Chapter 3: semiconductor

science and light emitting diodes

Of the 18 atoms shown in the figure, only 8 belong to the volume a
o
3
.
Because the 8 corner atoms are each shared by 8 cubes, they contribute a
total of 1 atom; the 6 face atoms are each shared by 2 cubes and thus
contribute 3 atoms, and there are 4 atoms inside the cube.
The atomic density is therefore 8/a
o
3
, which corresponds to 17.7, 5.00, and
4.43 X 10
22
cm
-3
, respectively.
Semiconductor Lattice Structures
Diamond Lattices
The diamond-crystal lattice characterized by
four covalently bonded atoms.
The lattice constant, denoted by a
o
, is 0.356,
0.543 and 0.565 nm for diamond, silicon, and
germanium, respectively.
Nearest neighbors are spaced units apart. ( ) 4 / 3
o
a
(After W. Shockley: Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, Van Nostrand, Princeton, N.J., 1950.)
Semiconductor Lattice Structures
Diamond and Zincblende Lattices
Diamond lattice
Si, Ge
Zincblende lattice
GaAs, InP, ZnSe
Diamond lattice can be though of as an FCC structures with an
extra atoms placed at a/4+b/4+c/4 from each of the FCC atoms
The Zincblende lattice consist of a face centered cubic Bravais point lattice which contains
two different atoms per lattice point. The distance between the two atoms equals one quarter
of the body diagonal of the cube.
How Many Silicon Atoms per cm
-3
?
Number of atoms in a unit cell:
4 atoms completely inside cell
Each of the 8 atoms on corners are shared among cells
count as 1 atom inside cell
Each of the 6 atoms on the faces are shared among 2
cells count as 3 atoms inside cell
Total number inside the cell = 4 + 1 + 3 = 8
Cell volume:
(.543 nm)
3
= 1.6 x 10
-22
cm
3
Density of silicon atoms
= (8 atoms) / (cell volume) = 5 x 10
22
atoms/cm
3
diamond cubic lattice
The Si Crystal
Each Si atom has 4 nea
rest neighbors
lattice constant
= 5.431
Semiconductor Materials for
Optoelectronic Devices
400~450 450~470 470~557 557~567 567~572 572~585 585~605 605~630 630~700
Pure Blue Blue Pure Green Green Yellow Green Yellow Amber Orange Red
Semiconductor Optical Sources
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
B
l
u
e
G
r
e
e
n
O
r
a
n
g
e
Y
e
l
l
o
w
R
e
d

1.7
I n f r ar ed (um)
V
i
o
l
e
t
G
a
A
s
G
a
A
s0
.
5
5
P
0
.
4
5
GaAs
1-y
P
y
I
n
P
I
n
0
.
1
4
G
a
0
.
8
6
A
s
In
1-x
Ga
x
As
1-y
P
y
Al
x
Ga
1-x
As
x = 0.43
G
a
P
(
N
)
G
a
S
b
I
n
G
a
N
S
i
C
(
A
l
)
I
n
0
.
7
G
a
0
.
3
A
s
0
.
6
6
P
0
.
3
4
I
n
0
.
5
7
G
a
0
.
4
3
A
s
0
.
9
5
P
0
.
0
5
In
0.49
Al
x
Ga
0.51-x
P
Semiconductor Materials for
Optoelectronic Devices
Quantization Concept
plank constant
Core electrons
Valence electrons
Periodic Table of the Elements
Group**


Period 1
IA
1A


18
VIIIA
8A
1
1
H
1.008
2
IIA
2A

13
IIIA
3A
14
IVA
4A
15
VA
5A
16
VIA
6A
17
VIIA
7A
2
He
4.003
2
3
Li
6.941
4
Be
9.012

5
B
10.81
6
C
12.01
7
N
14.01
8
O
16.00
9
F
19.00
10
Ne
20.18
8 9 10
3
11
Na
22.99
12
Mg
24.31
3
IIIB
3B
4
IVB
4B
5
VB
5B
6
VIB
6B
7
VIIB
7B
------- VIII -------
------- 8 -------
11
IB
1B
12
IIB
2B
13
Al
26.98
14
Si
28.09
15
P
30.97
16
S
32.07
17
Cl
35.45
18
Ar
39.95
4
19
K
39.10
20
Ca
40.08
21
Sc
44.96
22
Ti
47.88
23
V
50.94
24
Cr
52.00
25
Mn
54.94
26
Fe
55.85
27
Co
58.47
28
Ni
58.69
29
Cu
63.55
30
Zn
65.39
31
Ga
69.72
32
Ge
72.59
33
As
74.92
34
Se
78.96
35
Br
79.90
36
Kr
83.80
5
37
Rb
85.47
38
Sr
87.62
39
Y
88.91
40
Zr
91.22
41
Nb
92.91
42
Mo
95.94
43
Tc
(98)
44
Ru
101.1
45
Rh
102.9
46
Pd
106.4
47
Ag
107.9
48
Cd
112.4
49
In
114.8
50
Sn
118.7
51
Sb
121.8
52
Te
127.6
53
I
126.9
54
Xe
131.3
6
55
Cs
132.9
56
Ba
137.3
57
La*
138.9
72
Hf
178.5
73
Ta
180.9
74
W
183.9
75
Re
186.2
76
Os
190.2
77
Ir
190.2
78
Pt
195.1
79
Au
197.0
80
Hg
200.5
81
Tl
204.4
82
Pb
207.2
83
Bi
209.0
84
Po
(210)
85
At
(210)
86
Rn
(222)
7
87
Fr
(223)
88
Ra
(226)
89
Ac~
(227)
104
Rf
(257)
105
Db
(260)
106
Sg
(263)
107
Bh
(262)
108
Hs
(265)
109
Mt
(266)
110
---
()
111
---
()
112
---
()

114
---
()

116
---
()

118
---
()
IV Compounds
SiC, SiGe
III-V Binary Compounds
AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaN, GaP, GaAs,
GaSb, InP, InAs, InSb
III-V Ternary Compounds
AlGaAs, InGaAs, AlGaP
III-V Quternary Compounds
AlGaAsP, InGaAsP
II-VI Binary Compounds
ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe
II-VI Ternary Compounds
HgCdTe
Semiconductor Materials Semiconductor Materials
Atomic Bonding
a. Ionic bonding (such as NaCl)
b. Metallic bonding (all metals)
c. Covalent bonding (typical Si)
d. Van der Waals bonding (water)
e. Mixed bonding (GaAs, ZnSe, ionic & covalent)
Bonding forces in Solids
Covalent Bonding
Quantization Concept
plank constant
Core electrons
Valence electrons
2s
2p
1s
K
L
Quantization Concept
The shell model of the atom in which the electrons are confined
to live within certain shells and in sub shells within shells.
The Shell Model
1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
or [He]2s
2
2p
2
L shell with
two sub shells
Nucleus
Band theory of solids
Two atoms brought together to form molecule
splitting of energy levels for outer electron shells
Energy Band Formation (I)

=
Splitting of energy states into allowed bands
separated by a forbidden energy gap
as the atomic spacing decreases.
The electrical properties of a crystalline material
correspond to specific allowed and forbidden energies
associated with an atomic separation related to the
lattice constant of the crystal.
Allowed energy levels of
an electron acted on by
the Coulomb potential of
an atomic nucleus.
Energy Band Formation (I)
Energy Band Formation (II)
Strongly bonded materials: small
interatomic distances.
Thus, the strongly bonded materials can
have larger energy bandgaps than do
weakly bonded materials.
Energy Bandgap
where no states exist
As atoms are brought closer towards
one another and begin to bond
together, their energy levels must
split into bands of discrete levels
so closely spaced in energy, they
can be considered a continuum of
allowed energy.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
Only 2 electrons, of spin 1/2, can
occupy the same energy state at
the same point in space.
Energy Band Formation (III)
Conceptual development of the energy band model.
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
n
e
r
g
y
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
n
e
r
g
y
isolated
Si atoms
Si lattice
spacing
Decreasing atom spacing
s
p
s
p
n = 3
N isolated Si-atoms
6N p-states total
2N s-states total
(4N electrons total)
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
n
e
r
g
y
Crystalline Si N -atoms
4N allowed-states
(Conduction Band)
4N allowed-states
(Valance Band)
No states
4N empty states
2N+2N filled states
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n

e
n
e
r
g
y
Mostly
empty
Mostly
filled
E
top
E
c
E
g
E
v
E
bottom
Broadening of allowed energy levels into allowed energy bands
separated by forbidden-energy gaps as more atoms influence each
electron in a solid.
Energy Band Formation (IV)
One-dimensional
representation
Two-dimensional diagram in which
energy is plotted versus distance.
N electrons filling half of the 2N
allowed states, as can occur in a metal.
Energy Band
Energy band diagrams.
A completely empty band separated
by an energy gap E
g
from a band
whose 2N states are completely filled
by 2N electrons, representative of an
insulator.
2s Band
Overlapping
energy bands
Electrons 2s
2p
3s
3p
1s
1s
SOLID ATOM
E = 0
Free electron
Electron Energy, E
2p Band
3s Band
Vacuum
level
In a metal the various energy bands overlap to give a single band of energies
that is only partially full of electrons.
There are states with energies up to the vacuum level where the electron is free.
Typical band structures of Metal
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Electron energy, E
ConductionBand(CB)
Emptyof electrons at 0K.
ValenceBand(VB)
Full of electrons at 0K.
E
c
E
v
0
E
c
+
Covalent bond
Si ion core (+4e)
A simplified two dimensional
view of a region of the Si
crystal showing covalent
bonds.
The energy band diagram of
electrons in the Si crystal at
absolute zero of temperature.
Typical band structures of Semiconductor
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Band gap = E
g
Carrier Flow for Metal
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Carrier Flow for Semiconductors.mov
Carrier Flow for Semiconductor
Carrier Flow for Metals.mov
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Insulator Semiconductor Metal
Typical band structures at 0 K.
10
6
10
3
10
0
10
-3
10
-6
10
-9
10
-12
10
-15
10
-18
10
9
Semiconductors Conductors
10
12
Ag Graphite NiCr Te
Intrinsic Si
Degenerately
doped Si
Insulators
Diamond
SiO
2
Superconductors
PET
PVDF
Amorphous
As
2
Se
3
Mica
Alumina
Borosilicate Pure SnO
2
Inorganic Glasses
Alloys
Intrinsic GaAs
Soda silica glass
Manyceramics
Metals
Polypropylene
Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators
Range of conductivities exhibited by various materials.
Conductivity (m)
-1
Energy Band Diagram
Electrons within an infinite potential energy well of spatial width L,
its energy is quantized.
e
n
n
m
k
E
2
) (
2
h
=
L
n
k
n

=
... 3 , 2 , 1 = n
Energy increases
parabolically with the
wavevector k
n
.
n
k h : electron momentum
This description can be used to the behavior of electron in a Metal
within which their average potential energy is V(x) 0 inside, and very
large outside.
x
0
+a/2 -a/2
V(x)

V=0
m
infinite square potential
0
+a/2 -a/2

0
+a/2 -a/2

x

x
2

n=1
n=2
n=3
E
1
E
2
E
3
Energy state Wavefunction Probability density
r
PE(r)
x
V(x)
x = L
x = 0
a 2a 3a
0
a a
Surface
Surface Crystal
Potential Energy of the electron
around an isolated atom
When N atoms are arranged to
form the crystal then there is an
overlap of individual electron PE
functions.
PE of the electron, V(x), inside the
crystal is periodic with a period a.
The electron potential energy [PE, V(x)], inside the crystal is periodic with the
same periodicity as that of the crystal, a.
Far away outside the crystal, by choice, V = 0 (the electron is free and PE = 0).
3.1 Energy Band Diagram
E-k diagram, Bloch function.
Moving through Lattice.mov
within the Crystal!
3.1 Energy Band Diagram
| | 0 ) (
2
2 2
2
= +

x V E
m
dx
d
e
h
Schrdinger equation
) ( ) ( ma x V x V + =
Periodic Potential
x k i
k k
e x U x ) ( ) ( =
Periodic Wave function
Bloch Wavefunction
There are many Bloch wavefunction solutions to the one-dimensional crystal each
identified with a particular k value, say k
n
which act as a kind of quantum number.
Each
k
(x) solution corresponds to a particular k
n
and
represents a state with an energy E
k
.
E-k diagram, Bloch function.
... 3 , 2 , 1 = m
E
k
k
/a /a
E
c
E
v
Conduction
Band (CB)
E
c
E
v
CB
The Energy Band
Diagram
Empty
k
Occupied
k
h
+
e
-
E
g
e
-
h
+
h
VB
h
Valence
Band (VB)
The E-k curve consists of many discrete points with each point corresponding to a
possible state, wavefunction
k
(x), that is allowed to exist in the crystal.
The points are so close that we normally draw the E-k relationship as a continuous
curve. In the energy range E
v
to E
c
there are no points [no
k
(x) solutions].
3.1 Band Diagram
E-k diagram of a direct bandgap semiconductor
E-k diagram
3.1 Energy Band Diagram
The bottom axis describe different directions of the crystal.
Si Ge GaAs
The energy is plotted as a function of the wave number, k,
along the main crystallographic directions in the crystal.
E
CB
k k
Direct Bandgap
GaAs
E
CB
VB
Indirect Bandgap, E
g
k k
k
cb
Si
E
k k
Phonon
Si witharecombinationcenter
E
g
E
c
E
v
E
c
E
v
k
vb
VB
CB
E
r
E
c
E
v
Photon
VB
In GaAs the minimum of
the CB is directly above
the maximum of the VB.
direct bandgap
semiconductor.
In Si, the minimum of the CB is
displaced from the maximum of
the VB.
indirect bandgap semiconductor
Recombination of an electron
and a hole in Si involves a
recombination center.
3.1 Energy Band Diagram
E-k diagram
3.1 Energy Band
A simplified energy band diagramwith the highest almost-filled
band and the lowest almost-empty band.
valence band edge
conduction band edge
vacuum level
: electron affinity
e

hole
CB
VB
E
c
E
v
0
E
c
+
E
g
Free e
h > E
g
Hole h
+
Electron energy, E
h
3. 1 Electrons and Holes
A photon with an energy greater
then E
g
can excitation an electron
from the VB to the CB.
Each line between Si-Si atoms is a
valence electron in a bond.
When a photon breaks a Si-Si bond, a
free electron and a hole in the Si-Si
bond is created.
Generation of Electrons and Holes
Electrons: Electrons in the conduction band that are free to move throughout the crystal.
Holes: Missing electrons normally found in the valence band
(or empty states in the valence band that would normally be filled).
Electrons and Holes
These particles carry electricity.
Thus, we call these carriers
3.1 Effective Mass (I)
An electron moving in respond to an applied electric field.
E
E
within a Vacuum within a Semiconductor crystal
dt
d
m E q F
v
0
= =
dt
d
m E q F
n
v

= =
It allow us to conceive of electron and holes as quasi-classical particles
and to employ classical particle relationships in semiconductor crystals or
in most device analysis.
3.1 Carrier Movement Within the Crystal
Density of States Effective Masses at 300 K
Ge and GaAs have lighter electrons than Si which results in faster devices
3.1 Effective Mass (II)
Electrons are not free but interact with periodic potential of the lattice.
Wave-particle motion is not as same as in free space.
Curvature of the band determine m*.
m* is positive in CB min., negative in VB max.
Moving through Lattice.mov
3.1 Energy Band Diagram
The bottom axis describe different directions of the crystal.
Si Ge GaAs
The energy is plotted as a function of the wave number, k,
along the main crystallographic directions in the crystal.
The motion of electrons in a crystal can be visualized and described
in a quasi-classical manner.
In most instances
The electron can be thought of as a particle.
The electronic motion can be modeled using Newtonian
mechanics.
The effect of crystalline forces and quantum mechanical properties
are incorporated into the effective mass factor.
m* > 0 : near the bottoms of all bands
m* < 0 : near the tops of all bands
Carriers in a crystal with energies near the top or bottom of an
energy band typically exhibit a constant (energy-independent)
effective mass.
` : near band edge
3.1 Mass Approximation
constant
2
2
= |
.
|

\
|
dk
E d
Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding Band Occupation at Low Temperature
Band Occupation at High Temperature Band Occupation at High Temperature
Band Occupation at High Temperature Band Occupation at High Temperature
Band Occupation at High Temperature
Without help the total number of carriers (electrons and
holes) is limited to 2n
i
.
For most materials, this is not that much, and leads to very
high resistance and few useful applications.
We need to add carriers by modifying the crystal.
This process is known as doping the crystal.
Impurity Doping
The need for more control over carrier concentration
Regarding Doping, ...
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
Band diagram equivalent view
e

As
+
x
As
+
As
+
As
+
As
+
E
c
E
d
CB
E
v
~0.05 eV
As atomsites every 10
6
Si atoms
Distance into
crystal
Electron Energy
The four valence electrons of As allow
it to bond just like Si but the 5th
electron is left orbiting the As site.
The energy required to release to free
fifth- electron into the CB is very
small.
Energy band diagram for an n-type Si doped
with 1 ppm As. There are donor energy levels
below E
c
around As
+
sites.
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
n-type Impurity Doping of Si
just
Energy band diagram of an n-type
semiconductor connected to a
voltage supply of V volts.
The whole energy diagram tilts
because the electron now has an
electrostatic potential energy as
well.
Current flowing
V
n-Type Semiconductor
E
c
E
F
eV
A
B
V(x), PE(x)
x
PE(x) = eV
E
Electron Energy
E
c
eV
E
v
eV
V(x)
E
F
E
v
Concept of a Donor Adding extra Electrons
Energy Band Diagram in an
Applied Field
Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes
All regions
of
material
are neutrally
charged
One less bond
means
the acceptor is
electrically
satisfied.
One less bond
means
the neighboring
Silicon is left with
an empty state.
Hole Movement
Empty state is located next to the Acceptor
Hole Movement
Another valence electron can fill the empty state located next to
the Acceptor leaving behind a positively charged hole.
Hole Movement
The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Hole Movement
The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Hole Movement
The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Region
around the
hole has
one less
electron
and thus is
positively
charged.
Hole Movement
The positively charged hole can move throughout the crystal.
(Really it is the valance electrons jumping from atom to atom that creates the hole motion)
Region
around the
acceptor
has
one extra
electron
and thus is
negatively
charged.
Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes
Band diagram equivalent view
B

h
+
x
B

E
v
E
a
Batomsites every 10
6
Si atoms
Distance
into crystal
~0.05 eV
B

h
+
VB
E
c
Electron energy
p-type Impurity Doping of Si
Concept of a Acceptor Adding extra Holes
Boron doped Si crystal. B has
only three valence electrons.
When it substitute for a Si atom
one of its bond has an electron
missing and therefore a hole.
Energy band diagram for a p-type Si crystal
doped with 1 ppm B. There are acceptor
energy levels just above E
v
around B
-
site.
These acceptor levels accept electrons
from the VB and therefore create holes in
the VB.
E
c
E
v
E
Fi
CB
E
Fp
E
Fn
E
c
E
v
E
c
E
v
VB
Intrinsic
semiconductors
In all cases, np=n
i
2
Note that donor and acceptor energy levels are not shown.
Intrinsic, n-Type, p-Type Semiconductors
Energy band diagrams
n-type
semiconductors
p-type
semiconductors
Impurity Doping Impurity Doping
Valence Band
Valence Band
Impurity Doping
Position of energy levels within the bandgap of Si for
common dopants.
Energy-band diagram for a semiconductor showing the lower edge of the
conduction band E
c
, a donor level E
d
within the forbidden band gap,
and Fermi level E
f
, an acceptor level E
a
, and the top edge of the valence
band E
v
.
Energy Band
Energy band diagrams.
3.2B Semiconductor Statistics
dE E g
c
) (
The number of conduction band
states/cm
3
lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E E
c
).
The number of valence band
states/cm
3
lying in the energy
range between E and E + dE
(if E E
v
).
dE E g
v
) (
Density of States Concept
General energy dependence of
g
c
(E) and g
v
(E) near the band edges.

3.2B Semiconductor Statistics

Density of States Concept
Quantum Mechanics tells us that the number of available states in a
cm
3
per unit of energy, the density of states, is given by:
Density of States
in Conduction Band
Density of States
in Valence Band
3.2B Fermi- Dirac function
Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept
Now that we know the number of available states at each energy, then
how do the electrons occupy these states?
We need to know how the electrons are distributed in energy.
Again, Quantum Mechanics tells us that the electrons follow the Fer
mi-distribution function.
E
f
Fermi energy (average energy in the crystal)
k Boltzmann constant (k=8.61710
-5
eV/K)
T Temperature in Kelvin (K)
f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is occupied.
1-f(E) is the probability that a state at energy E is unoccupied.
kT E E
f
e
E f
/ ) (
1
1
) (

+
=
Fermi function applies only under equilibrium conditions, however, is
universal in the sense that it applies with all materials-insulators,
semiconductors, and metals.

The Fermi function f (E) is a probability

distribution function that tells one the ratio of
filled to total allowed states at a given energy
E
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
Probability of Occupation (Fermi Function) Concept

Fermi-Dirac Distribution
3.2B Semiconductor Statistics
E
f

Fermi Function
Probability that an available state at energy E is occupied:
E
F
is called the Fermi energy or the Fermi level
There is only one Fermi level in a system at equilibrium.
If E >> E
F
:
If E << E
F
:
If E = E
F
:
kT E E
F
e
E f
/ ) (
1
1
) (

+
=
3.2B Semiconductor Statistics
Probability of Occupation (Fermi function) Concept
Maxwell Boltzmann Distribution Function
Boltzmann Approximation
Probability that a state is empty (occupied by a hole):
kT E E
F
F
e E f kT E E
/ ) (
) ( , 3 If

>
kT E E
F
F
e E f kT E E
/ ) (
1 ) ( , 3 If

>
kT E E kT E E
F F
e e E f
/ ) ( / ) (
) ( 1

=
TYU
Assume the Fermi level is 0.30eV below the
conduction band energy (a) determine the pro
bability of a state being occupied by an electr
on at E=Ec+KT at room temperature (300K).
TYU
Determine the probability that an allowed ene
rgy state is empty of electron if the state is be
low the fermi level by (i) kT (ii) 3KT (iii)
6 KT
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
Example 2.2
The probability that a state is filled at the conduction band edge (E
c
) is
precisely equal to the probability that a state is empty at the valence band
edge (E
v
).
Where is the Fermi energy locate?
Solution
The Fermi function, f(E), specifies the probability of electron occupying
states at a given energy E.
The probability that a state is empty (not filled) at a given energy E is equal
to 1- f(E).
( ) ( )
V C
E f E f = 1
( )
( ) kT E E C
F C
e
E f
/
1
1

+
=
( )
( ) ( ) kT E E kT E E V
V F F V
e e
E f
/ /
1
1
1
1
1 1

+
=
+
=
kT
E E
kT
E E
F V F C

=

2
V C
F
E E
E
+
=
The density of electrons (or holes) occupying the states
in energy between E and E + dE is:
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
Probability of Occupation Concept
0 Otherwise
dE E f E g
c
) ( ) (
Electrons/cm
3
in the conduction
band between E and E + dE
(if E E
c
).
Holes/cm
3
in the conduction
band between E and E + dE
(if E E
v
).
dE E f E g
v
) ( ) (
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
Probability of Occupation Concept
Typical band structures of Semiconductor
E
v
E
c
0
E
c
+
E
F
VB
CB
E
g(E)
g(E) (EE
c
)
1/2
fE)
E
F
E
For
electrons
For holes
[1f(E)]
Energy band
diagram
Density of states Fermi-Dirac
probability
function
probability of
occupancy of
a state
n
E
(E) or p
E
(E)
E
n
E
(E)
p
E
(E)
Area = p
Area
E
c
E
v
n dE E n
E
= =

) (
g(E) X f(E)
Energy density of electrons in
the CB
number of electrons per unit
energy per unit volume
The area under n
E
(E) vs. E is the
electron concentration.
number of
states per unit
energy per unit
volume
How do electrons and holes populate the bands?
The Density of Electrons is:
Probability the state is filled
Number of states per cm
-3
in energy range dE
Probability the state is empty
Number of states per cm
-3
in energy range dE
units of n and p are [ #/cm
3
]
The Density of Hole is:
Developing the Mathematical Model
for Electrons and Holes concentrations
Electron Concentration (n
o
)
TYU
Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron concen
tration in Si at T=300K for the case when the F
ermi level is 0.25eV below the conduction band
.
EC
EV
EF
0.25eV
Hole Concentration (n
o
)
TYU
Calculate thermal equilibrium hole concentrati
on in Si at T=300k for the case when the Fermi
level is 0.20eV above the valance band energy
Ev.
EC
EV
0.20eV
EF
Degenerate and Nondegenerate Semiconductors
Nondegenerate Case
Useful approximations to the Fermi-Dirac integral:
( ) kT E E
C
C f
e N n

=
( ) kT E E
V
f V
e N p

=
Developing the Mathematical Model
for Electrons and Holes
( ) kT E E
C i
C i
e N n

=
When n = n
i
, E
f
= E
i
(the intrinsic energy), then
or
and
( ) kT E E
V i
i V
e N n

=
( ) kT E E
i V
V i
e n N

= or
( ) kT E E
i C
i C
e n N

=
The intrinsic carrier concentration
( ) kT E E
C
o
C f
e N n

=
( ) kT E E
V
f V
o e N p

=
Other useful relationships: np product:
( ) kT E E
C i
C i
e N n

= and
( ) kT E E
V i
i V
e N n

=
( ) kT E
V C
kT E E
V C i
g V C
e N N e N N n

= =
2
kT E
V C i
g
e N N n
2
=
Semiconductor Statistics
TYU
Determine the intrinsic carrier concentration in
GaAs (a) at T=200k and (b) T=400K
2
i
o o n p n =
Law of mass Action
( ) kT E E
i
o
i f
e n n

=
( ) kT E E
i
o
f i
e p p

=
and
Since
It is one of the fundamental principles of semiconductors
in thermal equilibrium
Example
Law of mass action
An intrinsic Silicon wafer has 1x10
10
cm
-3
holes. When 1x10
18
cm
-3
donors are added, what is the new hole concentration?
2
i
o o n p n =
D
N n
D
i
N
n
p
2
and
A D
N N
i D
n N and if
TYU
Find the hole concentration at 300K, if the
electron concentration is n
o
=1 x 10
15
cm
-3
,
which carrier is majority carrier and which
carrier is minority carrier?
TYU
: The concentration of majority carrier
electron is no=1 x 10
15
cm
-3
at 300K. D
etermine the concentration of phosphorus th
at are to be added and determine the concentr
ation minority carriers holes.
Partial Ionization,
Intrinsic Energy
and Parameter Rel
ationships.
Energy band diagram
showing negative
charges
Energy band diagram
showing positive
charges
If excess charge existed within the semiconductor, random motion
of charge would imply net (AC) current flow.
Not possible!
Thus, all charges within the semiconductor must cancel.
Charge Neutrality:
( ) ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | | 0 = +
+ = +
+
+
n N N p q
n N N p
d A
a d
M
o
b
i
l
e

+

c
h
a
r
g
e

I
m
m
o
b
i
l
e

-
c
h
a
r
g
e

I
m
m
o
b
i
l
e

+

c
h
a
r
g
e

M
o
b
i
l
e

-
c
h
a
r
g
e

3.5 Carrier concentration-effects of doping

N
A

= Concentration of ionized acceptors = ~ N

A
N
D
+
= Concentration of ionized Donors = ~ N
D
Charge Neutrality: Total Ionization case
( ) ( ) 0 = +
+
n N N p
d A
3.5 Developing the Mathematical Model
for Electrons and Holes
The intrinsic carrier concent
ration as a function of
temperature.
Electron concentration versus temperature for n-type
Semiconductor.
Carrier Concentration vs. Temper
ature
position of Fermi Energy level
( ) kT E E
c
o
f c
e N n
] [
=
) / ln( o c c n N kT E E F =
) / ln( d c F c N N kT E E =
N
d
>> ni
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the N
d
term
in the above equation is simply replaced by N
d
-N
a
.
( ) kT E E
V
o
f V
e N p

=
) / ln( o v v F p N kT E E =
) / ln( a v v F N N kT E E =
N
a
>> ni
position of Fermi Energy level
Note: If we have a compensated semiconductor , then the Na term
in the above equation is simply replaced by N
a
-N
d
.
position of Fermi level as a function of carrier concentration
Where is E
i
?
Extrinsic Material:
Note: The Fermi-level is pictured here for 2 separate cases: acceptor and donor doped.
TYU
Determine the position of the Fermi level with res
pect to the valence band energy in p-type GaAs at
T=300K. The doping concentration are Na=5 x 1
0
16
cm
-3
and Na=4 x 10
15
cm
-3
.
position of Fermi Energy level
Extrinsic Material:
( ) kT E E
i
o
fi f
e n n

=
( ) kT E E
i
o
f fi
e n p

=
Solving for (E
f
- E
fi
)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i i
fi f
n
p
kT
n
n
kT E E ln ln
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
D
fi f
n
N
kT E E ln
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
A
fi f
n
N
kT E E ln
A D
N N
i D
n N and for
D A
N N
i A
n N and for
TYU 3.8
Calculate the position of the Fermi level in n-
type Si at T=300K with respect to the intrinsi
c Fermi energy level. The doping concentrati
on are N
d
=2 x 10
17
cm
-3
and N
a
=3 x 10
16
cm
-3
.
EC
EV
E
Fi
E
F
Mobile Charge Carriers in
Smiconductor devices
Three primary types of carrier action occur inside a
semiconductor:
Drift: charged particle motion under the influence of an
electric field.
Diffusion: particle motion due to concentration gradient
or temperature gradient.
Recombination-generation (R-G)
Carrier Motion
Carrier Dynamics
Electron Drift
Hole Drift
Electron Diffusion
Hole Diffusion
Carrier Drift
Direction of motion
Holes move in the direction of the electric field. (F\)
Electrons move in the opposite direction of the electric field. (\F)
Motion is highly non-directional on a local scale, but has a net direction
on a macroscopic scale.
Average net motion is described by the drift velocity, v
d
[cm/sec].
Net motion of charged particles gives rise to a current.
Instantaneous velocity is extremely fast
Describe the mechanism of the carrier drift and drift current
due to an applied electric field.
Drift
Drift of Carriers
Electric Field
Drift of electron in a solid
The ball rolling down the smooth hill speeds up
continuously, but the ball rolling down the
stairs moves with a constant average velocity.
|cm
2
/Vsec| : mobility
Random thermal motion. Combined motion due to random thermal
motion and an applied electric field.
Drift
Schematic path of an electron in a semiconductor.
E
E
Drift
Random thermal motion.
Combined motion due to
random thermal motion and an
applied electric field.
Drift
Conduction process in an n-type semiconductor
Thermal equilibrium Under a biasing condition
Drift
Given current density J ( I = J x Area ) flowing in a semiconductor block
with face area A under the influence of electric field E, is volume
density, the component of J due to drift of carriers is:
Hole Drift Current Density
d p
v p q J
v Jdrf
drf
d
=
=
Electron Drift Current Density
d n
v n e J drf =
and
d p
drf
v p e J
v J
drf
d
=
=
Drift
At Low Electric Field Values,
E p e J
p
Drift
p
= E n e J
n
Drift
n
= and
|cm
2
/Vsec| is the mobility of the semiconductor and measures the
ease with which carriers can move through the crystal.
The drift velocity increases with increasing applied electric field.:
E n p q J J J
n p
Drift
n
Drift
p
drf + = + = ) (
Electron and hole mobilities of selected
intrinsic semiconductors (T=300K)
Si Ge GaAs InAs

n
(cm
2
/Vs) 1350 3900 8500 30000

p
(cm
2
/Vs) 480 1900 400 500

s V
cm
V/cm
cm/s
2
(

=
has the dimensions of v/ :
Electron and Hole Mobilities EX 4.1
Consider a GaAs sample at 300K with dopin
g concentration of Na=0 and Nd=10
16
cm
-3
.
Assume electron and hole mobitities given in
table 4.1. Calculate the drift current density if
the applied electric filed is E=10V/cm.
|cm
2
/Vsec| is the mobility of the semiconductor and measures the
ease with which carriers can move through the crystal.
Mobility

n
~ 1360 cm
2
/Vsec for Silicon @ 300K

p
~ 460 cm
2
/Vsec for Silicon @ 300K

n
~ 8000 cm
2
/Vsec for GaAs @ 300K

p
~ 400 cm
2
/Vsec for GaAs @ 300K
| | sec
2
*
,
,
V cm
m
q
p n
p n

=
< > is the average time between particle collisions in the
semiconductor.
Collisions can occur with lattice atoms, charged dopant atoms, or with
other carriers.
Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si.
Saturation velocity Saturation velocity
Drift velocity vs. Electric field
Designing devices to work at
the peak results in faster
operation
1/2mv
th
2
=3/2kT=3/2(0.0259)
=0.03885eV
Ohms law is valid only in the low-field region where drift velocity is independent
of the applied electric field strength.
Saturation velocity is approximately equal to the thermal velocity (10
7
cm/s).
| | sec
2
*
,
,
V cm
m
q
p n
p n

=
Drift
Drift velocity vs. Electric field in Si and GaAs.
Note that for n-type GaAs,
there is a region of negative
differential mobility.
| se
2
*
,
,
V cm
m
q
p n
p n

=
Negative differential mobility
Electron distributions under various conditions of electric
fields for a two-valley semiconductor.
m*
n
=0.067m
o
m*
n
=0.55m
o
Figure 3.24.
Velocity-Field characteristic of a Two-valley semiconductor.
Negative differential mobility
TYU
Silicon at T=300K is doped with impurity
concentration of Na=5 X 10
16
cm
-3
and Nd=2
x 10
16
cm
-3
. (a) what are the electron and hole
mobilities? (b) Determine the resistivity and
conductivity of the material.
Mean Free Path
Average distance traveled between collisions
mp th
v l =
EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole nobilities.
EX 4.2
Using figure 4.3 determine electron and hole mobilities in (a) Si for Nd=10
17
cm
-3
,
Na=5 x 10
16
cm
-3
and (b) GaAs for Na=Nd=10
17
cm
-3
Ex 4.2
Effect of Temperature on Mobility
Temperature dependence of mobility with both lattice and impurity scattering.
A carrier moving through the lattice
encounters atoms which are out of
their normal lattice positions due to
the thermal vibrations.
The frequency of such scattering
increases as temperature increases.
At low temp. lattice scattering is less important.
At low temperature, thermal
motion of the carriers is
slower, and ionized impurity
scattering becomes dominant.
Since the slowing moving carrier is
likely to be scattered more strongly by
an interaction with charged ion.
Impurity scattering events cause a
decrease in mobility with decreasing
temperature.
As doping concentration increase, impurity
scattering increase, then mobility decrease.
Mobility versus temperature
Mobility versus temperature
Effect of Temperature on Mobility
Electron mobility in silicon
versus temperature for
various donor concentrations.
Insert shows the theoretical
temperature dependence of
electron mobility.
Electron and hole mobilities in Silicon as functions of the total
dopant concentration.
Effect of Doping concentration on Mobility
300 K
Resistivity and Conductivity
Ohms Law
Ohms Law
| |
2
cm A
E
E J

= =
Conductivity | | cm ohm 1
Resistivity
| | cm ohm
semiconductor conductivity and resistivity
Adding the Electron and Hole Drift Currents (at low electric fields)
Drift Current E n p e J J J
n p
Drift
n
Drift
p
drf + = + = ) (
Conductivity
) ( n p e
n p
+ =
Resistivity | | ) ( 1
1
p n e
p n

+ = =
But since
n
and
p
change very little and n and p change several
orders of magnitude:
for n-type with n>>p
p e
n e
p
n

for p-type with p>>n

| | sec
2
*
,
,
V cm
m
q
p n
p n

=
Particles diffuse from regions of higher concentration
to regions of lower concentration region, due to
random thermal motion.
Diffusion
Diffusion
Nature attempts to reduce concentration gradients to zero.
Example: a bad odor in a room, a drop of ink in a cup of water.
In semiconductors, this flow of carriers from one region of higher
concentration to lower concentration results in a Diffusion Current.
Visualization of electron and hole diffusion on a macroscopic scale.
Diffusion
p
J
Diffusion n
J
Diffuse
Diffuse
dx
dn
eD J
N
=
diff N,
dx
dp
eD J
P
=
diff P,
D is the diffusion constant, or diffusivity.
x x
Diffusion Current
Diffusion current density
Ficks law
Diffusion as the flux, F, (of particles in our case) is proportional to
the gradient in concentration.
= D F
: Concentration
D : Diffusion Coefficient
For electrons and holes, the diffusion current density
( Flux of particles times q )
n D q J
p D q J
n Diffusion n
p
Diffusion
p
=
=
The opposite sign for electrons and holes
J
N
= J
N,drift
+ J
N,diff
= qn
n
+
dx
dn
qD
N
J
P
= J
P,drift
+ J
P,diff
= qp
p

dx
dp
qD
P
J = J
N
+ J
P
Total Current
Total Current
Total Current = Drift Current + Diffusion Current
n D q E n q J J J
p D q E p q J J J
n n Diffusion n Drift n n
p p
Diffusion
p
Drift
p p
+ = + =
= + =

n p
J J J + =
TYU
Consider a sample of Si at T=300K. Assume that
electron concentration varies linearly with distance,
as shown in figure.The diffusion current density is
found to be Jn=0.19 A/ cm
2
. If the electron diffusio
n coefficient is D
n
=25cm
2
/sec, determine the electr
on concentration at x=0.
dx
dn
eD J
N
=
diff N,
dx
dp
eD J
P
=
diff P,
J
p
=0.270 A/cm2
D
p
=12 cm2/sec
Find the hole concentration at x=50um
Graded impurity distribution
Energy band diagram of a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium
with a nonuniform donor impurity concentration
Carrier Generation
Generation and Recombination
Band-to-band generation
Generation Mechanism
Band-to-Band Generation
Thermal Energy
or
Light
Band-to-Band or direct (directly across the band) generation.
Does not have to be a direct bandgap material.
Mechanism that results in n
i
.
Basis for light absorption devices such as semiconductor
photodetectors, solar cells, etc
G
no
=G
po
Band-to-Band Recombination
Recombination Mechanism
Photon
(single particle of light)
or
multiple phonons
(single quantum of lattice
vibration - equivalent to
saying thermal energy)
Band to Band or direct (directly across the band) recombination.
Does not have to be a direct bandgap material, but is typically
very slow in indirect bandgap materials.
Basis for light emission devices such as semiconductor Lasers,
LEDs, etc
R
no
=R
po
In thermal equilibrium: G
no
=G
po
=R
no
=R
po
Low-Level-Injection implies
0 0
, n n n p <<
0 0
, p p p n <<
in a n-type material
in a p-type material
0 0
p p p n n n + = + =
In Non-equilibrium, np does not equal n
i
2
Excess carrier Recombination and Generation
low level injection case
N
d
=10
14
/cm
3
doped Si at 300K subject to a perturbation where p =n =10
9
/cm
3
.
n
0
N
d
=10
14
/cm
3
and p
0
n
i
2
/N
d
= 10
6
/cm
3
n = n
0
+ n n
0
and p = 10
9
/cm
3
<< n
0
10
14
/cm
3
Although the majority carrier concentration remains essentially
unperturbed under low-level injection, the minority carrier concentration
can, and routinely does, increase by many orders of magnitude.
and
Example
Excess minority carrier lifetime
Carrier Lifetime
no
t
e n t n

=
0
) (
po
t
e p t p

=
0
) (
Light Pulses
Semiconductor
R
s
V
A
R
L
I
V
L
+
_
Oscilloscope
Schematic diagram of photoconductivity decay measurement.
The minority carrier lifetime is the average time a minority carrier can
survive in a large ensemble of majority carriers.
If p is negative Generation or an increase in carriers with time.
If p is positive Recombination or a decrease in carriers with time.
Either way the system tries to reach equilibrium
The rate of relaxation depends on how far away from equilibrium we are.
Material Response to Non-Equilibrium
Relaxation Concept
Consider a case when the hole concentration in an n-type sample is
not in equilibrium, i.e., np n
i
2

po
is the minority carrier lifetime
po
n
t p
t
p
R

) (
'

=

=
Material Response to Non-Equilibrium
Relaxation Concept
Likewise when the electron concentration in an p-type sample is not in
equilibrium, i.e., np does NOT equal n
i
2

n
is the minority carrier lifetime
n G R Thermal
n
t
n

Indirect recombination-
generation processes at
thermal equilibrium.
Recombination-Generation center recombination
Generation and Recombination process
Recombination-Generation (R-G) Center Recombination
Energy loss can result in
a Photon
but is more often
multiple phonons
Also known as Shockley-Read-Hall (SRH) recombination.
Two steps:
1 1
st
carrier is trapped (localized) at an defect/impurity (unintentional/intentional ).
2 2
nd
carrier (opposite type) is attracted and annihilates the 1
st
carrier.
Useful for creating fast switching devices by quickly killing off EHPs.
Recombination Mechanism Generation and Recombination process
Generation Mechanism
Recombination-Generation (R-G) Center Generation
Thermal Energy
Two steps:
1 A bonding electron is trapped (localized) at an unintentional
defect/impurity generating a hole in the valence band.
2 This trapped electron is then promoted to the conduction band
resulting in a new EHP.
Almost always detrimental to electronic devices. AVOID IF POSSIBLE!
Effects of recombination
centers on solar cell
performance
E
C
E
V
Light
a
b
c
d
The light-generated minority
carrier can return to the ground
state through recombination
center
before being
collected by the junction:
i) through path (a)
ii) through path (c)
Without recombination
centers paths (b) and (d)
are dominated
Auger Recombination
Auger Recombination
Auger pronounced O-jay
Requires 3 particles.
Two steps:
1 1
st
carrier and 2
nd
carrier of same type collide instantly annihilating
the electron hole pair (1
st
and 3
rd
carrier). The energy lost in the
annihilation process is given to the 2
nd
carrier.
2 2
nd
carrier gives off a series of phonons until its energy returns to
equilibrium energy (E~=E
c
) This process is known as thermalization.
3.3 p-n Junction Diode
p-n Junction
p-Type Material n-Type Material
p-n Junction principles
p-n Junction
p-Type Material
p-Type Material n-Type Material
n-Type Material
A p-n junction diode is made by forming a p-type region of
material directly next to a n-type region.
p-n Junction
But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as:
p-n Junction Diode
p-Type Material n-Type Material
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
But when the device has no external applied forces, no current can
flow. Thus, the Fermi-level must be flat!
We can then fill in the junction region of the band diagram as:
p-Type Material
n-Type Material
p-n Junction Diode
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
Built-in-potential
p-n Junction Diode
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
- qV
bi
p-Type Material
n-Type Material
x
Electrostatic Potential
) (
1
ref C
E E
q
V =
Built-in-potential
BI
V
Built-in-potential
p-n Junction Diode
x
Electrostatic Potential
) (
1
ref C
E E
q
V =
Built-in-potential
BI
V
x
Electric Field
dx
dV
E =
Electric Field
x
Electric Field
dx
dV
E =
Built-in-potential
p-n Junction Diode
Charge Density
x
dx
dE
K
S 0
=
qN
D
qN
A
Charge Density
-
-
-
+ +
+
Built-In Potential V
bi
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

i
A
i
side p F i
n
N
kT
n
p
kT E E
ln
ln ) (
side n i F side p F i side n S side p S bi
) ( ) ( ) (

+ = + = E E E E q qV
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

i
D
i
side n i F
n
N
kT
n
n
kT E E
ln
ln ) (
For non-degenerately doped material:
TYU 5.1
Calculate the built-in-potential barrier in a Si
pm junction at T=300K for (a) Na=5 x 1017c
m-3, Nd=1016cm-3 (b)Na=1015cm-3
x
Electric Field
dx
dV
E =
Built-in-potential
p-n Junction Diode
Charge Density
x
dx
dE
K
S 0
=
qN
D
qN
A
Charge Density
-
-
-
+ +
+
n
n o
x
x = 0
p
no
p
po
n
po
l o g ( n ) , l o g ( p )
-e N
a
e N
d
M
x
E ( x )
B
-
h
+
p n
M
As
+
e

W
p
W
n
V
o
V ( x )
x
P E ( x )
x
Wp
W
n
0
e V
o
x
e V
o
Hole Potential Energy PE (x) o
E
o
E
0

net
M
n
i
p-n Junction Principles
Electron Potential Energy PE (x)
Space charge region
M
-W
p
-W
n
Neutral n-region Neutral p-region
Metallurgical Junction
Charge Density
(NOT Resistivity)
Poissons Equation
p-n Junction
0

=
S
K
E
0
/
0

=
S
D A
S
K
qN
K dx
dE
in 1-dimension
Electric Field
Permittivity of free space
Relative Permittivity
of Semiconductor
(
r
)
D
A
A D
qN x
qN x
N N n p q
=
=
+ =
) (
) (
) (

Movement of Electrons and Holes when

Forming the Junction
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Number of negative charges per unit area in the p region is
equal to the number of positive charges per unit area in the n-region
Electric potential V(x) 0r (x)
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Space charge width(depletion layer
width)
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
n-region space charge width
p-region space charge width
TYU5.2
A silicon pn junction at T=300k with zero ap
plied bias has doping concentration of Nd= 5
x 10
16
cm
-3
and Na=5 x 10
15
cm
-3
. Determine
xn, xp, W, and |Ex(max)|, V
bi
0.718V
pn junction reverse applied bias
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
Diode under Forward Bias.mov Diode under no Bias.mov Diode under Reverse Bias.mov
Schematic representation of
depletion layer width and
energy band diagrams of a
p-n junction under various
biasing conditions.
Reverse-bias condition
Forward-bias condition
Thermal-equilibrium
pn junction reverse/forward applied
bias
Depletion Region
Thus, only the boundary conditions change resulting in
direct replacement of V
bi
with (V
bi
-V
A
) with V
A
0.
pn junction forward bias applied bias
Depletion Region Approximation: Step Junction Solution
pn junction reverse/forward applied
Depletion Region Approximation:
Step Junction Solution with V
A
0
Consider a p
+
n junction (heavily doped p-side, lightly doped n side)
Movement of Electrons and Holes when
Forming the Junction
Forward bias condition
Movement of Electrons and Holes when
Forming the Junction
Reverse bias condition
Space charge width and Electric field
2 / 1
) ( 2
(

|
.
|

\
| + +
= + =
NaNd
Nd N
e
V V
x x W
A
R bi s
p n

2 / 1
1 ) ( 2
(

+
|
.
|

\
| +
=
d a
R bi s
N N Na
Nd
e
V V
xp

2 / 1
1 ) ( 2
(

+
|
|
.
|

\
| +
=
d a d
a
R bi s
N N N
N
e
V V
xn

EX 5.3
A Si pn junction at 300K is reverse bias at V
R=8V, the doping concentration are Na=5 x
1015cm-3 and Nd= 5 x 1016 cm-3. Determin
e xn, xp and W, repeat for VR=12V.
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
In Equilibrium (no bias)
Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion
Current
Hole Drift
Current
Hole Diffusion
Current
Diode under no Bias.mov
no net current!
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
p-Type Material n-Type Material
qV
BI
+
+
+++
+
+++ + + + + +++++ +
0 = + = + = n D q nE q J J J
n n Diffusion n Drift n n

no net current!
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
E
C
E
V
E
F
E
i
n vs. E
p vs. E
In Equilibrium (no bias)
Total current balances due to the sum of the individual components
0 = + = + = p D q pE q J J J
p p
Diffusion
p
Drift
p p

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Forward Bias (V
A
> 0)
I
Hole Drift
Current
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion
Current
Hole Diffusion
Current
I
P
I
N
Diode under Forward Bias m
Current flow is dominated
by majority carriers flowing
across the junction and
becoming minority carriers
V
A
Current flow is
proportional to
e(Va/Vref) due to
the exponential
decay of carriers
into the majority
carrier bands
Lowering of
potential hill
by V
A
surmount potential barrier
P N
I I I + =
Hole Diffusion Current negligible
due to large energy barrier
Hole Drift
Current
Electron Drift
Current
Electron Diffusion Current negligible due
to large energy barrier
Reverse Bias (V
A
< 0)
Diode under Reverse Bias.m
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Current flow is constant due
to thermally generated
carriers swept out by E fields
in the depletion region
Current flow is dominated by
minority carriers flowing across
the junction and becoming
majority carriers
Increase of
potential hill
by V
A
Where does the Reverse Bias Current come from?
Generation near the depletion region edges replenishes the
current source.
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
P-N Junction Diodes
Current Flowing through a Diode
I-V Characteristics
Quantitative Analysis
(Math, math and more math)
Putting it all together
p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
for Ideal diode
V
ref
= kT/q
-I
0
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= 1
0
kT
qV
exp I I

: Diode Ideality Factor

p-n Junction I-V Characteristics
Diode Equation
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Assumptions:
1) Steady state conditions
2) Non- degenerate doping
3) One- dimensional analysis
4) Low- level injection
5) No light (G
L
= 0)
Current equations:
) x ( J ) x ( J J
n p p
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
dp
qD pE q J
p p p

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
dn
qD nE q J
n n n

Continuity Equations
Steady state : n(x) is time invariant.
Transient state : n(x) is time dependent.
x
J
q x
F
t
n

1
F: Particle Flux
J: Current Density
Continuity Equation
) ( x x J
p

) ( x J
p
x x +
x
x
2
Area, cm A
Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered
Continuity Equations
...
...
light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal Diffusion Drift
light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal Diffusion Drift
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
p
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n

There must be spatial and time continuity in the carrier concentrations.

Continuity Equations
P
Pz Py
Px
Diffusion Drift
N
Nz Ny
Nx
Diffusion Drift
J
q z
J
y
J
x
J
q t
p
t
p
J
q z
J
y
J
x
J
q t
n
t
n
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

1 1
1 1
...
...
1
1
light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal
P
light as such
processes other All
G R Thermal
N
t
p
t
p
J
q t
p
t
n
t
n
J
q t
n

+ =

+ =

Ways Carrier Concentrations can be Altered

Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Simplifying Assumptions:
1) One dimensional case. We will use x.
2) We will only consider minority carriers.
3) Electric field is approximately zero in regions subject to analysis.
4) The minority carrier concentrations IN EQUILIBRIUM are not a
function of position.
5) Low-level injection conditions apply.
6) SRH recombination-generation is the main recombination-generation
mechanism.
7) The only other mechanism is photogeneration.
Continuity Equations
Minority Carrier
Diffusion Equation
Because of (3) no electric field E = 0
Because of (5) - low level injection Because of (7) - Photogeneration
L
light as such
processes other All
G
t
n
=

...
n Generation ombination Re
n
t
n

2
2
2
0
2
2
2
) ( ) ( 1 1
x
n
D
x
n n
D
x
n
D
x
J
q
J
q
n n n
N
N

+
=

=
n D q nE q J J J
n n n n n
+ = + =
Diffusion Drift
n D q J
n n
= =
Diffusion
Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
0 0
Finally
t
n
t
n n
t
n

+
=

) ( ) (
0
Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
... light as such
processes other All
Generation ombination Re Diffusion Drift
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n
t
n

L
n
p p
N
p
G
n
x
n
D
t
n
+

) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
L
p
n n
P
n
G
p
x
p
D
t
p
+

) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
0
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equations
Continuity Equations
Continuity Equations: Special Case known as
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Further simplifications (as needed):
Steady State
No minority carrier diffusion gradient
No SRH recombination-generation
0 0 =

p n
p
and
n

No light
0
L
G
0
) (
0
) (

t
p
and
t
n
n
p
0
) (
0
) (
2
2
2
2

x
p
D and
x
n
D
n
P
p
N
Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Semiconductor Semiconductor Light
x
Light absorbed in a thin skin.
Consider a semi-infinite p-type silicon sample with N
A
=10
15
cm
-3
constantly
illuminated by light absorbed in a very thin region of the material creating a
steady state excess of 10
13
cm
-3
minority carriers (x=0).
What is the minority carrier distribution in the region x> 0 ?
L
n
p p
N
p
G
n
x
n
D
t
n
+

) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
n
p p
N
n
x
n
D

) ( ) (
2
2

0
0
Steady state
No excess carrier
generation
Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Steady-state carrier injection from one side.
Semi-infinite sample
Sample with thickness W
Direct generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs:
at thermal equilibrium
under illumination.
Surface recombination at x = 0. The minority carrier distribution near the surface i
s affected by the surface recombination velocity.
Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
General Solution
N N N
L x L x
p
D L where e e A x n
N N
+ =
+ ) ( ) (
B ) (
L
N
is the Diffusion length the average distance a minority carrier can
move before recombining with a majority carrier.
Boundary Condition
( )
0 B
Be A x n
B A cm x n
N
L
p
p
=
+ = = =
+ = = =
+

) 0 ( 0 ) (
10 ) 0 (
3 13
( ) 3 13
10 ) (

= cm e x n
N
L x
p
0
Continue
Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Semiconductor Semiconductor
x
Consider a p-type silicon sample with N
A
=10
15
cm
-3
and minority carrier lifetime
=10 sec constantly illuminated by light absorbed uniformly throughout the
material creating an excess 10
13
cm
-3
minority carriers per second. The light
has been on for a very long time. At time t=0, the light is shut off.
What is the minority carrier distribution in for t < 0 ?
L
n
p p
N
p
G
n
x
n
D
t
n
+

) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
3 7
10 ) 0 , (

= = < cm G t x all n
n L p

0
Light Light absorbed uniformly
0
Semiconductor Semiconductor
Uniform distribution
Solutions to the
Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Semiconductor Semiconductor
Light
x
In the previous example: What is the minority carrier distribution in for t > 0 ?
L
n
p p
N
p
G
n
x
n
D
t
n
+

) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
) 5 1 ( 7
) (
10 ) (
)] 0 ( [ ) (

=
= =
e t
p
t
p p
e t n
e t n t n
n

Light absorbed uniformly

0
0
Continue
Application of the Minority Carrier Diffusion Equation
Since electric fields
exist in the depletion
region, the minority
carrier diffusion
equation does not
apply here.
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
0
0
0
0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
minority carrier diffusion eq.
minority carrier diffusion eq.
kT E E
i
kT E E
i
f i
i f
e n p
e n n
) (
0
) (
0

=
=
Equilibrium
kT F E
i
kT E F
i
P i
i N
e n p
e n n
) (
) (

=
=
Non-Equilibrium
The Fermi level is meaningful only when the system is in thermal equilibrium.
The non-equilibrium carrier concentration can be expressed by defining Quasi-
Fermi levels F
n
and F
p
.
Equilibrium Non-Equilibrium
Quasi - Fermi Levels
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
(At the depletion regions edge)
kT ) F F (
i
P N
e n np

=
2
quasi-Fermi levels formalism
?
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dn
D nE q J
n n n

( )
dx
n n d
qD
p
n
+
=
0
dx
n d
qD
p
n

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dp
D pE q J
p p p

( )
dx
p p d
qD
n
p
+
=
0
dx
p d
qD
n
p

=
0
0
Approach:
Solve minority carrier diffusion equation in quasineutral regions.
Determine minority carrier currents from continuity equation.
Evaluate currents at the depletion region edges.
Add these together and multiply by area to determine the total current
through the device.
Use translated axes, x t x and -x t x in our solution.
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Holes on the n-side
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Holes on the n-side
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Similarly for electrons on the p-side
Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Thus, evaluating the current components at the depletion region edges,
we have
Note: V
ref
from our previous qualitative analysis equation is the thermal voltage, kT/q
J = J
n (x=0)
+J
p (x=0)
= J
n (x=0)
+J
n (x=0)
= J
n (x=0)
+J
p (x=0)

Ideal Diode Equation Shockley Equation

Quisineutral Region Quisineutral Region
x=0 x=0
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Total on current is constant throughout the device.
Thus, we can characterize the current flow components as
-x
p
x
n
J
A silicon pn junction at T=305K has the following parameters:
N
A
= 5x10
16
cm
-3
, N
D
= 1x10
16
cm
-3
,
D
n
= 25 cm
2
/sec, D
p
= 10 cm
2
/sec,
n0
= 5x10
-7
sec,
and
p0
= 1x10
-7
sec, n
i305K
= 1.5x10
10
cm
-3
,.
The cross-sectional area is A=10
-3
cm
2
, and the forward-bias voltage is V
a
= 0.625 V.
Calculate the
(a) minority electron diffusion current at the space charge region.
(b) minority hole diffusion current at the space charge edge.
(c) total current in the pn junction diode.
Example
Solution

Minority electron diffusion current density

n n n
D L =
A silicon pn junction at T=305K has the following parameters:
N
A
= 5x10
16
cm
-3
, N
D
= 1x10
16
cm
-3
,
D
n
= 25 cm
2
/sec, D
p
= 10 cm
2
/sec,
n0
= 5x10
-7
sec,
and
p0
= 1x10
-7
sec, n
i305K
= 1.5x10
10
cm
-3
,.
The cross-sectional area is A=10
-3
cm
2
, and the forward-bias voltage is V
a
= 0.625 V.
Calculate the
(a) minority electron diffusion current at the space charge region.
(b) minority hole diffusion current at the space charge edge.
(c) total current in the pn junction diode.
Example
Solution

Minority electron diffusion current density

Minority hole diffusion current density
n n n
D L =
( )
2
16
2
10
7
19
2
0
2
0
/ 154 . 0 1
0259 . 0
625 . 0
exp
10 5
10 5 . 1
10 5
25
) 10 6 . 1 (
1 exp 1 exp
cm mA
kT
qV
N
n D
q
kT
qV
L
n qD
J
a
A
i
n
n a
n
p n
n
=
(

|
.
|

\
|

=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

( )
2
16
2
10
7
19
2
0
2
0
/ 09 . 1 1
0259 . 0
625 . 0
exp
10 1
10 5 . 1
10 1
10
) 10 6 . 1 (
1 exp 1 exp
cm mA
kT
qV
N
n D
q
kT
qV
L
n qD
J
a
D
i
p
p a
p
n p
p
=
(

|
.
|

\
|

=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
(

|
.
|

\
|
=

Total current density= 1.24 mA/cm

2
Total current = AxJ=10
-3
x1.24 =1.24 A
x
10
17
10
8
10
3
-x
p
2.1x10
-2
cm
10
15
10
10
x
n
1.6x10
-2
cm
n or p
(log scale)
10
5
n
n
p
p
n
p
p
n
The diode is forward biased.
There is pile-up or minority carrier
excess (n
p
>0 and p
n
>0 ) at the
edges of the depletion region.
Given figure is a dimensioned plot of the steady state carrier concentrations inside a
pn junction diode maintained at room temperature.
(a) Is the diode forward or reverse biased? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
(b) Do low-level injection conditions prevail in the quasineutral regions of diode?
Explain how you arrived at your answer.
(c) Determine the applied voltage, V
A
.
Example

pn-junction diode structure used in the discussion of currents. The sketch
shows the dimensions and the bias convention. The cross-sectional area
A is assumed to be uniform.
Hole current (solid line) and recombining electron current (dashed line) in the quasi-neutr
al n-region of the long-base diode of Figure 5.5. The sum of the two currents J (dot-dash l
ine) is constant.
Hole density in the quasi-neutral n-region of an ideal short-base
diode under forward bias of Va volts.
The current components in the quasi-neutral regions of a long-base diode
under moderate forward bias: J(1) injected minority-carrier current, J(2)
majority-carrier current recombining with J(1), J(3) majority-carrier current
injected across the junction. J(4) space-charge-region recombination current.
(a) Transient increase of excess stored holes in a long-base ideal diode for a
constant current drive applied at time zero with the diode initially unbiased. Note
the constant gradient at x = xn as time increases from (1) through (5), which
indicates a constant injected hole current. (Circuit shown in inset.) (b) Diode
voltage VD versus time.
J
elec
x
n-region
J = J
elec
+ J
hole
SCL
Minority carrier diffusion
current
Majority carrier diffusion
and drift current
Total current
J
h ole
W
n W
p
p-region
J
The total current anywhere in the device is constant.
Just outside the depletion region it is due to the diffusion of minority
carriers.
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Current-Voltage Characteristics
of a Typical Silicon p-n Junction
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Examples
Diode in a circuit
Quantitative p-n Diode Solution
Current flow in a pn junction diode
(b) under reverse bias, only a small number of carriers are available to
diffuse across the junction (once within the junction they drift to the
other side). With increasing reverse bias the reverse current increases
due to tunneling and carrier multiplication.
(a) under equilibrium, both diffusion currents are
cancelled by opposing drift currents.
(c) under forward bias, the drift current is slightly reduced
but the diffusion current is greatly increased.
(d) current-voltage characteristic
Summary
Built-in-Potential
(

|
.
|

\
|
= 1 exp
0
kT
qV
J J
a

+ =
p
n p
n
p n
L
p qD
L
n qD
J
0 0
0
Diode
Equation
)) ( (
) ( 2
0
A bi
D A
D A s
n p
V V
N N
N N
q
K
x x W
+
= + =

Width of Depletion Region
0

=
S
K
E
Poissons Equation

EX 5.7
A silicon pn junction dide at T=300K is forw
ard biased. The reverse saturation current is
IS=4x 10-14A. Determine the required dide v
oltage to induce a diode current of ID=4.25m
A.