GENERAL CHEMISTRY CHEM 111 LECTURE NOTES and OBJECTIVES Scientific Method Significant Digits Scientific Notation The

he Metric System ______________________________________________________________________________

You should be able to do the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Define science explain and list the steps in the scientific method. Express an ordinary number in scientific (exponential) notation and vice versa. Perform simple mathematical operations using exponents (add, subtract, multiply, divide). State the correct number of significant digits in a number. Perform a calculation to the correct number of significant digits. State the basic units of mass, volume, and length in the metric system. State the values of, and abbreviations for, the common prefixes used in the metric system. State the value for any given unit plus prefix. Using the conversion factor method, make conversions within the metric system from one subunit to another subunit and make conversions from metric to English and vice versa. Be able to explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning. Be able to explain the difference between a law and a theory or hypothesis.

CHEMISTRY IS A SCIENCE I. SCIENCE IS AN INTELLECTUAL QUEST FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF NATURAL PHENOMENA. CHEMISTRY IS A FIELD OF SCIENCE. SCIENCE IS DEFINED AS: 1. A BODY OF KNOWLEDGE CONTAINING THEORIES, LAWS AND PRINCIPLES USED TO DESCRIBE AND PREDICT EVENTS WHICH OCCUR IN THE NATURAL WORLD. [DEDUCTIVE REASONING GOING FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC CASES] THE PROCESS OF ACQUIRING AND REFINING THIS KNOWLEDGE. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD STEPS (1) (2) (3) STATE A PROBLEM. DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT CONTROLLING CONDITIONS TO SOLVE PROBLEM. COLLECT DATA MEASUREMENTS METRIC SYSTEM SIGNIFICANT DIGITS SCIENTIFIC NOTATION (4) ANALYZE DATA FOR SOLUTION OR PREDITION. (A) (B) 3. DEVELOP A LAW (EQUATION) [INDUCTIVE REASONING GOING FROM SPECIFIC DATA TO A GENERAL LAW] DEVELOP AN HYPOTHESISTHEORYWHICH MAY EXPLAIN THE LAW.

2.

TECHNOLOGY THE USE OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE TO CONTROL AND USE NATURAL PHENOMENA TO IMPROVE OUR CIVILIZATION.

3 II. SIGNIFICANT DIGITS (Figures)

PRECISION LIMITS OF MEASUREMENTS A. ALL DIGITS IN A MEASUREMENT ARE SIGNIFICANT EXCEPT FOR ZEROS USED TO LOCATE A DECIMAL POINT.
Numbers less than one 1) 0.00213 g __3 sig. digits 2) 0.01062 kg __4 sig. digits 3) 0.0150 g 3 sig. digits 1.304 g 0.021 g 0.40 mL Numbers larger than one 1) 24,000 2 sig. digits 2) 24,000. __5 sig. digits 3) 100 mL 3 sig. digits __300 g____ 4) 15.20 mL 4 sig. digits 5) Information from problem. 10 g x 205 mL = 2050g or mL 2100g 2.1 x 10+3g

LAST DIGIT IS THE MOST UNCERTAIN. 1.0245 1g 160. g 3 sig. dig 760 mm 3 sig. dig

B.

LIMITS OF PRECISION IN CALCULATIONS. IN ALL CALCULATIONS THE ANSWER CAN ONLY CONTAIN THE SAME NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT DIGITS AS CONTAINED IN THE LEAST SIGNIFICANT NUMBER IN THE CALCULATION. CARRY ANY CALCULAITON TO ONE MORE SIGNIFICANT DIGIT AND USE THE RULE OF 5 TO ROUND BACK TO THE CORRECT NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT DIGITS. ANY STATED STANDARD VALUE HAS AN INFINITE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT Os; THEY ARE "NOT" USED TO DETERMINE THE NUMBER OF SIG. DIGITS. 1.000 g = 1000 mg 1.00 INCH = 2.54 cm 1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION - - THE ANSWER IS CORRECT TO THE LEAST ACCURATE MEASUREMENT OR TO THE NUMBER WITH THE SMALLEST NUMBER OF DECIMAL PLACES. MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION - - THE ANSWER IS CORRECT TO THE SMALLEST NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES PRESENT IN YOUR ORIGINAL DATA.

2.

4 III. SCIENTIFIC NOTATION (EXPONENTIAL) RULE TO EXPRESS ANY LARGE OR SMALL NUMBER IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION. WRITE THE NUMBER WITH ONE DIGIT TO THE LEFT OF THE DECIMAL POINT. THE EXPONENT OF 10 CORRESPONDS TO THE NUMBER OF PLACES THE DECIMAL POINT IS MOVED. IF THE DECIMAL POINT OF THE ORIGINAL NUMBER IS MOVED TO THE LEFT, THE EXPONENT IS POSITIVE; IF THE DECIMAL POINT IS MOVED TO THE RIGHT, THE EXPONENT IS NEGATIVE. 6.000,000. = 6.00 x 10+6 [EXPRESSED TO 3 SIGNIFICANT DIGITS IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION]

0.00007 14 = 7.14 x 10-5

RULES FOR USING SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 1. 2. 3. ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION ALL EXPONENTS MUST HAVE THE SAME VALUE AND SIGN. MULTIPLICATION MULTIPLY THE NUMERICAL COEFFICIENTS AND ADD THE EXPONENTS ALGEBRAICALLY. DIVISION DIVIDE NUMBERS AND SUBTRACT THE EXPONENTS ALGEBRAICALLY. ALL ANSWERS SHOULD BE ROUNDED OFF TO THE CORRECT NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES.

IV.

GUIDE SHEET ON THE METRIC SYSTEM

A.

The metric system is based on subdivisions or factors of ten (10.0). The size of the subdivisions in the metric system is indicated by a prefix put in front of the stem or basic words of the system. The basic units of weight, length, and volume in the metric system are gram, meter and liter, respectively. The prefixes and their values are indicated in the chart below.

Prefix Mega (M) Kilo (k) Hecto (h) Deka (da) One Deci (d) Centi (c) Milli (m) Micro ()

Value 1,000,000 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001

Weight Gram (g) Megagram = 1 million grams

Volume Liter (L)

Length Meter (m)

1 Kiloliter (kL) = 1000 L Hectogram (hg) = 100 g 1 Dekaliter = 10 L

Kilometer (km) = 1000 m

Deciliter (dL) = 0.1 L Centigram (cg) = 0.01 g Milligram (mg) = 0.001 g Microgram (g) = .000001 g Centiliter (cL) Milliliter (mL) = 0.001 L Microliter (L)

Decimeter (dm) = .01 m Centimeter (cm) = .01 m Millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m Micrometer (m)

6
3. Know the following relationships:
1. For any unit: Ten Fold Metric Units 10 hecto units = 1 kilo unit 10 deka units = 1 hecto unit 10 units = 1 deka unit 10 deci units = 1 unit 10 centi units = 1 deci unit 10 milli units = 1 centi unit 2. Number of small units in a single metric unit: 1 deci unit = .1 unit 10 deci units = 1 unit (10 decigrams = 1 g) 1 centi unit = .01 unit 100 centi units = 1 unit (100 centimeters = 1 meter) 1 milli unit = .001 unit 1,000 milli units = 1 unit (1,000 millilites = 1 liter) 3. The following are conversion relationships for changing metric units to English units or vice versa. Metric System Do NOT memorize these conversion relationships. 1. meter = 39.37 in. = 3.28 ft. 2.54 centimeter (cm) = 1 in. 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 lb. 28.35 grams = 1 oz. 453.6 grams = 1 lb. (or round off to 454 grams = 1 lb.) 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles 1 liter = 1.06 qt.

IMPORTANT For water at 4oC and 760 mm of pressure 1 cubic centimeter (cc) = 1 milliliter (mL) = 1 gram (g). For H2O we will use this as a conversion factor at room temperature. (This is true only for water.) 1g = 1cc = 1mL). 4. Conversion of Units: In order to make a conversion from one unit to another unit, you should make a fraction from the conversion relationship, in such a way that the denominator of the fraction contains the unit of the original number, and the numerator contains the unit you want to change to. For example: Example No. 1. Change 22 pounds to kilograms (kg)

Step 1. The correct basic conversion is 1 kg = 2.2 lb. Step 2. Make a fraction of the above conversion in such a way that pounds is in the denominator of the fraction.
1kg 2.2 lb.

= 1This fraction is called a conversion factor.

Step 3. Multiply this fraction times the quantity you want to change the unit of: 22 lb. X __1 kg___ =
2.2 lb. __22kg__ 2.2

= 10 kg

a. b.

The unit pounds will cancel out. Multiply and divide the resulting numbers to calculate the number of kilograms = 10 kg.

If you follow the above technique for problems in conversions of units from metric to English or for any other unit conversions, you will make very few errors.

Example No. 2 Change 100 milligrams (mg) to grams. There are 100 mg X 1000 mg = 1 g
___1 g____ 1000 mg

therefore

100g 1000

= 0.100 g answer = 1.00 = 1.00 X 10-1 g

Example No. 2a - - Problem No. 1 on worksheet 0.900 m = __________________ cm (100 cm = 1m) 0.900 m X
__100 cm__ 1m

= 90.0 cm = 9.00 X 10+1 cm

90.0 cm = _____________ mm (10 mm = 1 cm) Example No. 3 - - Problem 6 5.49 g = ________________ kg (1000 g = 1 kg) Example No. 4 - - Problem No. 11 2361 mL = _________________ L

THE METRIC SYSTEM 1. meter = 39.37 in. = 3.28 ft. 2.54 centimeter (cm) = 1 in. 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2 lb. 28.35 grams = 1 oz. 453.6 grams = 1 lb. (or round off to 454 grams = 1 lb.) 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles 1 liter = 1.06 qt.

9 WORK SHEET NO. 1 WORK SHEET ON SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Express 5650000. in scientific notation to three significant figures. Express 0.0000565 in scientific notation. Express 0.5 X 10-3 in scientific notation. The number 55 X 10-8 equals ________ X 10-7. Express 5.3 X 102 as an ordinary number. Express 6.73 X 10-2 as an ordinary number. Perform the operation [4 X 102] X [2 X 10-4.] Perform the operation [3.5 X 10-1] X 2 X 10-7. Perform the operation __2 X 10-2 X 3 X 101___ 6 X 10-5

Perform the operation (2 X 10-4)3 Perform the operation 2.5 X 10-1

Perform the operation .0061 + .055 and give the answer in scientific notation. How many significant figures are in the number 450.0 g? How many significant figures are in the number 0.0032? How many significant figures are in the number 0.12040? Express the number 0.000352 to two significant figures. Express the number 0.357 to two significant figures. Express the number 0.305 to two significant figures. Express the number 0.145 to two significant figures. Perform the operation
3. X 4.0 X 3.254 1.002 X 2.05

and express your answer to the correct number of significant figures.

10 Work Sheet No. 1 21. (continued)

Perform the operation

200.0 X 20.0 X 10. 100.0

and express your answer to the correct number of significant figures in correct scientific notation. 22. Perform the operation 41.56 + 72. + 7.3 and express your answer to the correct number of significant figures in correct scientific notation.

11 ANSWER SHEET FOR WORK SHEET NO. 1 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 5.65 X 10+6 5.65 X 10-5 5. X 10-4 5.5 X 10-7 530. 0.0673 8. X 10-2 7. X 10-8 1. X 104 8. X 10-12 5.0 X 10-1 6.11 X 10-2 (or 6.1 X 10-2 to the correct number of significant figures) four two five 0.00035 0.36 0.31 0.15 2. X 101 4.0 X 102 1.21 X 102 (Notice how you can write these in scientific notation to the correct number of significant figures.)

12 WORK SHEET NO. 2 WORK SHEET ON THE METRIC SYSTEM 1. Complete the following statements: Leave all answers in correct scientific notation rounded to the correct number of significant figures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 0.900 meter (m) = __________ centimeter (cm) = ____________ millimeters (mm) 3249 mm = ________ cm = ____________ m 600 cm = ________ m = ____________ mm 10 m = __________ cm = ___________ mm 100 mm = _________ cm = __________ m 5.49 grams (g) = _________ kilograms (kg) = __________ milligrams (mg) 600 mg = _________ g = ___________ centigrams (cg) 4 kilograms = ________ g = _____________ mg 542 mg = _________ g = ____________ kg 750 g = _________ kg = ___________ mg 2361 milliliters (mL) = ___________ liter (L) = _____________ centiliters (cL) 500 L = ________ mL = ____________ quarts (qt) 354 mL = ________ L = ___________ cL 1.30 kg of H2O = _________ cubic centimeter (cc) = __________ mL 500 g of H2O = _________ mL = ____________ kg = __________ L The height of the column of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm. Calculate the corresponding height in inches.

17.

The distance from New York to Albany is 150 miles. Calculate the corresponding distance in kilometers.

18.

One cubic foot of water has a weight of 62.4 lb. Calculate the corresponding weight in kilograms.

19.

Find the number of grams in 2.50 oz.

13 ANSWERS FOR WORK SHEET NO. 2 WORK SHEET ON THE METRIC SYSTEM 1. Complete the following statements: Leave all answers in correct scientific notation rounded to the correct number of significant figures. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 0.900 meter (m) = 90.0 centimeter (cm) = 900 millimeters (mm) 3249 mm = 3.249 x 10+2 cm = 3.249 m 600 cm = 6.00 m = 6,000 mm = 6.00 X 10+3 mm 10 m = 1000 cm = 10,000 mm = 1.0 X 10+4 mm 100 mm = 10.0 cm = 0.100 m = 1.00 X 10-1 m 5.49 grams (g) = 5.49 x 10-3 kilograms (kg) = 5,490 milligrams (mg) = 5.49 X 10+3 mg 600 mg = 6.00 x 10-1 g = 6.00 x 10+1 centigrams (cg) 4 kilograms = 4 X 10+3 g = 4 X 10+6 mg 542 mg = 0.542 g = .000542 kg = 5.42 X 10-4 kg 750 g = 0.750 kg = 750,000 mg = 7.50 X 10+5 mg 2361 milliliters (mL) = 2.361 liter (L) = 2.361 x 10+2 centiliters (cL) 500 L = 5.00 X 10+5 mL = 530 quarts (qt) 354 mL = 0.354 L = 35.4 cL 1.30 kg of H2O = 1.30 x 10+3 cubic centimeter (cc) = 1.30 x 10+3 mL 500 g of H2O = 5.00 x 10+2 mL = 5.00 x 10-1 kg = 5.00 x 10-1 L The height of the column of mercury in a barometer is 760 mm. Calculate the corresponding height in inches. 29.92 in = 29.9 in 17. The distance from New York to Albany is 150 miles. Calculate the corresponding distance in kilometers. 241.9 km = 242 km = 2.42 x 10+2 km 18. One cubic foot of water has a weight of 62.4 lb. Calculate the corresponding weight in kilograms. 28.36 kg = 28.4 kg 19. Find the number of grams in 2.50 oz. 70.87 g = 70.9 g

14 __________
CENTERPIECE Health news: a good story Or a good study? True or False: 1. Eating garlic lowers blood cholesterol. 2. Alcoholism is an inherited disease. 3. Coffee causes pancreatic cancer. 4. Megadoses of B vitamins cure premenstrual syndrome. If you based your answers on what youve read in the newspapers or heard on TV, you may accept all four statements as scientific fact. Yet the first two have never been proven, and the second two are patently false. These propositionswhich would have obvious applications in daily life if they were proven truehave been extensively studied and publicized. How do you identify the truth in health news? Study, once upon a time, was a verb denoting what a student did (or failed to do) before an exam, but lately theres hardly a cereal box or a magazine ad that doesnt cite some studyall too often featuring a few stretchers, as Huckleberry Finn called them. Formerly the private turf of the medical profession, such publications as the New England Journal of Medicine and the Journal of the American Medical Association are now quoted everywhere from the evening news to the Shoppers Special. In addition, new scientific journals have sprung up like weeds. By one estimate, nearly a quarter million biomedical articles are published in English alone each year. Thus any piece of scientific work, no matter how insignificant, can make headlinesand because health news is such a hot topic, it usually does. This has some advantages, to be sure. Its a good sign when so many people want to know whats going on. After all, much scientific work is paid for with tax dollars. You have every right and reason to try to stay informed about your health and everything that might affect it.

What your mother didnt tell you about Health journalism

Just because a study is reported on TV or on the front page, that doesnt mean it applies to you. Some scientific research is preliminary and of interest only to scientists. Many widely ballyhooed studies are too small and too short in duration to mean muchsuch as the recent study of seven subjects that seemingly indicated that eating 17 times a day lowers blood cholesterol levels. Or the research may have serious flawssuch as the recent study purporting to demonstrate that decaffeinated coffee raises blood cholesterol (both of these studies were discussed in our February 1990 issue). Science reporters, including the best ones, are deluged with data these days; many are expected to cover everything from particle physics to skin creams. Even when a story is accurate and well written, editors may delete such boring words as tentative and such wimpy ones as suggests in favor of gutsier vocabulary. Inconclusive doesnt make a good headline. Sometimes a health reporter may not even have read the study hes reporting. When something hot is in the offing.

The Lingo of Studies

Epidemiological research: an investigation concerned with finding the causes or risk factors for disease. It does this either by counting the frequency and distribution of a disease or other health-related event in human populations or by employing special studies such as cohort and case control studies (see below). Control group: a group used as a comparison with an experimental group. In a study of the effectiveness of a drug, the experimental group would take the drug, and the control group would either take nothing or a placebo (see below). Case control study: one comparing the frequency of exposure to a particular factor (such as smoking) in people who have a disease (such as lung cancer) and in those who dont have the disease. Clinical study: an investigation founded in observation and treatment of patients. It involves some kind of intervention that is, treatment. Cohort study: a study of a group of people over time. A wellknown example is the Framingham heart study, which has followed the people of that Massachusetts city for 25 years, examining factors (such as obesity, blood pressure, smoking, and diet) that may be connected with heart disease. Double blind study: one in which neither the researchers nor the participants know which group is the experimental group and which the control group. In vitro study: meaning within a glass. An experiment

Carried out in a test tube and not on a living person or animal. In contrast, in vivo means within a living body. Placebo: an inactive substance (or procedure) given to the control group as if it were an effective treatment, used as a comparison for the substance being tested. The situation is complicated by the fact that placebos work in about one-third of patients (this is known as the placebo effect). But over time an effective drug will, by definition, outperform a placebo. Anecdotal evidence: work-of-mouth testimonials or hearsay, not admissible as scientific evidence. However, accumulating anecdotal evidence (such as something in the air is making my eyes water) often leads to scientific study. Multifactorial event: one with many causes or precipitating factors. Most of us think of cause and effect as a simple relationshipfor example, we say the sleet storm caused him to run off the road. But disease (like many other events in nature) results from the interaction of many factors. Indeed, even running off a road in a storm is multifactorial. Otherwise everyone driving in the storm would skid off the road. Statistically significant result: an association between two factors that is greater than would occur at random. Traditionally, statistical significance is determined by a mathematical formula: there must be less than a 1-in-20 chance that a cause-and-effect relationship apparently demonstrated in an experiment is caused by chance alone.

15 The slippery verbal slope

May: does not mean will. In some people: does not mean in all people. Indicates or suggests: does not mean proves. Contributes to, is linked to, or is associated with: does not mean causes. Proves: scientific studies gather evidence in a systematic way, but one study, taken alone, seldom proves anything. Breakthrough: a breakthrough happens now and then-for example, the discovery of penicillin or the polio vaccine. But today the word is so overworked as to be meaningless. Doubles the risk or triples the risk: may or may not be meaningful. Do you know what the risk was in the first place? If the risk was 1 in a million, and you double it, thats still only 1 in 500,000. If the risk was 1 in 100 and increases by 25%, thats 1 in 75, which may be cause for concern. Organizations (such as the American Heart Association or the American Cancer Society) issue press releases, and so do medical schools, drug companies, hospitals, and food manufacturers. Some releases accurately and helpfully represent the scientific work. Somedeliberately or unconsciouslymanipulate the facts and overstate the case. But they seldom present enough detail to allow a critical analysis of the study and provide a basis for careful reporting. Enterprising researchers, institutions, and corporations have been known to hire public relations experts to promote their work and help them land on the front page or evening news. People tend to believe what they want to believe. Even when good research is meticulously reported, readers (and advertisers) tend to draw their own conclusions. The probability of finding something, if in fact its really there. The size of the sample (the number of cases or subjects in a study) is one determinant of statistical power. If a study looks at only six patients; for example, and a certain drug proves effective in half of them, you still cant predict that the same drug would be effective in half a larger population. But large studies are very costly. The duration of a study may also affect statistical power. In one large Finnish study of heart disease, for instance, subjects who lowered their cholesterol intake and made other life-style changes did not have a significantly lower death rate than a control group during the first six to eight years. But after ten years, significant benefits began to show up. This doesnt mean that no study is ever clear, or that all scientific work should be regarded with distrust. It simply underlines the fact that its usually unwise to generalize from a single study, and that scientific progress is usually show and steady, rather than a matter of dramatic breakthroughs.

The art of self-defense

Dont jump to conclusions. Changing your daily habits on the basis of a single study is almost never a good idea. Keep your skepticism in working order. Science is an uncertain undertaking. Progress is measured less often by dramatic insights than by the slow accumulation of knowledge. Astounding medical advances are rare. Dont be too quick to believe in miracles. Medical milestone in a press report is like the work natural on a food package: something to arouse rather than allay your suspicions. Notice where the information is coming from. Does the author of the article cite any authorities? Does she appear to rely on scientific evidence or simply relate a lot of anecdotes? Look out for warning signals such as thousands of people say or its well known that Is any source given for astounding statistics? Even attributed statistics can be wrong, of course, but its usually a good sign if the author cites reputable sources. Use logic and common sense. If the article says that the Japanese are healthier than Americans and claims its because the Japanese eat more fish, stop and think, they also eat a lot of rice. They sleep on mats instead of mattresses. How does the writer know its the fish that does the trick? The heart attack rate tends to be higher in countries where most households have telephones, but that doesnt mean phones cause heart attacks. Try to distinguish between promising advances that are reported as scientific news and public health recommendations. If doctors at a medical center have just done the first successful liver transplant, thats interesting. But it doesnt mean theres now a cure for liver disease. On the other hand, if the Surgeon General or the American Cancer Society says eat less fat or dont smoke, you can safely assume that many studies support this advice. Be wary when studies are cited to sell a product. Manufacturers and industry groups have been known to embroider the truth.

How studies go wrong

Broadly speaking, a study is any research investigation. The foundation of science is empirical, objective evidence, which can be gathered only through experimentation and observation. One test of a studys validity is that anybody, anywhere should be able to conduct the same experiment and achieve the same results. But the import of a study is not always immediately clear, and the possibilities for error are many. For example, in a well-publicized study some years ago, people who were admitted to a coronary care unit because of a heart attack were found to have drunk significantly more coffee than people admitted to other units of the hospital. This shows that coffee drinking causes heart attacks, right? You might think so, until you consider that people admitted to the hospital for other reasons than a heart attack often had chronic illnesses that had led them to cut coffee consumption on their own. The error here is known as selection bias. The comparison group (or control) wasnt appropriately chosen. Also, what about the people who died of a heart attack on the way to the hospital? Did they drink coffee or not? Then theres the problem of whats called statistical power-

Wellness Letter, September 1990