Ultrasound, infrared and vibration: how they assist the thermographer

Mark Goodman UE Systems, Inc. Elmsford, NY 10523-2536

ABSTRACT
Ultrasound, Infrared and Vibration support each other in many inspection activities. By integrating all of these technologies into an inspection process, accurate, quick results can be expected. Heat, sound and vibration are the most reliable indicators of potential problems in mechanical, fluid and electrical systems. Inspection of steam traps and valves, heat exchangers, underground leaks, motors, pumps and bearings, hydraulic systems, and high voltage equipment can all benefit by combining Infrared, ultrasound and vibration into the inspection process. This paper describes some of the more common applications and discusses how each technology supports the other when used together. Keywords: thermography, ultrasound, vibration, multidisciplinary testing

1. BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

In many companies and institutions, there has been an almost compelling need to find areas of cost reduction. For many this has meant the cutting of budgets which unfortunately included a cutting of personnel. In many departments, this has resulted in many doing more with less. This has also impacted on many maintenance and production departments around the world. In order to maintain an efficiently running operation, there has been a trend towards various forms of Predictive Maintenance. Along with this trend has come a need for effective technologies and instruments that enable personnel to become more and more productive in terms of equipment inspection and problem solving. Opportunities in predictive maintenance have lead to improvements in production, reduced maintenance costs, reduced energy consumption, efficient use of personnel and increased profitability. One of the main reasons for the advances in the area of predictive maintenance has been the refinement of the technologies such as vibration, infrared and ultrasound. Of the various technologies, one of the least understood is airborne ultrasound. This technology can be considered an integrated technology since it can be used with both infrared and vibration inspections as well as stand alone to perform a multiplicity of inspection activities. Instruments based on this technology apply to a wide range of plant operations and yet are simple enough to be used with little training. This makes them ideally suited for such programs as TPM (Total Productive Maintenance) in which they may be used by maintenance personnel, production personnel, independent contractors and consultants. Although the concept of Predictive Maintenance has been with us for a number of years, it is not fully implemented by a majority of maintenance departments. The reasons are varied, ranging from a lack of knowledge, or a lack of finances, to an inability to communicate the need to management, or a reluctance to try something new. What ever the reason, when one studies the importance of these programs in todays climate of global competition and right sizing, the value far exceeds the need to maintain status quo. As an example, it has been reported that a 4% savings through maintenance is the equivalent of a 15% increase in sales. With the exception of a few fast growth companies, a 15% increase in sales is quite an accomplishment. Another common figure thrown around is that breakdown maintenance is 10 times more costly than planned maintenance. When a company is looking to improve its bottom line, what better opportunity does a maintenance department have than to demonstrate its savings and show that it is a major profit center for the company? There are many technologies that are included in the mix of a successful predictive maintenance program. The three most common are: ultrasound, infrared and vibration. One area of confusion is caused by a basic lack of understanding as to what the three major technologies offer and an assumption that one must be selected over another. In addition, there is a mistaken belief that these technologies require an expertise that is beyond the reach of many people. While it is true that to some degree or another a certain amount of time must be spent on training, it is not true that these basic technologies are beyond the reach of any individual. In order to make a decision as to what technology or technologies are to be used, there are key factors that must be considered. Such items include: the type of and number of equipment to be monitored, available personnel, available budget and degree of sophistication needed to maintain an adequate predictive maintenance program. Ideally, more than one technology should be used in any PdM activity. The analogy is that of going to a doctor. On your physical, you would not expect an examination to be complete if the physician only used a stethoscope during your examination. You probably would

expect to have a blood specimen taken, your blood pressure taken and maybe an X-ray or EEG taken. In other words, a doctor will use as many technologies available to get an accurate picture of your health. This is true of your maintenance activities. The more information you obtain through these technologies, the more accurate your knowledge will be about the health of your plants equipment. To expand this concept, ultrasound, infrared inspection and vibration analysis are extensions of our senses. Ultrasound hears what we cannot hear, infrared sees what we cannot see, and vibration analysis feels what we cannot feel. By combining them, we advance our ability to detect problems. In essence, ultrasound will sense changes sound patterns, infrared will detect changes in emissions related to heat characteristics of the equipment that it looks at, and vibration will detect subtle changes in equipment operations. Lets examine some of the basics of each technology and the areas of application.

2. ULTRASOUND
This technology may be used to inspect potential problems in practically every type of equipment and system in a plant. Some typical applications include: leak detection in pressure and vacuum systems, bearing inspection, faulty steam trap inspection, detection of valve blow-by, detection of cavitation in pumps, detection of corona tracking and arcing in electrical gear, the integrity of seals and gaskets in transformers, and even partial discharge in cable splices, terminations, and in transformers. What makes airborne ultrasound so effective? All operating equipment and most leakage problems produce a broad range of sound. The high frequency ultrasonic components of these sounds are extremely short wave in nature. A short wave signal tends to be fairly directional. It is therefore easy to isolate these signals from background plant noises and to detect their exact location. In addition, as subtle changes begin to occur in mechanical equipment, the subtle, directional nature of ultrasound allows these potential warning signals to be detected early, before actual failure. Airborne ultrasound instruments, often referred to as "ultrasonic translators", provide information two ways: qualitative through the ability to "hear" ultrasounds through a noise isolating headphone and quantitative via incremental readings on a meter. Although the ability to gauge intensity and view sonic patterns is important, it is equally important to be able to "hear" the ultrasounds produced by various equipment. That is precisely what makes these instruments so popular. They allow inspectors to confirm a diagnosis on the spot by being able to clearly discriminate among various equipment sounds. This is accomplished in most ultrasonic translators by an electronic process called "heterodyning" that accurately converts the ultrasounds sensed by the instrument into the audible range where users can hear and recognize them through headphones. The high frequency, short wave characteristic of ultrasound enables users to accurately pinpoint the location of a leak or of a particular sound in a machine. Airborne Ultrasound translators are relatively simple to use. They consist of a basic hand held unit with headphones, a meter, a sensitivity adjustment, and (most often) interchangeable modules that are used in either a scanning mode or a contact mode. Some instruments have the ability to adjust the frequency response from between 20 to 100 kHz. An ultrasonic transmitter called a tone generator is often included. Many of these features are useful in helping a user adapt to a specific test situation. As an example, should a ultrasound source be too difficult to locate due to an intense signal, a downward adjustment of the sensitivity, will help a user focus in on the exact site. In another instance, should a low level partial discharge occur, the frequency tuning can be adjusted to help a user hear the discharge through the insulation. The interchangeable modules allow users to adjust for different types of inspection problems. The scanning mode is used to detect ultrasounds that travel in the atmosphere such as a pressure leak or a corona discharge, while the contact mode is used to detect ultrasounds generated within a casing such as in an insulated connection or in a termination, bearing, or pump.

3. INFRARED:
These instruments range from simple point and shoot spot radiometers/thermometers to extremely sophisticated video imaging devices. These instruments sense infrared waves. These waves are below, (infra) the visual spectrum and their emissions are related to temperature. Everything that is above absolute zero produces some form of infrared energy. Spot radiometers, are usually hand held devices which are aimed at a target. As in their name, they detect a spot on an object and read radiant heat. Infrared imaging devices are extremely sensitive instruments that provide a picture of what is being scanned. As with a video camera, the infrared cameras take in a whole scene and can provide accurate temperature information about a number of items at once. As an example, all the apparatus in a substation can be quickly scanned, a whole section of a pipe or a number of valves may be seen at one time. A number of components in a mechanical sequence

can be observed. A whole wall or a section of the wall in a close up can be viewed. From a distance, they can be used to take in a whole complex or sections of a facility. The advantage here is the speed and accuracy of the equipment. The degree of accuracy to which infrared can be measured is dependent upon: the actual temperature of the object, the emissivity of the surface of the object, distance and angle of view, the amount of infrared interference from transmissions and reflections as well as the types of atmosphere between the object and the imaging device. As with any device, not only does one need to know how to operate the camera and interpret the various shades of gray or color, but it is just as important to understand the equipment being inspected. There are courses offered by various manufactures and non-affiliated associations to help users learn how to interpret the images and how to use the cameras effectively.

4. VIBRATION:
This technology interprets changes in basic operating conditions of normal patterns of equipment movement. Certain faults are observed in relation to normal vibrating frequencies of basic components. At risk of over simplification, a normal condition will produce a normal pattern. By comparing this over time, changes in this pattern will indicate potential problems such as failing bearings, misalignment, worn gears, loose footing or poor coupling. Some additional uses of vibration include dynamic balancing and precision shaft alignment (note: there are also other methods of shaft alignment such as laser alignment instruments). Vibration analysis involves using a vibration sensitive transducer and instrumentation to measure and record the vibration characteristic of rotating or reciprocating machinery. Vibration meters range from extremely simple detection/condition devices to sophisticated analyzers using highly advanced computerized Fast Fourier Transforms to analyze present condition and trend condition changes over time. Many of the more advanced models provide graphic displays such as frequency/amplitude patterns over time to provide detailed analyses. Essentially they use basic operational frequencies of components such as shaft speed or bearing passes and observe pattern changes that can be interpreted to determine actual condition and possible root causes. Many of the more sophisticated instruments are supported by software, some proprietary, and often require some training in order to interpret the collected data adequately. As with infrared, there are a number of avenues available for training including the manufacturers of these instruments.

5. APPLICATIONS
Generically, applications for the three technologies fall into three basic categories: electrical inspection, mechanical inspection and leak detection 1. Electric inspection This is the most common area of application. While infrared is used to detect problems related to resistance, and heat, the ultrasound detector can be used to locate sonic related problems. Corona produces a steady buzzing sound while tracking has a gradual build-up followed by a sudden drop off of signal. Arcing is heard as sudden starts and stops. Inspection time can be greatly sped up by utilizing both IR/UL scanning. Since switchgear can be inspected by scanning doors and air vents, there is no need to open each compartment. When partial discharge, arcing, tracking or corona discharges occur, they ionize air molecules producing ultrasound. Partial discharges in cables or terminations, loose connections in buss bars, junction boxes, etc., can be listened to for these high frequency sounds. Another area of inspection for ultrasonic detectors is in switchgear and overhead high voltage lines for location of corona or partial discharge problems. Although infrared has often been used to locate electrical problems, it has been found that these instruments are often "blind" to corona and tracking in high voltage systems (13 kV and up). Ultrasonic detectors "hear" the sound of corona and enable users to locate them quite quickly. For this reason, many inspectors now use ultrasonic translators to support their infrared electric monitoring programs. In fact, those inspectors that use both technologies often relate that they prefer to screen enclosed switchgear with ultrasound instruments, as shown in Fig. 1, to detect the possibility of corona, arcing or tracking by scanning around door seals and air vents. Some utilities use an ultrasonic detector as a screening device to monitor for severe partial discharge or arcing before entry into manholes and cable vaults.

Figure 1. Scanning with a portable ultrasound instrument One of the most impressive developments in ultrasonic scanning is the ultrasonic parabolic waveform concentrator, that is used to detect and pinpoint leakage at a distance. This accessory is useful in situations where it is difficult to reach an area, such as in an electrical tower or a high ceiling, or where the leak might prove dangerous, as in manholes. 2. Mechanical inspection Operating mechanical equipment produces a "normal" sound signature while operating effectively. As components begin to fail a change in the original sonic signature occurs. This change can be noted on a meter or a recording device such as an oscilloscope, portable PC, portable vibration analyzer or chart recorder. The sound quality will be heard through headphones. According to NASA research, ultrasonic monitoring of bearings provides the earliest warning of bearing failure. They noted that an increase in amplitude of a monitored ultrasonic frequency of 12-50 times over baseline will indicate the initial stages of bearing failure. This change is detected long before it is indicated by changes in vibration or temperature. Motor coils, windings, poor stators and rotors can increase resistance and produce heat which is readily detected with an infrared scan. In addition, bearings in advanced failure states can be quickly spotted due to the heat generated by friction and metal fatigue. Pumps running dry, plugged feeds, distorted vanes are all candidates for infrared detection. Cavitation, which is caused by air-bubbles being trapped in fluid and then bursting under pressure can, over time, cause severe damage. Problems such as cavitation in pumps, leakage, faulty gears, excessive rubbing, poor connections, etc., can be determined in their early stages before break down. Should an existing vibration program already exist for bearing analysis, it should be understood that an ultrasonic bearing monitoring program works very well with on-going vibration programs. Ultrasound detectors work well on slow speed bearings. In some extreme cases, just being able to hear some movement of a bearing through a well-greased casing could provide information about potential failure. The sound might not have enough energy to stimulate classic vibration accelerometers, but will be heard via ultrasonic translators, especially those with frequency tuning. 3. Leak detection The category of leak detection covers a wide area of plant operations. It can be looked on as a way of keeping a system running more efficiently. Some plants include it as part of an energy conservation program while others refer to it as fugitive emissions. No matter what, leaks can cost money, effect product quality and reek havoc with the environment.

Leakage can occur in liquid or gas systems. The greatest advantage of ultrasonic detection is that it can be used in a variety of leak situations since it is sound sensitive and not "gas" specific. Without a temperature difference, infrared imaging is not effective. The reason ultrasound is so versatile is that it detects the sound of a leak. When a fluid (liquid or gas) leaks, it moves from the high-pressure side of a leak through the leak site to the low-pressure side where it expands rapidly and produces a turbulent flow. This turbulence has strong ultrasonic components. The intensity of the ultrasonic signal falls off rapidly from the source. For this reason the exact spot of a leak can be located. Fig. 2 shows how ultrasound is applied in the detection of underground water leaks.

Figure 2. Looking for underground water leaks using ultrasound Underground water leaks of any type are a very difficult proposition. Locating these leaks is often very time consuming. Unless the leak is so gross as to produce an obvious wet pool or bubbling around the site, many days can be spent trying to locate the source. There are often situations in which inspectors have been called to locate a leak after most other methods have failed. This experience indicates that not one method works all the time. However, utilizing ultrasound and infrared, can produce effective results. Vacuum leaks may be located in the same manner. The only difference is that the turbulence will occur within the vacuum chamber. For this reason, the intensity of the sound will be less than that of a pressurized leak. Even though it is most effective with low-mid to gross leaks, the ease of ultrasound detection makes it the instrument of choice for most vacuum leak problems. There are many opportunities to use both ultrasound and infrared in steam system inspections. A simple way to determine when to use a specific instrument is to look at the system from an objective perspective. What components have more of a tendency to produce a change that is heat related and what are more sound related. As an example, the loss of or weakening of insulation is obviously measured best by determining heat-related changes. Determining pressure is calculated by determining temperature changes upstream and down stream of a valve or steam trap. Sound-related processes are best tested by utilizing ultrasound. Valve leakage, steam trap inspection and conditions such as cavitation in pumps are examples of sound-related inspection. Fig. 3 shows the use of ultrasound detection equipment for inspecting steam traps.

Fig. 3 Inspecting steam traps with ultrasound Granted there have been claims made that infrared inspection for steam traps is a valid test. Yet, practically every major steam trap manufacturer has come to the conclusion that relying on heat alone can lead to false results. The reason is that there are many subtle and not-so-subtle pressure changes that occur in and around the steam trap that can effect changes in temperature which can in turn lead to a false diagnosis. Since a trap produces a distinct sonic signature, by listening to the sound of the trap as it cycles, it is possible to accurately determine the trap condition. Many steam trap manufacturers refer to this as a positive test. Infrared is useful in determining blockage conditions and whether a trap is on-line since the former will indicate a lower temperature than a working trap in the same area and the latter will be observed as producing heat. Using both infrared and ultrasound together will help make certain that the most common conditions of trap operations can be thoroughly inspected. Using the two technologies in valve condition inspection can also provide useful information. In certain instances, heat can be used to determine valve condition, while in other situations, the fact that a valve leak can be isolated and heard will help improve the accuracy of the diagnosis. By using a contact probe of an ultrasonic sensor to touch a valve upstream and downstream, valve leakage or valve blockage can be identified. A leaking valve will be heard through the headphones as a gurgling or rushing sound while blockage will produce no sound. Valve blow-by in steam systems will produce a higher temperature reading downstream. Heat is a good indicator of a leaking hydraulic valve. The forces of fluid moving through a leak can produce heat as a byproduct. This has been a very useful effect in aircraft inspection. However, not every leaking hydraulic valve will produce heat and the proximity of valves in certain configurations can lead to a potentially inaccurate diagnosis due to heat (and in some instances sound) transference. This inspection process can be aided by incorporating ultrasound with infrared. A valve, when leaking, will produce a louder sound downstream. By comparing infrared results with ultrasonic readings taken upstream with downstream and by listening to the sound quality, an operator can quickly make a positive diagnosis. Here is an application in which the two technologies can be utilized quite effectively. A scan of a heat exchanger can indicate heat-related changes that can be diagnosed as anything from flow blockage of the cooling element to tube leakage. Once the condition is spotted with an infrared scan, an ultrasonic detector can be incorporated to confirm a diagnosis and in some instances locate a leaking tube. The ultrasonic method is performed while the exchanger is either on partial load or taken off line. By pressurizing, or by keeping a vacuum on the shell side, the headers of the exchanger can be removed and the tube sheet scanned to identify the leaking tube. A leaking tube produces a turbulent, rushing sound as the air flows from the high pressure to the low-pressure side of the tube leak. The sound will be isolated to the leaking tube and will be heard as the scanning module passes over it. Combining infrared and ultrasound provides a fast, accurate way to keep on top of heat exchanger problems. There will be some instances where it is difficult or too time consuming to inspect heat exchangers under pressure or vacuum. In this instance a test unique to ultrasound is incorporated. This method uses an ultrasonic transmitter called a "tone generator". For example, the "tone generators" can be placed in the various access ports or fittings of a heat exchanger to produce an intense, uniform ultrasound within the item under test. Since the sound waves are high frequency, short wave, they will tend to deflect off the solid surface of solid, intact tubes but will penetrate through the leak site of a tube. By scanning the tube sheet with the ultrasonic scanner an operator listens for a distinct high frequency signal indicating the leaking tube.

6. CONCLUSION In all types of mechanical function, changes of heat and sound are the most reliable indicators of potential problems. Fluid flow patterns, line blockage, leaking valves and steam traps are best-diagnosed using IR/UL inspection. Hydraulic systems produce sound and heat that can be observed through an integrated approach as can inspection of high voltage equipment. Using ultrasound, infrared and vibration will allow users to accurately determine the condition of operating equipment as well as identify the location of a problem. These technologies compliment each other and advance the goals of condition monitoring programs. They can be viewed as an extension of your senses. As your eyes help you see, your hands feel and your ears hear, infrared instruments help you see what you cannot see, vibration instruments let you feel what you cannot feel and ultrasound instruments help you hear what you cannot hear. Just as with any of the senses, they can work well independently but do much better as a combined unit.