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Chapter1
Introduction
With the rapid growth of wireless communications there is a growing
demand for mobile phones that are small, attractive, lightweight, and curvy. This
has resulted in the proliferation of handsets with antennas that are internal or
hidden within the device. An internal antenna makes the handset look much nicer
and compact.
The sizes and weights of mobile handsets have rapidly been reduced due to
the development of modern integrated circuit technology and the requirements of
the users. Conventional monopole‐like antennas have remained relatively large
compared to the handset itself. Thus, built‐in antennas are becoming very
promising candidates for applications in mobile handsets.
Most built‐in antennas currently used in mobile phones are based on planar
inverted‐F antennas (PIFAs). In addition, since the antenna is inside the phone it is
not prone to breakage or damage, which is commonly encountered with the so‐
called external stub‐type antenna. Currently mobile phones with small internal
antennas are already in the market.
Designing an internal antenna for a mobile phone is difficult especially
when dual or multiband operation is required. Although obtaining dual‐frequency
resonance is straightforward, satisfying the bandwidth requirement for the
respective communication bands is difficult. Further complications arise when the
antenna has to operate in close proximity to objects like shielding cans, screws,
battery, and various other metallic objects. Currently, many mobile telephones use
one or more of the following frequency bands: the GSM (Global System for Mobile
Communication) band, centered at 900 MHz; the DCS (Digital Communication
System) band, centered at 1800 MHz; and the PCS (Personal Communication
Services) band, centered at 1900 MHz
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If merger of technologies is considered where both advanced mobile phone
services systems (AMPS) and GSM systems are integrated in one phone, triple‐
band or even quad‐band antennas may be needed.
1. Planar Antennas
1.1 Review of Basic Planar Antennas
The most commonly used planar antennas in communication industry are
the microstrip patch antenna and the planar inverted‐F antenna. These antennas
are increasing in popularity for use in wireless applications due to their low‐
profile structure. They can be easily integrated on the circuit board of a
communication device to reduce the packaging cost [1, 2]. Therefore, they are
extremely compatible for embedded antennas in handheld wireless devices such
as cellular phones, pagers, laptops, tablet PC’s, PDA’s (Personal digital assistants)
etc [3‐5]. The telemetry and communication antennas on missiles need to be thin
and conformal and are often planar antennas [6, 7]. Radar altimeters use small
arrays of planar antennas. Another area where they have been used successfully is
in satellite communication [8‐10] and satellite imaging systems [2]. Smart weapon
systems use planar antennas because of their thin profile [2]. Novel planar antenna
designs for achieving broadband circular polarization and dual polarized radiation
in the WLAN band for overcoming the multipath fading problem to enhance the
system performance have been recently demonstrated [1, 10]. Planar antennas are
also frequently used in remote sensing, biomedical applications and in personal
communications.
Nowadays PIFAs (Planar inverted‐F antenna) are more commonly used in
RFID tags. We look at these two antennas in a little more detail in regards to basic
operation, advantages and disadvantages.
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1.2 Microstrip Patch Antennas
In its most basic form, a microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating
patch on one side of a dielectric substrate and a ground plane on the other side as
shown in Figure 1.1. The patch is generally made of conducting material and can
take any possible shape. The radiating patch and the feed lines are usually photo
etched on the dielectric substrate. Microstrip patch antennas radiate primarily
because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the ground plane. The
length L of the rectangular patch for the fundamental TM10 mode excitation is
slightly less than λ/2. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate
having a low dielectric constant is desirable, since this provides better efficiency,
larger bandwidth and better radiation [1]. However, such a configuration leads to a
larger antenna size. In order to design a compact microstrip patch antenna, higher
dielectric constants must be used, but it is less efficient and results in narrower
bandwidth. Hence a compromise must be reached between antenna dimensions
and antenna performance.
Figure 1.1 Structure of microstrip patch antenna [23]
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In general, rectangular microstrip antennas, with a thin dielectric substrate
are half‐wavelength structures and are operated at the fundamental resonant
mode transverse magnetic (TM01) or transverse electric (TM10), with a resonant
frequency given as[1]:
c
f ≅ (1.1)
2L ε r
Where c is the speed of light, L is the patch length of the rectangular
microstrip antenna, and ε r is the relative permittivity of the grounded dielectric
substrate.
1.2.1 Basic Design Characteristics of Patch Antenna [23]:
• Patch thickness t (t<<λ0), where λ0 is free space wavelength.
• Substrate height h (h<< λ0), usually 0.003 λ0≤ h≤0.05 λ0.
• For rectangular patch, the length L of element is (λ0/3<L< λ0/2).
• The dielectric constant are usually in the range of (2.2≤ε r≤12), the
most desirable for antenna performance are THICK substrates
whose dielectric constant is in the lower end of the range, as they
provide the better efficiency, larger bandwidth, loosely bound field
for radiation into space but at the expense of large element size.
• The patch is designed so, its pattern maximum is normal to the
patch (broadside radiator). This is accomplished by properly
choosing the mode (field configuration) of excitation, beneath the
patch.
1.2.2 Some of the Principal Advantages of Patch Antennas
[23, 34]:
1. Light weight, small volume and low planar configuration
2. Can be easily made conformal to host surface
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3. Ease of mass production using printed‐circuit technology, leads to
low fabrication cost.
4. Supports both linear as well as circular polarization
5. Easier to integrate with microwave integrated circuits (MIC)
6. Capable of dual and triple frequency operations
7. Mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces
Microstrip patch antennas suffer from a number of disadvantages as compared to
conventional antennas.
1.2.3 Some of Their Major Disadvantages [23, 34]:
1. Narrow bandwidth
2. Low efficiency
3. Low Gain
4. Extraneous radiation from feeds and junctions
5. Low power handling capacity
6. Surface wave excitation
1.2.4 Microstrip Losses [23]
Microstrip antennas are based on microstrip line concepts. Losses
associated with the microstrip lines are also associated with the microstrip
antennas. Loss components of a microstrip line include dielectric loss, conductor
loss and radiation loss. Inherent causes viz; loss tangent and extraneous source
such as conductor surface roughness, affect the microstrip losses.
1.2.4.1 Dielectric Loss
The cause of dielectric loss is the loss tangent value. Loss tangent depends
on the substrate properties. A substrate with high loss tangent will result in high
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dielectric loss and vice versa. Therefore choosing a substrate with a low loss
tangent will be ideal.
1.2.4.2 Conductor Loss
Conductor loss arises from conductor surface roughness and skin effect.
Imperfection in the fabrication process or improper handling will cause conductor
surface roughness.
“Skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current to distribute
itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the
conductor is greater than that at its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow
at the "skin" of the conductor.” As the frequency increases, the effective resistance
of the conductor will increase due to skin effect.
1.2.4.3 Radiation Loss
Radiation loss is caused by radiation that is propagated away or current
that is induced on the enclosure of the microstrip. It is also contributed by the
dielectric constant. So, as with dielectric loss, radiation loss can be reduced by
having a substrate with a higher dielectric constant.
1.2.5 Applications of Microstrip Antennas[23, 34]:
The applications for microstrip antennas were those requiring small,
lightweight, low profile, low‐cost conformal structures. Microstrip antennas of
various types have thus been developed for use in mobile communication systems.
The practical applications for mobile systems are in portable or pocket sized
equipment such as UHF pagers, cell phones and manpack radars, and in vehicles
such as cars, ships and aircrafts. The antennas used on missiles for telemetry and
communication are generally microstrip antennas. Small arrays of microstrip
radiators are used for radar altimeter antennas.
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1.3 Planar InvertedF Antennas[1]
The Inverted‐F Antenna (IFA) typically consists of a rectangular planar
element located above a ground plane, a short circuiting plate or pin, and a feeding
mechanism for the planar element. The Inverted F antenna is a variant of the
monopole where the top section has been folded down so as to be parallel with the
ground plane. This is done to reduce the height of the antenna, while maintaining a
resonant trace length. This parallel section introduces capacitance to the input
impedance of the antenna, which is compensated by implementing a short‐circuit
stub. The stub’s end is connected to the ground plane through via. The planar
inverted‐F antenna (PIFA) can be considered as a kind of linear Inverted‐F antenna
(IFA) with the wire radiator element replaced by a plate to expand the bandwidth.
Figure 1.2 Basic PIFA structure [1].
So, unlike microstrip antennas that are conventionally made of half
wavelength dimensions, PIFA’s are made of just quarter‐wavelength. The ground
plane of the antenna plays a significant role in its operation. Excitation of currents
in the PIFA causes excitation of currents in the ground plane. PIFA has proved to
be the most widely used internal antenna in commercial applications of cellular
communication. In most of the research publications/ patents on multi‐band PIFA
technology, the major success has been the design of a single feed PIFA with dual
resonant frequencies resulting in essentially a Dual Band PIFA. Depending upon
the achievable bandwidth around the resonant frequencies, the dual resonant PIFA
can potentially cover more than 2 bands.
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1.3.1 Some of the Principal Advantages of PIFAs:
1. PIFA’s are just quarter wavelength in length and hence are much
shorter than conventional patch antennas.
2. PIFA can easily be placed into the housing of the mobile phones as
compared to whip/rod/helix antennas.
3. PIFA has reduced backward radiation toward the user’s head,
minimizing the electromagnetic wave power absorption, called SAR
(Specific Absorption Rate) and enhances antenna performance.
4. PIFA exhibits moderate to high gain in both vertical and horizontal
states of polarization.
This feature is very useful in certain wireless communications where the
antenna orientation is not fixed and the reflections are present from the different
corners of the environment. In those cases, the important parameter to be
considered is the total field that is the vector sum of horizontal and vertical states
of polarization.
1.3.2 Some of Their Major Disadvantages:
1. Narrow bandwidth characteristic of PIFA is one of the limitations for
its commercial application for wireless mobile. However there are
methods to increase the bandwidth of PIFA. These methods are
discussed in detail in chapter‐3.[1]
2. The mechanical difficulty, the requirement of precise position
between feed pin connection and short circuited plate to obtain
input impedance of 50 ohm, is another problem in the practical
application of PIFAs.
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1.4 Analytical Models for Microstrip Antennas [23]
Analysis can provide an understanding of the operating principles that
could be useful for a new design, for modifications of an existing design, and for the
development of new antenna configurations.
The objective of antenna analysis is to predict the radiation characteristics
such as radiation patterns, gain, and polarization as well as near‐field
characteristics such as input impedance, impedance bandwidth, mutual coupling,
and antenna efficiency.
These models include:
1. Transmission line model
2. Generalized transmission line model
3. Cavity model
4. Multiport network model
These techniques maintain simplicity at the expense of accuracy. Full‐wave
methods have received increasing attention due to their rigor and higher accuracy.
These are, in general, based on Sommerfeld‐type integral equations, and the
solution of Maxwell’s equations in the time domain. Prominent numerical methods
include integral equation analysis in the spectral domain, integral equation
analysis in the space domain, and the finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD)
approach.
1.4.1 Two Main Approaches Are:
1. Method of Moments approach (Frequency domain integral
equation model based)
2. The finite‐difference time‐domain (FDTD) approach (Time domain
differential equation model based).
First one approach is discussed in detail in the chapter‐4. In this
dissertation work IE3D simulation software package is used which is based on the
Method of Moments.
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1.5 Problem Background
Traditionally most mobile phones and handset haven been equipped with
the monopole antennas, monopole antenna are very simple in design and
construction and are well suited to mobile communication applications. The most
common λ/4 monopole antenna is the whip antenna, which can operate at range of
frequencies and deal with most environmental conditions, better than other
monopole antennas.
However, the monopole antenna possesses a number of drawbacks.
Monopole antennas are relatively large in size and protrude from the handset case
in an awkward way. This problem with the monopole’s obstructive and space
demanding structure also complicate any efforts taken to equip a handset with
several antennas to enable multilane operation. Monopole antennas also lack any
built‐in shielding mechanisms, to direct any radiating waves away from user’s
body, thus increasing the potential risk of producing cancerous tumors growth in
the user’s head and reducing the antenna efficiency.
In recent years, the demand for compact handheld communication devices
has grown significantly. Devices smaller than palm size have appeared in the
market. Antenna size is a major factor that limits device miniaturization. In
addition to solve the problem of broadening the antenna bandwidth to the
required specification of the system, one has to worry about developing new
structure for devices that require more than one frequency band of operation.
Multiband wireless phone has become popular recently because they
permit people to use the same phone in multi network that have different
frequencies. Table 1.1 lists a few useful wireless applications and their operating
frequencies. Systems that require multiband operation require antenna that
resonate at the specific frequencies. This only adds complexity to the antenna
design problem.
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Table 1.1: Frequency Bands for a few Wireless Applications.
Wireless Frequency Bands
Applications (MHz)
GSM‐900 890‐960
GSM‐1800 (DCS) 1710‐1880
GSM‐1900(USA) 1850‐1990
(PCS)
3G‐(UMTS2000) 1885‐2200
(WLAN)or ISM 2400‐2483
1.6 Objectives and Methodology of the Dissertation
Work
The fundamental aim of this thesis is to design a multi band antenna
suitable for telephone handsets. By using suitable antenna, the space demand of
the antenna as part of a telephone handset can be minimized, thus reducing the
obtrusiveness of the handset’s appearance.
This design has these primary objectives:
• Select and design an efficient, low profile and realizable antenna
capable of operating at a number of frequencies bands
• Verify the operations of the antenna at the prescribed frequencies in
terms of impedance and field patterns, using electromagnetic
simulation software ZELAND IE3D which is based on Method of
Moments.
• Discuss the simulated result in terms of return loss, radiation pattern,
antenna gain and efficiency.
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In order to achieve the first objective as set out above, a comprehensive
literature review is required to obtain an antenna that requires minimal
modification to suit the requirements of this design. As the process of optimizing
an antenna’s dimensions to meet a set of specifications is highly rigorous, fading an
antenna that operates efficiently at three required frequencies, as well being
compact and having a low profile, is very much desired.
1.7 Organization of the Thesis
Chapter1 This chapter includes the introduction part of the project, the
problem background with the objectives, methodology and the
implementation plan of this project.
Chapter2 This chapter represents the literature review, including the
historical developments.
Chapter3 This chapter represents designing theory of multiband antenna,
antenna size reduction and bandwidth enhancement techniques.
Chapter4 This chapter represents design and simulation, overview on Method
of Moments (MoM) Technique, introduction to Zeland IE3D software
and its features.
Chapter5 This chapter includes the result and the discussion of the simulation,
in terms of return Loss, efficiency, gain, the two‐dimensional near‐
field patterns and the two‐dimensional far‐field patterns.
Chapter6 This chapter represents conclusions and future work.
After that References are given. Designing procedures and simulation set up
are given in Appendix.
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