from two legal traditions which gen0erally represent opposed ways of looking at law, these are: The Civilian System - Common throughout Continental Europe and based on the Law of ancient Rome. The Common Law System - First developed in England and introduced Worldwide as a result of the growth of the British Empire during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Scots Law has continued to develop over the years and draw on the characteristics of both traditions, the Law of Contract no exception with the introduction of the Scottish Parliament continuing this legal evolvement. Contract Law is included in the definition of Scottish private law in the Scotland Act 1998 (SA 1998)[2]. This act provides, under the law of obligations, the ability to enforce rights against persons and groups of persons, expressed via the Latin maxim jus in personam[3]. Clearly, this concept of obligation, in relation to construction contracts, relates to the links and ties between contracting parties and the rights and duties that flow in terms of performance, thus enabling a framework for enforcement and legal recourse. Use our online calculator to get an instant quote online for your law essay.

Find out more

Step By Step Order Guide

Not sure how the order process works? Take a look at this easy to follow order process guide.

Find out more

1.2 The Definition and Formation of a Contract

A contract is an agreement which creates or is intended to create a legal obligation between the parties to it[4]. It will be in the form demanded by law, to perform, unilaterally or bilaterally, acts which are not trifling, indeterminate, impossible or illegal[5]. Agreement is usually analysed as an offer made by one party accepted by the other. The analysis is conducted on an objective basis, commercial contracts cannot be arranged by what people think in their inner most minds. It may be said that Commercial contracts are made according to what people say. An excellent example of this is offered in the case of Mathieson Gee v Quigley [6] where Mathieson Gee noted thus "We are prepared to supply plant for removal of silt.", Quigley responded "I accept offer to remove silt." but their lordships held there to be me no contract. Mere agreement on terms, without proof of an intention to be bound by law, is not enough, see also the more recent case of W S Karoulias v Drambuie[7]. For the contract to be valid there will have to have been an expression of willingness to be bound in a contract, this subject to acceptance by the person to whom the offer is made. The Offers must have been distinguished from other pre contractual statements, it must invite acceptance and be capable of resulting in a contract. The historically vital cases of the Harvela Investments v Royal Trust[8], Philp v Knoblauch[9], Carlill v Carbolic Smokeball Co[10] all allow clarity with regard what may or may not constitute an offer, in its simplest terms. While the case of Wolf and Wolf v Forfar Potato Co[11], delivers

Dissertation Writing Service

If you're struggling with your law dissertation our dissertation writing service can help.

Find out more

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

1/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
a simple understanding on the requirement for an indication of unconditional assent to the proposal contained in the offer. When this unconditional assent is communicated to the offeror, a contract is duly formed. If a purported acceptance does not meet the terms of the offer, it is a deemed to be a counter offer, and there is therefore no contract.

1.3 Implied Contract Terms

Implied terms will be implied into a contract in order to reflect either the presumed, though unexpressed intention, of the parties or which may be implied by statute or other rules of law whether the intention of the parties or not[12]. His Lordship Bowen LJ in The Moorcock[13] forwarded a test for implying terms, this test has become known in legal circles as the 'business efficacy' test, he noted thus:

I believe if one were to take all the cases, and they are many, it will be found that in all of them the law is raising an implication from the presumed intention of the parties with the object of giving to the transaction such efficacy as both parties must have intended that at all events it should have." In relation to a construction contract, many terms will be implied by acts such as the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996 and the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994. In addition, many terms will be implied on a contractor in areas such as to the standard of work and fitness of purpose of materials, this will be discussed in more detail in later chapters with specific reference to SBC/Q/Scot though it may be argued that the use of standard forms renders the chance of implied terms unlikely as a result of proactively dealing with the 'usual' terms common to a construction contract.

1.4 The Definition of Construction and Building Contracts

It is the view of many academics and legal practitioners,[14] that the exact definition of a building contract is not a straightforward matter. However, Lord Diplock offered a simple definition thus: A building contract is an entire contract for the sale of goods and work and labour for a lump sum price payable by installments as the goods are delivered and the work is done."[15] This definition is useful but it is important to differentiate between the terms 'building contract' and 'construction contract'. The importance of this has arisen since the introduction of the Housing Grants, Construction and Regeneration Act 1996[16] which gave statutory meaning to the term 'construction contract'. In attempting to clearly differentiate it is useful to note that while, as a result of the 1996 Act, a construction contract must be in writing, a building contract need not and can be wholly oral. It is also important in the context of this dissertation to understand that while many contract terms may be expressed, there will indeed be many implied terms.

1.5 Parties to a Construction Contract

It is not necessary and within the scope of this work to deliver, in detail, any specific information on the parties to a construction contract at this stage, but it would be remiss not to outline the key disciplines that will be party to any construction contract, those who will ultimately ensure the success or not of any Contractor Design Portion (CDP) works. One of the key players in any construction contract and one who is heavily involved in the CDP process is the Employer. While other terms are used such as client or owner of authority, it is the term Employer which is used in the many standard form building contracts and associated documentation. The Employer will generally assemble and appoint a team to advise him/her during the course of the contract, the terms of these appointments are crucial and each team member must have a clear understanding of his/her obligations the inter-relationships their obligations and actions may have on other team members. If obligations and team responsibilities and obligations are not clearly understood then problems may occur[17], this will clearly be a particular requirement of the successful management of CDP. The other key construction team parties will include:

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

2/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts

Architect Quantity Surveyor Engineers / Specialist Consultants Project Manager Clerk of Works Planning Engineer Contractor Sub-contractors

All of those as noted above will play a key role in the CDP process however this will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent chapters.

1.6 The Standard Form of Contracts generally

Business transactions between two organisations will clearly cause demand to be placed on the fixed overhead resource of contracting parties. As such, commerce, and the business world in general, are ever eager to simplify and reduce administrative input utilised in the effort used to negotiate terms and to commit them to writing. Whether a companies transactions are numerous and simple or few and complicated they will do themselves good by developing their own personal trading terms, any contract setting terms out thus is generally known as a 'standard form contract'. For contracting parties faced with the prospect of contracting on another parties standard form terms there will always be suspicion and a belief that this unilateral approach will prove to be a bad experience, the usual way out being to insist on their own standard terms. This of course results in there being two sets of unilateral terms and the requirement to negotiate or take part in a 'battle of the forms'[18] in relation to whose terms apply if obligations and performance have commenced. This 'battle of the forms' can end up messy and reliance on a 'last shot'[19] policy or timing is perhaps not the most sensible manner of conducting business particularly as in many cases there will be a party in a stronger position to dictate the contract. The alternative to this has been for certain industries to introduce a new type of standard form, one that the title standard is more befitting of, in essence an 'industry standard form'. Ndekugri and Rycroft[20] suggest the following as the key virtues of an 'industry standard form of contract': A device for allocating contingent risk whilst saving time and assisting bargaining at armslength. A device for avoiding writing terms for each transaction. Providing understanding and familiarity by practical experience. Not likely to protect the interests of only one party, having been negotiated by independent bodies. Removal of unwanted discretion from individuals enabling a structured approach to negotiations. Enabling the allocation of risk to be anticipated and provided for in calculations. Provision of a familiar structure for payments, varying work, and dispute resolution.

While there are some criticisms of industry standard forms there are few and it is difficult to argue against the advantages as noted above, in particular with regard to building contracts.

1.7 The Standard Form of Building Contract

While it is not a necessary requirement of any building project procurement process to appoint on a standard form, it is fairly common practice these days. In fact the Banwell Report (1964) recommended that the building industry develop and begin to utilise a single standard form contract for all construction projects. The Latham report of 1994 promoted the universal application and use of the New Engineering Contract for the entire construction industry, Murdoch & Hughes[21] argue that this was indeed a step too far due to the complexity of the construction of the industry. In appreciation of this argument one also suggests that within the context of this dissertation it

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

3/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
is necessary to now focus upon the Standard Building Contract with Quantities for use in Scotland (Revised May 2006), which introduced the concept of the CDP via the JCT suite of Contracts introduced in 2005.

1.8 The Standard Building Contract with Quantities for use in Scotland (Revised May 2006) (SBC/Q/Scot)
It is essential to understand that this (SBC/Q/Scot) is based upon the JCT 05 Standard Building Contract as issued by the Joint Contracts Tribunal. The JCT's Memorandum of Association states that the main object of the company is: To develop, publish, procure the publication, revise and disseminate in both paper and electronic form suites of standard forms of contract and tender documentation and practice notes......" However, in Scotland most building contracts are entered into on the Scottish Building Contract Committee (SBCC) standard forms. The SBCC produce Scottish versions of the majority of the JCT standard forms, including the contract that heads this section. These days the SBCC versions are not published as Scottish Supplements to be read into the JCT form, they are now stand-alone contract documents[22]. The SBCC mirror the earlier JCT statement for the production of Scottish Contracts and is made up of a similar group of building industry stakeholder members as follows: Association of Consultancy and Engineering The Association of Scottish Chamber of Commerce The Convention of Scottish Local Authorities The National Specialist Contractors Council - Scottish Committee The Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors in Scotland Scottish Building Scottish Casec The Scottish Executive - Building Division The Law Society of Scotland

The fact that each of the members of JCT will always have competing interests and viewpoints encourages the production of contracts by JCT, and subsequently SBCC, that are acceptable to Architects, Contractors and Employers. As detailed earlier Scots Law has its own peculiarities, as such the SBCC make changes to JCT contracts in order to bring them into line with Scots Law and Legal Process with all clause numbering remaining common through equivalent SBCC and JCT contract forms. The main areas of difference are brought about because of the Scots Law third party rights (common law) concept of jus quaesitum tertio and also Arbitration provision.

1.9 Chapter Conclusion

While this chapter is more of an information zone, it also provides some background with regard Scots Law and the Law of Contract. It also reinforces the advantages of using standard forms of contract within the construction industry and the varied industry stakeholders who contribute to their development. It may be argued that standard for contracts are a necessary evil and that contractors should be fully conversant with all aspects of the beast with which they must earn their living.

Chapter Two Design Liability - Common Law / Contractual Comparison 2.0 Introduction
If one is to fully understand the obligations of contracting parties operating under the CDP option of SBC/Q/Scot then it is essential to understand where liability should lie in the event of design failure. Architects, Engineers and of course Contractors hold common law obligations with regard design duties many of which will vary from that as prescribed by the CDP process, therefore this chapter will attempt to provide contrast and significant detail on the standard of care and professional standards expected in the delivery of construction design. In essence SBC/Q/Scot, even with its optional CDP recital, is a traditional procurement

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

4/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
methodology. This would mean that the standard of care to be observed by the any design team would be that of 'reasonable skill and care', similarly contractors would be expected to carry out works with due skill and care while using good quality materials. It is therefore useful to look at this in more depth and compare to other standard form contractual obligations with regard to design with comparison to those obligations that clearly exist at a common law level. Contractors who deliver design will unavoidably be faced with being judged against one of three standards: An obligation to deliver a design that is fit for purpose An obligation to deliver a design using reasonable skill and care An obligation to deliver a design to a standard specified in the contract.

2.1 What is Design?

It would be silly not to attempt to firstly define what would be considered design within a construction context and Hudson offers the following description: In a construction context, the essential element of design is choice, that is, the selection of the appropriate work processes and materials to meet the indicated or presumed requirements of the owner. The discharge of the design obligation, therefore, will depend upon and be measured by the suitability of the work and materials for their required purposes once completed and in place." [23] In this statement it would appear that Hudson is identifying that both materials and the works will contain an element of fitness for purpose with respect to design.

2.2 Liability for Design - Fitness for Purpose explained

As outlined above, a contractor will have a common law obligation to produce designs that are fit for purpose. He will also have an identical liability for both workmanship and materials. If a contractor designs and constructs under contract then the standard of care to observed by the contractor would be raised to the standard of 'fitness for purpose' in the absence of any clause expressing the contrary, it must be reasonably fit for the intended purpose previously made known to him by the Employer[24]. The case of Greaves & Co Ltd (Contractors) v Baynham Meikle & Partners[25] offers some insight into the upgrading of liability from reasonable skill and care to that of fitness for purpose. Lord Denning, when commenting on the relationship between the contractor and the building owner, said (Obiter): Now, as between the building owner and the contractors, it is plain that the owners made knownthe purpose for which the building was requiredIt was therefore, the duty of the contractors to see that the finished work was reasonably fit for purpose.It was not merely an obligation to use reasonable care. The contractors were obliged to ensure that the finished work was reasonably fit for purpose." This case is a particularly good example with regard the application of strict liability and 'fitness for purpose' and is also the strongest legal authority. The case involved a 'package deal' contractor making claim against their sub-contracted designer for the failure of a warehouse concrete floor which was not fit for purpose, their claim being that it was an implied term of their sub-contractors contract for the design to be fit for purpose, it was held by the Court of Appeal that the defendant had been guilty of negligence and thus liability existed. The importance of this case does not lie in the defendant being held as being negligent, but more in the fact that the court ruled that even if negligence hadn't been proven then the defendants would still have remained liable for the design. This was due to the defendant always being clearly aware that their brief was to design a warehouse for a particular purpose. It is worth noting that the courts willingness to imply strict liability in design and build contracts, therefore it is vital that contractors fully appreciate the applicable standard of design liability and are aware that this is not a new concept. In actual fact, it dates back to the case of Francis v Cockerill (1870) where their Lordships stated: .when one man engages with another man to supply him with a particular article or thing, to be applied to a certain use and purpose, in consideration of a pecuniary payment, he enters into an implied contract that the article or thing shall be reasonably fit for the purpose for which it is to be used and to which it is to be applied." Direct application of this, with regard to design & build, came in the case of Viking Grain Storage v TH White Installations Ltd [26] with the end product, a grain storage and drying facility, failing to meet the standard of fitness for its intended purpose. While the case of Independent Broadcasting Authority v EMI Electronics Ltd and BICC Construction Ltd[27] illuminates our understanding further in respect of a strict liability obligation, even in the case of a nominated sub-contractor. This should be kept in mind if the patent glazing at the shopping mall was designed and installed by a nominated sub-contractor

2.3 Liability for Design - Fitness for Purpose, Contractual Comparison.

The debate and discussion that has preceded this section is fairly meaningless if any contract

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

5/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
contains any contrary express terms. This is because while it will be fairly easy for a court to imply the higher standard of obligation into any package deal contract, this will not over-rule any contrary express terms and one must be clear that both current JCT and SBCC Design & Build contracts hold specific contrary express term at clause 2.17.1. This clause makes it clear that any main contractor's liability goes no further than that which would be incurred by an architect or.other appropriate professional designer holding himself out as competent to take on work for such design". SBC/Q/Scot deals with this at clause 2.19.1 and replicates this for CDP works which will of course be discussed in more detail throughout this dissertation. In addition, both ICE 7 and GC/Works/1 have similar terms and it should be noted that these terms reduce or limit the contractors design duties to 'reasonable skill and care' and furthermore does not extend to a warrant that the completed works will be fit for their intended purpose. In complete contrast, the concept of Partnering and the ACA standard form at Clause 3.1 guarantees fitness for purpose.

2.4 Liability for Design - Reasonable Skill and Care

It will be unusual these days for any contract to be silent with regard to the design liability obligations applicable to any contractor. If however this was the case then a duty to use reasonable skill and care will be implied into any contract via the Supply of Goods and Services Act 1982[28] and although it does not specifically identify the standard to be applied, the courts have made considered and made important decisions that are relevant, in relation to negligence cases. The case of Bolam v Friern Hospital Management Committee[29] offers some descriptive definition via the comments of McNair J: Where you get a situation which involves the use of some special skill or competence, then the test as to whether there has been negligence or not.is the standard of the ordinary skilled man exercising and professing to have that skill. A man need not possess the highest expert skill.it is sufficient if he exercises the ordinary skill of an ordinary competent man exercising that particular art." Thus for any designer contractor, or architect, who holds an obligation to use reasonable skill and care, it will not result in a failure of this should he have evidence that he has acted in a manner that his peers would have also done in comparable circumstances. His Lordship Bingham LJ outlines this rather more eloquently and profoundly in the case of Eckersley v Binnie[30]: The law does not require of a professional man that he is a paragon combining the qualities of polymath and prophet." In essence, this means that if the majority of architects or designer/ contractors would, under the same set of circumstances, have done things the same way then he any defendant will have the makings of a positive defence as Maugham L.J pointed out in the case of Marshall v Lindsay County Council[31]: a defendant charged with negligence can clear himself if he shows that he acted in accord with general and approved practice." In the absence of any approved or accepted practice or procedure then any designer will not be deemed to have been negligent if he has acted in accordance with a practice accepted as a proper by a responsible body of architects[32], even if another body of competent professional opinion believes that the practice is incorrect[33]. Many will be surprised that this standard will not rise even if a client specifically engages with and pays for evidenced higher skills[34]. However, one must forward a cautionary note in that the cases of both Conoco Phillips Petroleum Co Ltd v Snamprogetti Ltd[35] and Rolls Royce Power Engineering Ltd v Allen Power Engineering Ltd[36] it was demonstrated that an express term allocating specific contractual obligation to deliver works of a first class quality would be held to be more onerous than a duty to exercise reasonable skill and care. While these cases generally refer specifically to architects they become directly applicable to contractors under contracts such as SBC/Q/Scot as already discussed. Therefore unless there are unusual or special provisions, as detailed above, the normal measure for a designing contractor will be that of an ordinarily skilled architect[37]. With this in mind they must also consider if, out of the ordinary course, they are employed on a novel process of which they are unable to profess any significant experience, then its failure may be consistent with proper skill on their part[38]. Indeed, by not refusing the job it may be that he is professing experience and not making his client aware of his lack of experience[39], Lord Edmund-Davies provides conclusion on this matter thus: The graver the foreseeable consequences of failure to take care, the greater the necessity for special circumspection..The law requires even pioneers to be prudent."[40] Of course the requirement to exercise a standard of care will also apply in areas such as the carrying out of designs within the law in that the works will not contravene Building Regulations, planning law or other relevant legal requirements. The law, as with all other aspects of design liability, differentiates between one who merely designs or one who operates under a design and build contract. Whereas a contractor under a Design & Build contract will be strictly liable for any breach of Building Regulations as in the case of Newham LBC v Taylor Woodrow (Anglian) Ltd[41] which arose from the infamous collapse of a block of flats at Ronan Point, under a traditional contract it is the designer who will normally fall liable at the final analysis. At SBC/Q/Scot clause 2.1 general responsibility is placed on the contractor to ensure that all statutory rules are complied with. However, contractors who have only carried out works in accordance with bills and

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

6/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
contractual drawings are afforded protection at clause 2.17.3 on proviso that, at the time of uncovering any non-compliance between these documents and legal requirements, prompt notification is given to the contract administrator. This will be discussed in more depth in the following chapter in relation to how this applies when the CDP optional recital is used. One final note with regard reasonable skill and care must be made in respect of the fact that the obligation is not limited to the substantive design, this refers to the need to apply this standard of care to his choice of what he is to design. This became an important issue in the case of Platform Funding Ltd v Bank of Scotland plc (formerly Halifax plc)[42] where a surveyor produced a professionally competent valuation but in doing so based it on the wrong premises. This means that the designer has this same obligation with regards interpreting his client's requirements in deciding on how to progress the production of any design.

2.5 Chapter Conclusion

This chapter has outlined, prior to examining the SBC/Q/Scot position in detail, the common law obligations that will rest on those undertaking design. It has also began to introduce some of the contractual principles that will apply to both the traditional forms of procurement and also more modern forms such as Design & Build. It is clear that contracting parties whether designer of not hold various contractual obligations and must consider fully the contract that they are party to, inclusive of the potential implied terms and expected professional standards and practices which they must observe, if they are to achieve the required set for them by obligation. With cases cited ranging from the year 1870 to 2008 one can clearly see that this area of law is ever developing and it would be folly and potential commercial suicide for any contractor not to ensure full awareness in this area of legal obligation.

Chapter Three The Contractor Design Portion - SBC/Q/Scot 1.0 Introduction

SBCC and JCT standard form building contracts have generally been 'build only' contracts, whereby the employer specifies the work to be done in exact terms. This would mean that design work is then carried out by the Architect or by other competent professionals in his name, other than implied obligations in respect of workmanship or materials and a duty to comply with Building Regulations the contractor would not ordinarily be required to do design works. However, in modern day construction there are instances when the employer wishes the contractor to undertake all or part of the design, SBCC/Q/Scot will not be the best option if all design work is to be undertaken with the most appropriate standard form contract being the SBCC Design & Build contract. The in-between situation will obviously be when an employer requests design input from the contractor to be substantial in a clearly identifiable portion of the works though not all of them and it is here that CDP works are introduced. This chapter will examine, discuss and outline in detail the CDP procedure and the liabilities and obligations that will flow from its use enabling further analysis. An in-depth debate as to the correct use of CDP will be provided focussing on the impact that poor commitment or adherence to procedure may have on both the overall project management process outlining potential future liability issues.

2.1 CDP - The Basics

The correct standard form choice in this case would be Standard Building Contract with Quantities for use in Scotland (Revised May 2006) (SBC/Q/Scot) which contains an optional set of recitals (seven to ten), that have introduced the concept of the 'Contractor Design Portion' which for the purposes of this dissertation will be generally referred to as 'CDP'. In the main, CDP procedures in respect of the specific portion, replicate the core principles of the SBCC Design & Build Contract (SBC/D&B). It should be noted that if the employer fails to invoke the CDP procedure it will not debar him, or the architect, from introducing any design works to be carried out by contractor in an informal fashion via the contract bills. With all of the above in mind it is perhaps opportune to first of all investigate the design standard as expressly required under this form of contract.

2.1 SBC/Q/Scot - Express Obligations

Express provision begins within this contract with the obligation to carry out and complete the works, located at Article 1 of the Articles of Agreement and subsequently clause 2.1 of the contract conditions. Taken further this obligation is to carry out and complete the works in a proper and workmanlike manner which is in accordance with the contract documents which include: The Contract Drawings

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

7/14

9/5/13
The Schedule The Contract Bills The Agreement and Conditions together with (if applicable) the Employer's Requirements the Contractor's Proposals the CDP Analysis

Construction contracts

and any other Contract Documents as listed at Schedule Part 8.

2.2 SBC/Q/Scot - CDP- A Reduction in Liability

In common with SBC/D&B terms, liabilities for CDP work are expressly reduced at clause 2.19.1 to that of an architect or other professional designer as follows: In so far as its design is compromised in the Contractor's Proposals and in what the Contractor is to complete in accordance with the Employer's Requirementsthe Contractor shallhave the like liability.to the Employer, whether under statute or otherwise, as would an Architect or .other appropriate professional designer holding himself out as competent(acting independently carrying out design only for a builder to construct). As outlined at chapter two[43] this means that the standard of care to exercise is that of reasonable skill and care as per the previously cited case of George Wimpey v Poole[44] in that the extent of their compliance will be measured against their peers. One may then consider it seemingly probably that any design and build contractor will then be measured against the standards of a design and build contractor of ordinarily competent status. This, however, is not the case for design and build contractor working under SBC/Q/Scot terms, with the clause of 2.19.1 requiring application of the standard of an ordinarily competent architect, or other designer carrying out a 'design only' function. Therefore the contractor undertaking the CDP works must attain the standard of reasonable skill and care as opposed to the higher common law obligations that require a 'reasonably fit for purpose' outcome. Furthermore, the words 'other designer' noted above also requires clarification and it must be noted that the contractor will not have to hold competence in a particular discipline nor claim to hold any such competence to attract contractual liability. In the case of Tharsis Sulphur & Copper Co. v McElroy & Sons[45] it was stated that: a contractor who expressly or impliedly undertakes to complete the work.impliedly warrants that he can do so" This compares favourably with the non-construction related case of Chaudry v Prabhakah (CA)[46] in which a man helped his friend to buy a car offering advice on the mechanical soundness of the vehicle. The car was deemed to be seriously defective and the friend was held liable on the grounds that he had impliedly held himself to hold the trade skills of a suitably trained and qualified mechanic, this would appear to suggest that the law is remaining consistent in terms of terms what may be implied into the contract in this respect. However, this reduction in liabilities does not reduce the contractor obligation of with regard to workmanship and materials which must be exercised to the standard of being reasonable fit for purpose. Therefore by way of a concise summary of the standards of care obligations to be met under the contract are as follows: Materials - Must be both fit for their general purpose and in accordance with the contract. Workmanship - Carried out to the standards as described in the contract. Design & Interpretation of Requirements - Must be carried out using reasonable skill and care of a design-only architect.[47]

One final clause worthy of mention, in relation to express obligations and terms, is clause 2.19.3 which enables contracting parties to concur and insert, within the contract particulars, a financial limit with regard to contractor liability for part of employer liabilities associated with any defective design, design work to dwellings is excluded.

2.3 SBC/Q/Scot - CDP- Liability for Dwelling Construction

For contractors who will undertake the construction of dwellings there is no reduction in liability as seemingly afforded by clause 2.19.1, even though it is expressly applied via clause 2.19.2. One must be mindful of the Defective Premises Act 1972[48] of which this express liability limitation would appear to breach: A person taking on work for the provision of a dwelling.owes a duty.to see that the work which he takes on.will be done in a...mannerso that as regards that work the dwelling will be fit for habitation when completed" [49] In addition, one must consider that clause 2.19.1 requires that design works be carried out using the reasonable skill and care of a design-only architect. The apparent contradiction of the Defective Premises Act 1972 is in fact false as a result of any professional designer involved in the provision, conversion, or enlargement of a dwelling being subject to ensuring fitness for purpose is achieved, thus any CDP works in relation to dwellings will hold an obligation to met the standard of fitness for purpose.

2.4 SBC/Q/Scot - Liability for Employer Design and

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php 8/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts

Obligation to Check
Contractors are often provided with partially complete designs by architects, something which is often overlooked by contractors as an area of significant risk in terms of forgetting to check design integrity. Often the impact of this will be to lead the contractor towards a design solution that will in effect mean he has completed a design partly chosen by the Architect, this may be seen as completing what is termed as an embryo design prepared by others. The case of Cooperative Insurance Society Ltd v Henry Boot (Scotland) and Others[50] deals with this issue: someone who undertakesan obligation to complete a design begun by someone else agrees that the result, however much of the design work was done before the process of completion commenced, will have been prepared with reasonable skill and care. The concept of 'completion' of a design necessityinvolves a need to understand the principles underlying the work done thus far and to form a view as to its sufficiency" However, as the contract in this case was JCT 98 and we are focussing on SBC/Q/Scot one must highlight the difference afforded under the latter form of contract. As a result of clause 2.13.2 any contractor undertaking CDP works is afforded some protection in that he is relived of responsibility for the contents of the employer's requirements, and also any prior duty to check the contained design. It is noted that JCT introduced this clause and its effect as a result of feeling unease, brought about by the Henry Boot case.[51]

Chapter Three The Contractor Design Portion - Contractual Process 3.0 Introduction
As discussed earlier, it was JCT 05 and subsequently SBC/Q/Scot that enabled the employer to give to the contractor portions of design work. Clearly this decision will be one taken by the project architect with the expressed authority of the employer. One must be mindful of the engagement of architect with client and the personal contract that it creates in that, unless he expresses otherwise, he will indeed expect the architect to the design work he has been appointed to do. It is worthy of note that in the case of Moresk Cleaners v Thos Henwood Hicks[52] the court held that an architect who required a contractor to design a concrete floor had no implied employer authority to delegate his design responsibility notwithstanding the complexity or specialist nature of the element of the works. This prompts some of the key questions set by this dissertation, when does it become mis-use of the CDP option to allocate elements of design work to the contractor? Are there specific design elements that should remain sacred to the architect? Are some architects simply using the CDP tool as a method to offload responsibility and thus bid for projects at a reduced fee level to secure work? Moreover, the requirement for express authority to be provided by the employer prior to the allocation of CDP elements is an excellent starting point and key indicator of the need to follow the contractual protocol and process of the CDP procedure with rigour while retaining a clear understanding of the various contractual obligations that flow from the contract. This chapter will now discuss and outline the processes and requirements of successful application of CDP contractual protocol. In essence, it is suggested that the CDP process is akin to the SBC/D&B in that employer sets out his need via a set of requirements to which the contractor responds with a proposal to meet the identified employer requirements.

3.1 CDP Documentation and Process - The Employer's Requirements

With express approval from the employer with regard to allocating a portion of design work to the contractor, contractual protocol moves onto the preparation of a robust and conclusive employer requirement document that will enable the contractor to respond positively, comprehensively and with certainty. The employer's requirements, as a contractual document, is identified at the eight recital as being the tool to set out the employer's needs as outlined at the seventh recital. While the above may be the desired outcome there is no hard and fast guidance upon which to rely in relation to required content and scope to be considered by the requirements. There is no guidance within the Standard Building Contract Guide (SBC/G) and many will therefore consult with the Design & Build Contract Guide (D&B/G) which offers some illumination with regard content and structure, however it is truly a matter for the employer to consider particularly with regard to how much he wants to restrict any innovative approaches by the contractor. The employer will have to decide how much he wishes to narrow the design parameters and scope of the contractor, remaining mindful that any narrowing of contractor scope for design innovation will potentially increase employer risk if error is found with clause 2.13.2 providing express excluding contractor liability for employer requirement mistakes bar those in relation to Statutory Requirements such as Building Regulations, see earlier cited case of Co-operative Insurance v Boot[53]. A comprehensive, professional and considered approach to formulating a set of employer's

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

9/14

9/5/13
requirements may include the following:

Construction contracts

Partially completed or 'concept' designs that the contractor is to complete. Site location for the proposed CDP works, an employer require to be specific with regards location e.g. precast concrete stairwells or glazed walkways as opposed to those that may be left more to the contractor's imagination such as a sprinkler water storage tank. A process or procedure must be detailed, if relevant, to allow the contractor to notify of any potential part wall notification disputes arising from any contractor designed site boundary deep-foundations or party wall works. Site waste removal requirements should be detailed allowing the contractor to comply with any site waste removal or auditing requirements therefore assisting with client and contractor obligations under The Site Waste Management Plans Regulations 2008[54]. Details of the exact purpose of the building and the work to be designed by the contractor should be considered worthy of inclusion. The case of J Murphy & Sons Ltd v Johnston Precast Ltd[55] highlights the importance of this, it involved a sub-contractor installing pipework which was not suitable for an 'alkaline environment' and being held to not be liable for the eventually defective pipework as a result of being unaware of this requirement. Mechanism for the adjustment of Provisional Sums. Planning restrictions or notes should be included, however the contractor will be prudent to check for himself in respect of this bearing in mind his already detailed obligations in these matters. While the contractor is under a duty to find out about the site in order for him to professionally undertake his allocated design works, the employer may consider it to include site information and the extent to which it may be relied upon the contractor mindful that express or implied warranty may be provided to the contractor as to the sufficient nature or accuracy of the information[56]. It may be prudent to request information or a list in relation to sub-contractors or consultants whom the contractor will use to carry out design works on their behalf, this assuring compliance with clause 3.7.2. Information on how the employer would like to see the contractor's proposals and analysis presented and required information to be contained will assist in the future evaluation of valuations. Design submission procedures as detailed at clause 2.9.3, schedule 1, should detailed and any variance or amendment to them should be clearly outlined. Exact definition as to the standard of quality to be achieved, as per chapter two section 2.4 of this dissertation and the already cited cases of Rolls Royce and also Conoco Phillips Petroleum Co Ltd[57]. Under SBC/Q/Scot there is no requirement for 'approval' of any contractor design, there is the ability for the architect to comment as he says fit however. It may be argued that to an architect may seek to approve elements which may impact on aesthetics to ensure that the employer receives what he or she wants, going any further than this may be straying into matters that are the responsibility of the contractor. The case of Crown Estates Commissioners v John Mowlem & Co. Ltd[58] held that elements required to be to the satisfaction of the architect automatically become and an employer risk item following the issue of the final certificate. Therefore while it may make sense to include for employer approval of items such as colour schemes or door finishes one must take great care in matters where subsequent liability or potential risk may lie e.g. fire protection of void spaces. Finally, any employer who wishes to invite contractor led alternative specification proposals should ensure that this is set out clearly within the employer's requirements.
It cannot be stressed how important it is for any employer to ensure the accuracy and of any design information included within the employer's requirements, compliance with this is vital as a result of the already detailed exclusion of responsibility and implied duty as per clause 2.13.2. From the items as noted as worthy of inclusion in any employer's requirements documentation it is clear that this must be considered fully by clients and must not be dismissed as irrelevant because there is no set guidance with regard suggested content. It is therefore essential to provide enough information so as to prevent any misunderstanding and thus heighten the chance of the client receiving exactly what he wants from the CDP works as allocated while integrating fully with all other employer led design works.

Chapter Four Research Methodology 4.0 Introduction

This chapter describes the design of the primary research methodology for the dissertation and the justification for the method selected. A breakdown of the research process is given and the factors that have to be taken into account to ensure accuracy.

4.1 Research Paradigms

A research paradigm is a pattern or model which one works within in order to construct a

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

10/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
research project or build theory or philosophy[59]. It may be explained further as being the infrastructure within which research is conducted. Put simply, the research paradigm will provide the foundations of the research, therefore it must be viewed as critical that the most appropriate theory is selected if value is to be added and ultimate success achieved.

Phenomenology
Phenomenology takes an inductive approach to research by attempting to gain an understanding of the meanings people attach to events. forwarded the view that the world and reality are not objective and exterior, but that they are in fact a social creation with meaning being given to it by humans. Thus phenomenology is often used as a way of understanding the reality or perhaps the reality working behind them"[60] As detailed earlier, phenomenology is an inductive approach involving one collecting data and developing thoughts, ideas and theory from the analysis of qualitative data collected during the research process. Within the context of this research topic phenomenology was the most appropriate research paradigm. This was as a result of wanting to understand the deep feelings and views held by those involved. It is viewed as a soft method of research and an explicitly more touchy-feely approach to research. The main features of this type of qualitative approach are: It involves the search for significant themes running through disparate sources. It results in a holistic understanding of the situation: of the factors involved and how they interrelate, identifying the less obvious issues as well as those, which initially grab your attention. It demands that you take your informants seriously in their own language, and from their own point of view, superseding your own personal and project related preconceptions while your gathering data, no matter how legitimate these preconceptions may be. It seeks to discover how people understand the situation or issue you are investigating, and how that understanding guides their actions. It seeks to develop knowledge by linking the accounts people give to an underlying body of theory.

4.2 The Research Paradigm

As detailed earlier, selection of the correct paradigm is critical to successful research, therefore it must truly mirror the research subject matter. The aims and objectives of this research conveyed quite implicitly that the main research paradigm to be used would be that of phenomenology. Evidently, the need to understand the genuine views of all involved and the reality of the situation were at the core of this research. Clearly this research was mainly of an inductive nature with data collection being provided by methods of a qualitative nature. However the author would like to point out that an element of the positivist school of thought was evident. Quantitative data collection was be utilised in the statistical analysis of service performance thus allowing the provision of an 'observable reality', though it was mainly only used for the author's benefit during writing. In conclusion, it is therefore clear that a predominantly phenomenological stance was taken, however it was in fact be married with minor elements associated with a more positivistic outlook. This should not be viewed as breaking the mould or attempting to push boundaries, it is viewed by many to be advantageous to the researcher.

4.3 Research Strategy & Method

In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the research the following strategy and methods were utilised.

Secondary Data
A full review of available literature was carried out in order to understand fully the concept of CDP Works and it's related legal obligations and supply evidence of current thinking on the subject matter. In turn this enabled a clear evaluation of the situation within the chosen case study area as a result of having a clear theory to test collected data on. It is therefore clear that the literature review forms the foundations on which the research has been built. It should be noted that all literature results and findings were constantly reviewed in order to provide the necessary impetus required in building theory relevant to the aims and objectives of the research.

Primary Literature
This area was limited to the reviewing of: Project Progress Meeting Minutes

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

11/14

9/5/13
Financial monitoring reports / Claim Documentation Employers Requirements & Contractor's Proposals

Construction contracts

Secondary Literature
This involved a review of available and relevant publications on the subject matter, such as: Academic Books. Legal Journals . Academic Journals Relevant Case Law

Tertiary Literature
Normal sources of tertiary literature such as abstracts, bibliographies and catalogues were reviewed. In addition University electronic information sources were utilised to obtain information from data bases such as Westlaw and I-Law.

4.4 Primary Research Strategy

The basis for primary research was a qualitative evaluation by way of a case study approach. This strategy was selected as a result of the need to discover the genuine views of the sample, and their contractual knowledge, with the ability for elaboration where appropriate. As a result of selecting this particular strategy it was hoped to gain a better understanding of the context of the research and also of the processes being enacted within the case study contracting parties. The selection of this strategy can be justified by Robson[61] who defined a case study as being a way of developing a detailed, intensive knowledge about a single case or a small number of related cases. In order to operate the case study strategy various methods were required, which will now be discussed.

4.5 Data Collection Methods

The following methods were utilised to collect data in the support of the primary research strategy.

Semi-Structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis. This provided the opportunity to ask questions relevant to the subject matter, with the added attraction of allowing the interviewee the opportunity to divulge further information after their initial response. Digital recording of interviews was proposed, but it was stressed that if any participant were not at ease then the recorder would be promptly switched off. However the sample did include many that have at one time undertaken research and understood the benefits the researcher would gain from taping the interview. Interviews lasted around 30 minutes and were carried out within a relaxed and cordial office atmosphere with minimal distraction. In total xxx interviews were carried out with some of the main actors from the contracting parties. Selection was based on knowledge and understanding of current CDP issues generally and how they impact on the overall project management process. It should be noted that the sample included people from a cross section of key informants from the Contractor, Designers and Client representatives. The following breakdown clarifies invited participants:

Director of Operations - Contractor (1) Contractor Project Managers. (2) Employer Project Manager (1) Professional & Technical Project Directors (2) Consultant Architect (1)
www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php 12/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts
A total of seven Key Informant interviews were carried out with a range of individuals to test the hypothesis. This approach differs from other forms of interview mainly because respondents are selected on the basis of their specialist knowledge, rather than being randomly chosen to sample the issues under investigation. It should be noted that the researcher was involved with many of the main players on a day-to-day basis, which allowed for the constant piloting of questions.

Practitioner-Researcher Observation
This method was available as a result of the author assuming the theoretical role of Practitioner-Researcher as detailed by Saunders et al[62] As a result of being involved in the current project procurement process allowed for constant observation and a clear understanding of the complexity the projects being undertaken and the CDP elements being carried out on them. Observation clearly allowed the researcher the ability to continually record, analyse and interpret people's behaviour and as a result was clearly of some benefit.

4.6 Limitations and Ethics

An introductory letter, clearly explaining the objectives and requirements of the interview (including approximate duration - which was not overly long) was sent to all participants. This information was intended to help the participants feel less cautious about the interview, give the researcher credibility, and therefore hopefully encourage co-operation. A list of interview themes was included in the letter to enable participants an element of preparation. It was acknowledged that information given by some participants was commercially sensitive and therefore requests not to use the digital recorder would be observed if requested. It was anticipated that some participants might be concerned about this issue. In particular, some of the interviewees might have been worried that their views and opinions may be taken back to senior management members of the contracting parties. In order that this was avoided, an assurance was given in the introductory letters that all responses would be treated with the utmost confidentiality and anonymity. This appeared to help encourage a more open, honest response from the participants. One limitation that the author found disappointing was a lack of available journal article and clear industry comment on the concept of CDP and was particularly surprising with a search at the Advocates Library in Edinburgh drawing a blank!

4.7 Overall Analysis of the Data

The following data analysis process was implemented once all recorded interviews had been fully transcribed. Categorisation - where the data was classified into meaningful categories fashioned on the research aims and objectives. Unitising of data - where chunks" of relevant text was attached to the various categories providing a more manageable piece of work. Recognising relationships and developing of categories - as a way of identifying key themes and patterns. Drawing and verification of conclusions.

How do you rate the quality of the essay above?

Good

Neutral

Poor

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

13/14

9/5/13

Construction contracts

ORDER YOUR OWN LAW ESSAY

GET A LAW ESSAY QUOTE

Request the removal of this law essay

Tw eet

Like

2.8k

960 readers

Get a quote Order now!

POPULAR LAW PAGES Law Essay Writing Law Dissertation Writing Law Essay Help Contract Law Criminal Law Study Guide

POPULAR LAW PAGES Criminal Law Cases GCSE Level Law Coursework Computer Misuse Law Essay Letter of Intent Law Essay Crazy Law Facts

RESOURCES & SITES Sitemap Oscola Referencing Generator Like us on Facebook Follow us on Twitter Google+

Copyright 2003 - 2012 - Law Teacher is a trading name of All Answers Ltd. All Answers Ltd is a company registered in England and Wales. Company Registration No: 4964706. VAT Registration No: 842417633. Licensed under the Consumer Credit Act under Licence No: 0612201. Registered Data Controller No: Z1821391. Registered office: Venture House, Cross Street, Arnold, Nottingham, Nottinghamshire, NG5 7PJ. Law Teacher - The law essay professionals Writer jobs | Fair use policy | Terms & conditions | Get verified | Privacy policy | Compliants policy | Cookie Info

www.lawteacher.net/free-law-dissertations/construction-contracts.php

14/14