X-bar Theory

X-bar Theory replaces our Phrase

Structure Rules with the following
schema:

XP Æ (YP) X' Specifier rule

{
X' Æ YP X'
X' YP } Adjunct rule

X' Æ X (YP) Complement rule

 X-bar Theory, cont’d.

Advantages of X-bar Theory:

• Correctly represents constituents

smaller than XP, bigger than X

• Distinguishes syntactically among

complements, specifiers, adjuncts

• Makes cross-categorial generalizations

 NP-Proform substitution

Personal pronouns replace NP

constituents:

(1) a. The tall man with a hat came.

b. He came.

They cannot replace N alone:

(2) a. The tall man with a hat came.

b. * The tall he with a hat came.

NP g (D) (AP+) N (PP+)

NP g Prn
 V'-Proform substitution

The proform do so replaces a constituent

smaller than VP, but larger than V.

VP

AP NP

V
often eat pie

(3) a. I often eat pie, but Sue rarely

does so.

b. * I often eat pie, but rarely do so

cake.
 V'-Proform substitution, cont’d.

Do so replaces the V' category:

VP

V'

V'

AP NP
V
often eat pie

(4) a. I often eat pie, but Sue rarely

does so.

b. I often eat pie, and Frank does

so too.

c. * I often eat pie, and Frank does

so cake.
 Conjunction of X, XP

Constituents of the same category can be

conjoined by a conjunction:

(5) a. VP: He cannot eat pie or sing.

b. V: He cannot bake or eat pie

Non-constituents cannot be conjoined:

(6) a. * I saw the and fed cats.

b. * I gave John and read a book

Xn ‡ Xn Conj Xn

VP

VP Conj VP

eat pie or sing

 Conjunction of V'

V' categories can also be joined by

conjunction:

(7) She often eats pie and refuses cake.

VP

V'

V'

V' V'

AP NP NP
V Conj V
often eats pie and refuses cake
 N'-Proform substitution

Similarly, the proform one replaces a

constituent smaller than NP, but larger
than N.

NP

AP NP

N N
tall linguistics teachers

(8) a. I’ve had tall linguistics

teachers, but Sue has had short
ones.

b. * I’ve had tall linguistics

teachers, but Sue has had short
math ones.
 N'-Proform substitution

One replaces the N' category:

NP

N'

N'

AP NP
D N
these tall linguistics teachers

(9) a. I have tall linguistics teachers, but

Sue has short ones.

b. I have [NP these tall ling. teachers],

and Sue has [NP those ones].

c.* I have [NP these tall ling. teachers],

and Sue has [NP ones] too.
 Conjunction of N'

(10) We met some tall linguistics

teachers and math students.

NP

N'

N'

N' N'

AP NP NP
N Conj N
tall ling. teachers and math students
 The A' category

(11) She is oddly fearful of dogs.

AP

A'

A'

AP PP
A
oddly fearful of dogs
 The P' category

(12) He was deeply in love.

PP

P'

P'

AP NP
P
deeply in love
 Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers

Specifier: daughter of XP, sister of X'

NP specifiers include D and possessive

NP.

(13) a. the book of poetry

b. Mary’s book of poetry
c. * the Mary’s book of poetry

NP

N'

NP PP
N
Mary’s book of poetry

We will return to specifiers later.

 Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers

Complement: daughter of X', sister of X

The object of V is its complement.

(14) criticize the book

The complement of N or A has the same

semantic relation to the root.

(15) a. criticism of the book

b. critical of the book

Other Ns/As can also have a complement:

(16) a. the author of the book

b. proud of the book

The object of P is its complement:

(17) around the block

 Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers

Adjunct: daughter of X', sister of X'

Adjuncts for related V, A, N may have

the same semantic relation to the root.

(18) a. intensely fear cats

b. intensely fearful of cats
c. intense fear of cats

Adjuncts can be adjoined to the left or

right of the head.

(19) a. I laughed [often].

b. I [often] laughed.
c. I laughed [on Tuesday].
d. * I [on Tuesday] laughed.
 Adjuncts, cont’d.

Multiple adjuncts are adjoined to separate

X-bar levels.

(20) NP

N'

N'

AP AP N'

D N
the recent electric storm

Number of adjuncts = n
Number of X'-level projections = n+1
 Complements vs. Adjuncts

Complements and adjuncts can both

follow the head. Do so-replacement can
omit an adjunct, but not a complement.

(21) a. I ate on Monday, but did not do

so on Tuesday.

b. * I ate cheese, but did not do so

pie.

VP
VP
V'
V'
V'
PP NP
V V
ate on Monday ate cheese
 Complements vs. Adjuncts, cont’d.

One-replacement can also omit an

adjunct, but not a complement.

(21) a. I like the book on the table, but

not the one on the shelf.

b. * I like the top of Nose Hill, but

not the one of Kilimanjaro.

NP
NP
N'
N'
N'
PP PP
N N
book on the table top of Nose Hill