Astronomy Introduction

Overview of the Universe Astronomical Terminology Scale of the Universe Motion of Earth in the Universe Tour of our Sky
Sky The Cause of Seasons
Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-1
Astronomical Terminology
Star
large, glowing ball of gas that generates heat & light through nuclear fusion
Planet

moderately large object orbiting a star & shines by reflected light own gravity makes it round cleared its orbital path may be rocky, icy, or gaseous in composition
Astronomical Terminology, contd

Moon

object orbiting a planet Just like satellite
Asteroid

relatively small & rocky object orbiting a star Also called minor planets because they orbit much like planets with a smaller size

Comet
relatively small & icy object that orbits a star
??
Nebula
an interstellar cloud of gas and/or dust
EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology
p.1-4

Solar System
The Sun & all the material that orbits it, including its planets & moons Technically refers only to our own star system.
p.1-5
Star System
star(s) & all the material that orbits it, including its planets & moons
p.1-6
How Large is the Solar System?
p.1-7
How Large is the Solar System?

Earth Jupiter Sun
p.1-8
Galaxy
great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity & orbiting a common center
Milky Way Galaxy in our Sky
p.1-10
Our Address in the Milky Way Galaxy
p.1-11
Universe

sum total of all matter & energy, i.e. everything within & between all galaxies origin of Universe explained by the Big Bang Theory
Our Cosmic Address
p.1-13
How Big is the Universe?

There are as many stars in the observable universe as there are grains of dry sand on all the beaches on Earth. Observable universe is ~13.9b light-years. Definition of a light-year:

the distance traveled by light in one year unit for distance, not time! corresponds to ~10 trillion km
Our Lifetimes compared to the Age of the Universe

The universe is ~13.9b years old. On a cosmic calendar:

entire history of the universe compressed into 1 year solar system forms in early Sep life on Earth started by late Sep dinosaurs appeared on 26-Dec & became extinct on 30-Dec On 31-Dec: human evolve @9pm modern human @11:58pm human civilization only occupy the last half-min
Spaceship Earth The Earth rotates around its axis once every day.
Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.
we are moving with the Earth in several ways & at surprisingly fast speeds!
Earths Motion in the Solar System The Earth orbits around the Sun once every year.
Earth is racing around the Sun.

Earth is at an average distance of 150m km from the Sun Earths axis tilted by 23.5 (pointing to Polaris) orbits around the Sun in the same direction as its rotation counter-clockwise as viewed from above the North pole
Earths Motion in the Solar System, contd
p.1-18
Solar Systems Motion in the Milky Way Galaxy

The Solar System is racing around the Milky Way Galaxy.
the Sun moves randomly relative to other nearby stars at typical speed of more than 70,000 km/hr the Sun orbits the galactic center once every 230m years at speed of 800,000 km/hr
The Solar System orbits the galactic center once every 230m years.
Milky Way Galaxys Motion in the Universe
The Universe is expanding.

galaxies are carried along with the expansion & are generally moving away from each other (like expanding raisin cake) those in Local Group can move towards or away from us, e.g. Milky Way moving towards Andromeda @ 300,000 km/hr
Summary of Earths Motion in the Universe
p.1-21
Constellations
A constellation is a region of the sky.
defined in 1928 by the International Astronomical Union often recognizable by a pattern or grouping of stars total of 88 official constellations, most names come from antiquity
p.1-23
Star Charts
Planisphere
make your own at http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/eee/eee6/astroclub/articles.asp
Planetarium software (PC)
http://www.stellarium.org/ (free open source )
Planetarium for mobile phones (Java-Enabled)
http://mobilestarchart.sourceforge.net/
Satellite Observations
http://www.caski.com/cs.cgi http://www.skysatellite.com
The Celestial Sphere

The sky above us looks like a dome (hemisphere).
celestial sphere = lower + upper half of the dome we see half the sphere at any moment
All stars appear to lie on the celestial sphere.
we lack the depth perception when looking into space, as the stars are too far away stars that appear close together may lie at different distances
The patterns of stars have no physical significance!
Model of the Celestial Sphere

The idea of a celestial sphere is used to map the sky.
shows how stars are arranged in the sky
This is a 2-D representation of the sky as viewed from Earth.
Earth is placed in the center of the sphere north & south celestial poles celestial equator ecliptic
Special points & circles:

The Local Sky
Our local sky appears to take the shape of a hemisphere define location of a star by its altitude & azimuth.
zenith : point directly overhead horizon : boundary between Earth & sky (90 from zenith) meridian : line from northern to southern horizon through zenith azimuth : angle direction along horizon, clockwise from due north altitude : angle above the horizon
Review: Coordinates on Earth

Latitude: position north or south of equator
Singapore: 122 N
Longitude: position east or west of prime meridian (Greenwich, England)
Singapore: 10348 E
Measuring Size & Distance in the Sky
True sizes or separations of objects in the sky cannot be determined due to lack of depth perception
describe using angular size & angular separation instead

Handy Sky Measures
For more precise astronomical measurement: each degree subdivided into 60 arcminutes
each arcminute subdivided into 60 arcseconds
p.1-30
Daily Motion of Celestial Objects in the Sky

Earth rotates from west to east.

celestial sphere appears to rotate around us from east to west Stars make daily circles around the celestial poles
Stars at the north or south celestial poles will appear stationary.
p.1-31
Northern Hemisphere View

Stars near north celestial pole (at
angle less than A from celestial pole)
do not rise or set, but remain above the horizon circumpolar star Stars near south celestial pole never rise above horizon. Other stars (& Sun, Moon, planets) generally have daily circles partly above & below horizon.
appear to rise in the east & set in the west

Southern Hemisphere View

Similarly, stars near south celestial pole do not rise or set, but remain above the horizon circumpolar star Stars near north celestial pole never rise above horizon. Other stars (& Sun, Moon, planets) generally appear to rise in the east & set in the west.
If you stand at the poles, nothing rises or sets. If you stand at the equator, everything rises & sets 90 to the horizon.
What Constellations can you see?

It depends on your latitude & time of the year.
due to rotation & orbit of Earth
Variation with Latitude
The constellations you see depend on your latitude but not longitude.
Northern Hemisphere
Southern Hemisphere
Daily circles CCW looking north, CW looking south

Variation with Time of Year
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the Sun appears to move eastward along the ecliptic with respect to the stars. Constellations along the ecliptic make up the zodiac.
How Long is a Day?
p.1-37
The Seasons
Four Special Moments in the Year

Summer Solstice (21 June)

when the northern hemisphere receives its most direct sunlight when the northern hemisphere receives its least direct sunlight when northern hemisphere just starts to tip towards the Sun when northern hemisphere just starts to tip away from the Sun
Winter Solstice (21 December) Spring Equinox (21 March) Fall Equinox (22 September)
What causes the Seasons?
Earths axis tilted at 23.5 from normal to ecliptic plane.
celestial equator tilted at 23.5 to the ecliptic plane
The Sun spends 6 months north & south of the celestial equator in a year. Seasons are caused by Earths axis tilt & not the distance from the Earth to the Sun!
Summer in the Northern Hemisphere
p.1-40
Why Distance is not the cause of Seasons?

Variation of Sun-Earth distance is only about 3%.

small variation overwhelmed by effects of axis tilt However distance does matter for some other planets, notably Mars and Pluto due to more land, less ocean
Seasons are more extreme in the northern hemisphere.
p.1-41
Seasonal Change in the Suns Path

Days are longer & warmer in summer. In winter, days are shorter & cooler.
p.1-42
Seasonal Change in the Suns Path, contd
Northern Hemisphere
Equator
p.1-43
Seasonal Change in the Suns Altitude

Summer solstice Equinoxes
Photograph taken at 8~10 day intervals over a year.
same place & time
Winter solstice North South
Figure 8 observed due to the combination of Earths axis tilt & varying speed as it orbits the Sun.
Sun rising on 3 particular days
p.1-44
Earth's Precession
The direction of Earths rotation axis is not fixed in space but executes a slow precession (like a top) with a period of 26,000 years.
axis currently pointed at Polaris 13,000 years later: axis will point to Vega (within a few degree)
Amount of axis tilt stays close to 23.5.

pattern of season not affected positions of solstices & equinoxes in Earths orbit gradually shift with cycle of precession
Precession due to gravitys effect on a tilted, rotating object that is not a perfect sphere.
The Moon, Our Constant Companion

The Moon is the brightest & most noticeable object in our sky.

orbits the Earth in 271/3 days rise in the east & sets in the west appears to move eastward from night to night
You can also see it in the day!

Phases of the Moon

Half the Moon is illuminated by the Sun.
we see a combination of the bright & dark faces
The phase of the Moon depends on its position relative to the Sun as it orbits Earth.
p.1-47
Phases of the Moon, contd

Each complete cycle of phases takes about 291/2 days.

from one new moon to another ~2 days longer than Moons orbital period of 271/3 days due to Earths motion around the Sun during the time the Moon is orbiting around Earth
new crescent first quarter gibbous full gibbous third quarter crescent
} }
Waxing means increasing

Moon visible in afternoon/ evening gets fuller & rises later each day
Waning means decreasing

Moon visible in late night/morning gets less and sets later each day
p.1-48
Eclipses
Earth & Moon cast shadows. When one passes through the others shadow, we have an eclipse. Two types of eclipses:

Lunar Eclipse Earth is between Sun & Moon Solar Eclipse Moon is between Sun & Earth
Conditions for Eclipses
Moons orbit is inclined at 5 to the ecliptic plane.

we do not get a lunar & a solar eclipse every month (~twice/year)! Moon only crosses the ecliptic plane at 2 nodes eclipse possible only when full or new moon occurs near nodes
Solar Eclipses
You will see it when you are in Moons shadow. There are three types of solar eclipses.

Total solar eclipse within umbra Partial solar eclipse within penumbra Annular solar eclipse Moon is relatively further away & its umbral shadow does not reach Earth
Progression of a Total Solar Eclipse
p.1-52
Lunar Eclipses
Lunar eclipse begins when the Moon enters Earths penumbra. After that, one of the 3 types of lunar eclipse can be seen:
penumbral lunar eclipse Moon only passes through penumbra partial lunar eclipse part of full moon passes through umbra total lunar eclipse Moon passes entirely through umbra

Astronomy Introduction

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Astronomy Introduction

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Overview of the Universe Astronomical Terminology Scale of the Universe Motion of Earth in the Universe Tour of our Sky

Sky The Cause of Seasons

Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

Astronomical Terminology, contd

object orbiting a planet Just like satellite

Astronomical Terminology, contd

relatively small & icy object that orbits a star

an interstellar cloud of gas and/or dust

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

How Large is the Solar System?

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

How Large is the Solar System?

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

Milky Way Galaxy in our Sky

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Our Address in the Milky Way Galaxy

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Astronomical Terminology, contd

Our Cosmic Address

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

How Big is the Universe?

Our Lifetimes compared to the Age of the Universe

Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.

Earth is racing around the Sun.

Earths Motion in the Solar System, contd

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Solar Systems Motion in the Milky Way Galaxy

Milky Way Galaxys Motion in the Universe

The Universe is expanding.

Summary of Earths Motion in the Universe

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

make your own at http://www3.ntu.edu.sg/eee/eee6/astroclub/articles.asp

Planetarium software (PC)

http://www.stellarium.org/ (free open source )

Planetarium for mobile phones (Java-Enabled)

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-24

The Celestial Sphere

All stars appear to lie on the celestial sphere.

The patterns of stars have no physical significance!

Model of the Celestial Sphere

shows how stars are arranged in the sky

This is a 2-D representation of the sky as viewed from Earth.

Special points & circles:

The Local Sky

Review: Coordinates on Earth

Longitude: position east or west of prime meridian (Greenwich, England)

Measuring Size & Distance in the Sky

describe using angular size & angular separation instead

Handy Sky Measures

each arcminute subdivided into 60 arcseconds

Daily Motion of Celestial Objects in the Sky

Stars at the north or south celestial poles will appear stationary.

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology

Northern Hemisphere View

appear to rise in the east & set in the west

Southern Hemisphere View

What Constellations can you see?

due to rotation & orbit of Earth

Variation with Latitude