Solid fuels Coal

Solid fuels consist of organic and mineral constituents. The organic constituents include carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N). Sulfur (S) and ash comprise the mineral composition. Coal ash may quantitatively consist of: 15-21 % AI2O3, 25-40 % siO2. 20-45% Fe2O3, 1-5 % CaO, 0.5-1 % MgO and 2-8 % SO8. Some coals show a content of chlorides which generally is in the range from 0.01 to 0.1 %; coals high in ash contain chlorides up to 0.4 /o, and fluorides up to 0.02. %. Brown coal ash consists of 25-40 % CaO, 3~10% AI2O3, 0.5-5% MgO and up to 40% 503. Besides mineral constituents, coal ash contains salts (chlorides and sulfates), and volatile matter such as water of crystallization in clay minerals. It also contains carbon dioxide in the carbonates and sulfurous acid in the sulfates. The combustible components are carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur; when burning, these constituents combine with oxygen from air and generate heat. The higher the portion of combustibles in the fuel, the higher is its heating value. When evaluating fuel, only the content of carbon and hydrogen is rated. Sulfur, although combustible, is not desired, since its combustion product is sulfur dioxide (SO2), which in combination with water forms sulfurous acid (H2SO3):sulfurous acid causes corrosion of the metallic parts of the kiln and behaves as exit gas in the atmosphere very destructive to the organic environment. Sulfur which remains in the coal ash becomes part of the clinker during the burning process, thus lessening its quality. Additionally, it should be noted that in certain cases a minimal amount of sulfur is even desired, since this sulfur causes sulfatizing of the alkali oxides. These alkali sulfates generated in this way, are the most stable sulfur containing phases, and leave the kiln with the clinker. thus reducing the alkali circulation in the kiln system. Only excessive sulfur results in obnoxious SO2-emissions from the cement kiln [249]. Ash and moisture are undesirable constituents of fuels, and are designated as inert contents. During the burning process, the ash is almost completely absorbed by the clinker; therefore the chemistry of the coal ash must be taken into consideration when calculating the chemical composition of the raw mix. when drying coal it should be noted that completely dry coal is difficult to ignite. As is known, carbon does not react directly with atmospheric oxygen; the combustion to CO and CO2 proceeds by way of chainreactions where carbon reacts first with the more activeOH-radical. The presence of small quantities of water vapor is required for the ignition of fuel. Thus, the dry- ing process of coal should not go too far. A moisture content of approximately 1-1.5 % in the pulverized coal promotes combustion. Coal analysis Two kinds of analyses are in use for the classification of coal: . a. The proximate analysis; this analysis involves quantitative determination of moisture, volatile matter, carbon and ash. This analysis is for quick preliminary appraisal of coal. b. The ultimate analysis; this analysis is for the exact calculation of combustion processes, and involves quantitative determination of the following constituents: moisture, carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen,nitrogen, and ash.

. Heating value The most important property of fuels is the heating value, the quantity of heat generated from 1 IB of fuel during combustion in the furnace. The heating value ig exclusively determined calorimetrically. Calculation of the heating value derived from the ultimate analysis is only for preliminary information. . Heating value and heat consumption To insure economic kiln operation, the heating value of the coal should be about 12 600 Coal with lower heating value increases the specific heat consumption for clinker burning, decreasing simultaneously the specific kiln throughput. Pig. contains a diagram, showing the ratio between the specific heat consumption and the heating value of the coal when burning clinker in the rotary kiln .

Ignition temperature of coal Ignition temperature is that surface temperature of a fuel at which the combustion reaction reaches a speed whidi insures the uninterrupted burning of fuel. To reach the ignition temperature, a certain period of time the ignition time -is required. The ignition time is that time which is needed to raise the temperature of the fuel surface to ignition temperature. This time is determined by the temperature gradient and by the heat transfer conditions. It results from the fact that the surface is a determining factor of the ignition; also, the surface of the fuel depends on the particle size, i. e. on the Hneness of grinding (in the case of coal). Thus it is possible to regulate the ignition temperature and the ignition time by. controlling the fineness of the ground coal. The curve in Fig. . shows the relationship between the ignition temperature and the Hneness of the coal; The upper limits refer to anthracite, and the lower limits to high volatile coals, i. e. coals with high volatile matter .

Coal preparation Pulverization of coal requires special precautions for preventing coal dust explosions. A coal dust explosion occurs if the following three conditions exist: 1. The concentration of coal dust in the gas mixture is within the explosion limits. 2. The oxygen content in the gas mixture is sufficient for an explosion. 3. There is sufficient thermal energy to cause an ex-plosion. Thus the absence of one of these three factors would be theoretically enough to prevent a coal dust explosion. In practice, however, it is preferable to eliminate two or, possibly, all three factors. Concentration of coal dust For mineral coal, the range of explosion is within concentration limits of 65 grains/s E (lower explosion limit),up to approximately s of coal dust (upper explosion limit) per sct of air. These concentration limits may vary,depend upon the gas content and the fineness of the coal. The fineness of the coal dust should be equivalent to a. residue of 10-15 /0 on the 170 mesh sieve (sieve opening 88 microns). The concentration range below the lower explosion limit is between 0 and 65 grains/scf, and is rather narrow. In the pulverization of coal, this range of concentration cannot be considered because of excessive gas requirements. One would also rather avoid working with coal dust concentration within the explosion limits, i. e. between 65 and 650 grains/scf, even in the absence of the two other factors. The coal dust concentration which lies above the upper explosion limit is the only effective concentration which can be practically utilized in coal drying-grinding plants. Oxygen in the gas mixture There should be a maximum of 14 /0 oxygen in the dry- ing-grinding system. Part of the exit gases is recirculated to reduce the O2-content. As to the O2-content, dangerous situations might sometimes originate during plant start-up operations. Lowering the O2-content results in increase of the lower explosion limit and de- creases the upper explosion limit, thus narrowing the explosion range. This provision also increases the ignition temperature of the gas mixture. Sufficient thermal energy ` The thermal energy required for causing an explosion can originate from the following three sources: a. Self ignition of coal. b. Overheating of the coal by excessive hot drying gases. c. Overheating of machine parts. . Cool drying Drying of coal with moisture contents in the range from 15-40 /o is mostly performed in drum dryers, the same type of dryers employed for raw material drying. The temperature of the flue gases entering the

drum dryer should not exceed 850 F.; this results in a higher specific heat consumption for coal drying compared to drying of cement raw material. The temperature of the drum dryers exit gases should be approximately 250 F, and that of the dried coal,approximately 160 P. The rate of evaporation for coal drying in drum dryers is 1.6-2.2 lb. of water vapor per cubic foot of dryer volume per hour. Waste heat from rotary kilns and from clinker coolers is used to operate drum dryers for coal drying; frequently, hot air from the kiln hood is employed. The heat consumption for coal drying in drum dryers is approximately 2700 Btu/lb. of water. Coal should be dried to a residual moisture content of 1-1.5 /0. The maximum moisture content of coal to be dried in drying-grinding plants is 15 %. The maximum temperature of the hot gases entering the drying grinding plant should be 660 f. _ . Cool grinding The pre dried coal is ground either in high speed mills or in tube mills. The fineness of the ground coal should be equivalent to a residue of 1.5-2. % on the No. 70 mesh sieve and of approximately 15 %_residue on the No. 170 mesh sieve. The rule is approximately: the shorter the rotary kiln in which the coal is burned, the finer the coal. The energy consumption for grinding of coal is within the range of 10-30 kwh/t. The moisture of coal has a significant influence on the capacity of the mill. for a moisture increase from 1-3 % the capacity of a tube mill decreases by about 45-50 %, with a proportionate increase in specific energy consumption of about 10 /0 for the same particle size; this correlation is diagramatically shown in Fig.

Correlation between moisture content of coal and tube mill output as well as specific energy consumption for grinding Therefore, as already mentioned, coal should be dried toa residual moisture content of 1-1.5 %. Mode of operation of coal mills. As to the compatibility of the coal mill and the rotary kiln, there exist basic? two different modes of operation: . The direct firing mill This mill functions directly with the rotary kiln and must adjust to are demands of the kiln. The investment cost of a direct firing mill is roughly 40 % lower than that of a comparable installation with bin firing. However, under certain circumstances, the operational dependence of the kiln upon the direct firing mill results in a bottleneck. . Control of the rotary kiln flame is complicated by the direct coal firing mill. Water vapor from the coal is blown into the rotary kiln along with the dried coal, thus reducing the flame temperature. It is said that each per cent of coal moisture lowers the flame temperature by 18--24 deg F, thus decreasing the throughput of the kiln. It is known from experience that an increase of the flame temperature by 18 deg f causes an increase in kiln production by at least 1 %. `

The central grinding plant or bin firing system The mill capacity of a central grinding plant is essential higher than the coal consumption of the kiln. The creates a stockpile of coal dust, which functions as surge between kiln and mill. Therefore, the central grinding plant is sometimes preferred.

By: Chemist Hamed Medhat EL-Arish cement quality lab