1.

) Chemistry is a branch of science dealing with the structure, composition,

properties and interactions of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during
chemical reactions.
2.) Branches of Chemistry:
Inorganic chemistry - the study of the chemical nature of the elements
and their compounds (except hydrocarbons—compounds composed of carbon and
hydrogen).
Organic chemistry - the study of compounds consisting largely of
hydrocarbons, which provide the parent material of all other organic compounds.
Radiochemistry - the study of the chemical effects of high-energy
radiation and the behavior of radioactive isotopes, atoms of the same element that
vary in the number of neutrons they contain.
Physical chemistry is fundamental to all chemistry and deals with the
application of physical laws to chemical systems and chemical change.
Analytical chemistry - the science of separating complex materials into
simpler ones and detecting and measuring the constituents.It is the oldest branch
of chemistry.
Biochemistry - the chemistry of living organisms and life processes.
Geochemistry - the application of chemistry (and, inevitably, physics) to
processes taking place in the earth, such as mineral formation, the metamorphosis
of rocks, and the formation and migration of petroleum.
3.) A. Hypothesis - a preliminary assumption or tentative explanation that accounts for a
set of facts, taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing; a theory.
B. Theory - an assumption or system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules
of procedure based on limited information or knowledge, devised to analyze, predict, or
otherwise explain the nature or behavior of a specified set of phenomena; abstract
reasoning.
C.Law - principles that are taken to be universally applicable.
4.) Scientific processes :
Observing and Collecting Data
Our understanding of the world around us is based on observations.
Observing is the use of one or more of the five senses to perceive objects or
events. For example, you will use your sense of sight to observe any turbidity
changes in your aquarium.

Scientists also use a variety of tools to aid in making observations. In these

experiments you will be using tools such as a hydrometer to test fluid density,
as well as a variety of water quality test kits which will be used to monitor
such factors as nitrates, phosphates and dissolved oxygen levels in your tank.

While making observations, scientists often collect data. Collecting data is the
gathering and recording of specific information based on observations. You
will be recording and sharing your aquarium observations with your class
mates and students conducting this experiment at other schools.
Measuring

Observations are most useful when they involve quantitative data ---
data that can be measured in numbers. Measuring is the process of
determining the dimensions of an object , the number of objects in a group,
the duration of an event, or other characteristics in precise units.

For example, the water quality test kits that you will be using in this
investigation measures dissolved oxygen in the 1 - 12 mg/L range. The fact
that this measurement is quantitative will make interpreting the data easier,
resulting in more precise conclusions about the events in your aquarium
pertaining to dissolved oxygen.

Organizing Data

Data is of little use unless it is organized. Organizing data involves placing

observation and measurements in some kind of logical order, such as in a
graph, chart, table, or a map. This is an essential part of the Scientific Process
which assists in the interpretation of the data. During this investigation you
will be organizing your data into graphs, charts and tables which will be
shared with others students who are also involved with this project.

Hypothesizing

Hypothesizing is the process of forming testable statements about observable

phenomena. This is often one of the first steps in a scientific investigation. A
statement is testable if evidence can be collected that either supports the
hypothesis or refutes it. If you hypothesized that the nitrate level in your
aquarium would increase over time, yet the data collected showed a decrease
your hypothesis would be considered false. It is important to note that
although a hypothesis may be refuted, it can never be proved true beyond all
doubt. At any time new data may be collected that indicates a previously
accepted hypothesis does not hold true in all instances. It is for this reason the
statement, “ I have proven my hypothesis” should not be used when writing a
conclusion. At best, a hypothesis is strengthened by evidence which supports
it.

Predicting

To test a hypothesis, a scientist usually makes a prediction that follows from

the hypothesis. Predicting is stating in advance the results that will be
obtained from testing a hypothesis. A prediction can take the form of an “if -
then” statement. You might make the following predictions based on the
hypothesis discussed above. If it is true that the nitrate level in the aquarium
increased over time, then I will observe a rise in the nitrate level of the tank as
compared to day one of testing. If the data collected shows this prediction to
 be false the hypothesis is refuted. If the data shows this prediction to be true
the hypothesis is supported.

Experimenting

Some hypotheses or predictions can best be tested through careful

observations in a natural setting, such as a field study. Others can be tested
through experiments. Experimenting is the process of testing a hypothesis or
prediction by carrying out data-gathering procedures under controlled
conditions. Such conditions eliminate extraneous influences and allow close
observations to be made.

Most experiments in biology are controlled experiments. A controlled

experiment is based on a comparison of a controlled group or phase with an
experimental group or phase. The control group and the experimental group
are designed to be identical except for one factor. This factor is called the
independent variable or the manipulated variable. During the course of a
controlled experiment, a scientist observes or measures one main factor in
both the control group and the experimental group. This factor is called the
dependent variable or the responding variable.

Analyzing Data

After a scientist has collected and organized data from a field study or an
experiment, the data must be analyzed. Analyzing data is the process of
determining whether or not the data is reliable and whether or not it supports a
given prediction or hypothesis. Scientists analyze data in many ways,
including using statistics, interpreting graphs, determining relationships
between variables, comparing the data to those obtained from other studies,
and determining possible sources of experimental error.

For example, suppose that you are in charge of the nitrate level data for your
class. In analyzing this data you might average the nitrate level collected in
the ten gallon tanks and compare them to the average nitrate level of the five
gallon tanks. By graphing these averages over time you are now in a better
position to make some conclusions about the nitrate levels over time in the
two tanks and to determine whether or not the data refuted your hypothesis.

Inferring

Inferring is the process of drawing conclusions on the basis of facts or

premises instead of direct perception. Facts might include data gathered
during a field study or an experiment. Premises might include conclusions
drawn from previous knowledge or from past experience.
 Some inferences, such as the change in nitrate level in an aquarium over time,
are theoretically testable. However, other inferences are not. For example,
suppose a biologist notices that two horse fossils show many similarities in
structure. Further analysis might indicate that one fossil is 30 million years old
and the other is 20 million years old. Based on knowledge of evolution, the
biologist might infer that the older species is ancestral to the younger species.
Even though this may be true, the inference are not testable because it is based
on events that would have occurred millions of years ago and therefore are not
directly observable.

Modeling

Modeling involves constructing a representation of an object, a system, or a

process that helps show relationships between data. A model may be visual,
verbal, or mathematical. A biologist might create a mathematical model to
show how environmental factors, such as sunlight, temperature, rainfall, and
humidity , affect the growth of plants in the rain forest. Scientist sometimes
use models to help generate new predictions or hypotheses.

Communicating

Scientist do not work in isolation. Often they work in groups. In many cases
they publish results of their experiments in scientific journals or present them
at scientific meetings. Sharing information, or communicating, is essential to
progress in science. Communication allows scientists to build on the work of
others.

In this experiment you will be sharing your results with other classes and
schools who are working on the same project. You will also be able to view
and analyze other student’s work to aid and assist your research.

5.) Scientists and their Contribution

Maria Gaetana Agnesi (May 16, 1718 - January 9, 1799) was an Italian
linguist, mathematician, and philosopher. Agnesi is credited with writing the
first book discussing both differential and integral calculus. She was an honorary
member of the faculty at the University of Bologna. According to Dirk Jan Struik,
Agnesi is “the first important woman mathematician since Hypatia (fifth century
A.D.)”.

Anita B. Roberts (Born: April 3, 1942 ; Died: May 26, 2006) was a
molecular biologist who made pioneering observations of a protein, TGF-β, that
is critical in healing wounds and bone fractures and that has a dual role in
blocking or stimulating cancers. Roberts was the 49th most-cited scientist in the
world and the second most-cited female scientist as of 2005.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), the

father of modern chemistry, was a French noble prominent in the histories of
chemistry and biology. He stated the first version of the law of conservation of
mass, recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), abolished the
phlogiston theory, introduced the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of
elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. The concept of the finite
nature of matter was first introduced by Antoine Lavoisier during the 18th
century. He discovered that, although matter may change its form or shape, its
mass always remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if
salt is dissolved in water or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass
remains unchanged. The principles of this discovery were elaborated centuries
before by Islamic Persia’s great scholar, Abu Rayhan Biruni. Lavoisier was a
disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and referred to their books
frequently. He was also an investor and administrator of the “Ferme Générale” a
private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later
the Banque de France); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic
administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him
to fund his scientific research. Because of his prominence in the pre-revolutionary
government in France, he was beheaded at the height of the French Revolution.

Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727 was an English
physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, theologian
and one of the most influential men in human history. His Philosophiæ Naturalis
Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, is considered to be the most influential
book in the history of science. In this work, Newton described universal
gravitation and the three laws of motion, laying the groundwork for classical
mechanics, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the
next three centuries and is the basis for modern engineering. Newton showed that
the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same
set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts
about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.

Euclid, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek

mathematician and is often referred to as the Father of Geometry. He was
active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC–283 BC). He is
the author of Elements which gives the principles of what is now called
Euclidean geometry deduced from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote
works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory, and
rigor.

Albert Einstein’s many contributions to physics include his special theory

of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism, and his general
theory of relativity, which was intended to extend the principle of relativity to
non-uniform motion and to provide a new theory of gravitation. His other
contributions include advances in the fields of relativistic cosmology, capillary
action, critical opalescence, classical problems of statistical mechanics and
their application to quantum theory, an explanation of the Brownian movement
of molecules, atomic transition probabilities, the quantum theory of a
monatomic gas, thermal properties of light with low radiation density (which
laid the foundation for the photon theory), a theory of radiation including
stimulated emission, the conception of a unified field theory, and the
geometrization of physics.

Galileo Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642) was a Tuscan

(Italian) physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a
major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements
to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and support for
Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the “father of modern observational
astronomy”, the “father of modern physics“, the “father of science“, and “the
Father of Modern Science.” The motion of uniformly accelerated objects, taught
in nearly all high school and introductory college physics courses, was studied by
Galileo as the subject of kinematics. His contributions to observational astronomy
include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the
four largest satellites of Jupiter, named the Galilean moons in his honour, and the
observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and
technology, improving compass design.

The English political economist and demographer Thomas Robert

Malthus FRS (13 February 1766 – 23 December 1834) analyzed population
growth and noted the potential for populations to increase rapidly, often faster
than the food supply available to them. Commentators may refer to such a
runaway scenario, as outlined in Malthus’s treatise An Essay on the Principle of
Population, as a “Malthusian catastrophe”.
Modern commentators generally refer to him as Thomas Malthus, but during his
lifetime he went by his middle name, Robert.

James Dewey Watson (born April 6, 1928) is an American molecular

biologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA.

Daniel Dingel is a Filipino inventor who invented the Water-Powered Car

or Water-Powered Hoax. These designed cars run thru the use of water. The
Philippine Daily Inquirer reported that Daniel Dingel built a water-fueled
automobile engine as early as 1969. Dingel has no patents and many members of
the science community feel that his water-powered car is a hoax. However, Daniel
Dingel has demonstrated his car without any technical papers or explanation as to
how it works. And if it does work, a water-powered car would be a fantastic
invention.