7/8/2013

1
TOPIC 1: MASS, MOMENTUM AND
ENERGY
OBJECTIVES
1. Extend continuity and momentum principles to
non-uniform velocity
2. Apply continuity and Bernoullis equation to flow
measurement and tank-emptying
3. Learn methods for dealing with non-ideal flow
NOTATION
Geometry
x (x, y, z) position
t time
Field Variables
u (u, v, w) velocity (V for average speed in a duct)
p pressure
p p
atm
gauge pressure
p* = p + gz piezometric pressure
T temperature
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FLUID PROPERTIES
density
g specific weight
s.g. /
ref
specific gravity (or relative density);
dynamic viscosity
/ kinematic viscosity
surface tension
K bulk modulus
k conductivity of heat
c speed of sound
NON-DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS
Reynolds number
Froude number

Re
UL UL

gL
U
Fr
DEFINITIONS
- Fluids / solids
- Liquids / gases
- Hydrostatics / hydrodynamics
- Hydraulics / aerodynamics
- Incompressible / compressible
- Ideal / real
- Newtonian / non-Newtonian
- Laminar / turbulent
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STATICS
Hydrostatics z g p =
g
z
p

d
d
=
0 ) ( = + gz p
Ideal Gas Law RT p =
DYNAMICS
Continuity (mass conservation)
Mass is conserved
For steady flow:
(mass flux)
in
= (mass flux)
out
Momentumprinciple
Force = rate of change of momentum
For steady flow:
Force = (momentumflux)
out
(momentumflux)
in
Energy principle
Change in energy = heat supplied + work done
For incompressible flow:
Change of kinetic energy = work done
BERNOULLIS EQUATION
streamline a along constant = + +
2
2
1
U gz p
Assumes:
- no losses
- incompressible
- steady
streamline a along constant = + +
g
U
z
g
p
2
2
energy (per unit mass)
energy (per unit weight)
total head
Losses
Often quantified in terms of a change in head:
head in change
g
U
z
g
p
= + + )
2
(
2
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PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER
Air:
Density: 1.2 kg m
3
(Dynamic) viscosity: 1.810
5
kg m
1
s
1
(or Pa s)
Kinematic viscosity: 1.510
5
m
2
s
1
Water:
Density: 1000 kg m
3
(Dynamic) viscosity: 1.010
3
kg m
1
s
1
Kinematic viscosity: 1.010
6
m
2
s
1
Properties vary with temperature
QUESTIONS ON HYDROSTATICS
Question
What is an atmospheric pressure of 1 bar equivalent to in:
(a) metres of water;
(b) millimetres of mercury?
Question
The Renold building is 8 storeys high, with each storey
having height 4 m. Find the pressure difference between
ground and roof.
Question
If sea-level pressure is 1 bar and the lower atmosphere is
isothermal, with temperature T = 298 K, calculate the
pressure at a height of 10 km.
EXAMPLE SHEET, Q1
A long bridge with piers 1.5 m wide, spaced 8 m between
centres, crosses a river. The depth of water upstream is
1.6 m and between the piers is 1.45 m.
Calculate the volume flow rate under one arch, assuming
that the river bed is horizontal, the banks are parallel and
frictional effects are negligible.
Find the maximum height to which water rises at the front
of the piers.
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FLOW RATE
Volume flow rate: uA Q =
Mass flow rate: uA Q m = =
u
A
EXAMPLE, PAGE 8
The figure shows a converging two-dimensional duct in which flow enters in two
layers. A fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flows as the top layer at a velocity of 2 m s
1
and water flows along the bottom layer at a velocity of 4 m s
1
. The two layers are
each of thickness 0.5 m. The two flows mix thoroughly in the duct and the mixture
exits to atmosphere with the velocity uniform across the section of depth 0.5 m.
(a) Determine the velocity of flow of the mixture at the exit.
(b) Determine the density of the mixture at the exit.
0.5 m
2 m/s
4 m/s
0.5 m
0.5 m
p =15 kN/m
1
2
CONTINUITY
(MASS OR VOLUME CONSERVATION)
In steady flow: total flow in = total flow out
Volume flow rate, Q
uA Q = (uniform flow)
(
]
(
= A u Q d
(non-uniform flow)
An integral is just a sum!
u
A

=
out in
uA uA
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SPECIAL CASES
2-dimensional:
Axisymmetric:
y w A d d =
(
]
(
= y u w Q d
r r A d 2 d =
(
]
(
= r r u Q d 2
(
]
(
= A u Q d
w
dy
u(y)
dr r
u(r)
EXAMPLE, PAGE 9
The distribution of velocity in a rectangular channel of
width w = 800 mm and depth h = 200 mm is given by
where u
0
= 8 m s
1
. What is:
(a) the quantity of flow;
(b) the average velocity?
7
1
0
|
.
|

\
|
=
h
y
u u
AVERAGE VELOCITY
For non-uniform velocity you will need to find
the volume flow rate in order to calculate the
average velocity
A u Q
av
=
area
rate flow
= =
A
Q
u
av
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EXAMPLE, PAGE 9
Fully-developed laminar flow in a pipe of radius R
has velocity profile:
Find the average velocity in terms of u
0
.
) / 1 (
2 2
0
R r u u =
MOMENTUM
1. Newtons 2
nd
Law (Momentum Principle)
force = rate of change of momentum
applied to all the fluid passing through a control volume.
2. Newtons 3rd Law (Action / Reaction)
The force of a fluid on its containment is equal and
opposite to the reaction of the containment on the fluid.
3. Force and momentum are vector quantities.
MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE IN CONTINUOUS
FLOW
For steady flow and fixed control volume:
momentum of change of rate force =
) (
in out
Q u u F =
Momentum flux = (mass flux) x (velocity) = Qu
= (uA)u
if uniform
= E(uA)u if non-uniform
F
u
out
u
in
time
velocity in change entering mass
=
velocity in change flux mass =
in out
Q Q ) ( ) ( u u =
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MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE FOR STEADY FLOW
Force = (momentum flux)
out
(momentum flux)
in
Force = (rate that momentum leaves CV) ( rate that momentum enters CV)
Momentum flux = E(uA)u For non-uniform flow ... sum (integrate)
EXAMPLE, PAGE 8 (REPRISE)
The figure shows a converging two-dimensional duct in which flow enters in two
layers. A fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flows as the top layer at a velocity of 2 m s
1
and water flows along the bottom layer at a velocity of 4 m s
1
. The two layers are
each of thickness 0.5 m. The two flows mix thoroughly in the duct and the mixture
exits to atmosphere with the velocity uniform across the section of depth 0.5 m.
(a) Determine the velocity of flow of the mixture at the exit.
(b) Determine the density of the mixture at the exit.
(c) If the pressure p
1
at the upstream section is 15 kPa, what is the force per
unit width exerted on the duct?
0.5 m
2 m/s
4 m/s
0.5 m
0.5 m
p =15 kN/m
1
2
FORCES ON FLUIDS
- Body forces (proportional to volume)
weight
centrifugal and Coriolis forces
- Surface forces (proportional to area)
pressure forces
viscous forces
- Reaction forces (from solid boundaries)
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SURFACE FORCES
Surface forces are usually expressed in terms of stress:
area
force
stress= area stress force =
Pressure, p
force = pressure area
net force (x direction) = (p
L
p
R
)A
Shear stress,
force = shear stress area
net force (x direction) = (
T

B
)A
A
p A
R
p A
L
A
t
T
t
B
A
A
VISCOUS STRESS
y
u
d
d
=
Note: what we usually call stress, , is actually the result of the
net effect of turbulent fluctuations, not molecular viscosity.
y
u(y)
t
BOUNDARY LAYERS
What is a boundary layer?
- A layer of slow-moving fluid close to a solid boundary
- Occurs because viscosity imposes a no-slip condition
- For high Re/small viscosity it is usually extremely thin
Free stream
Boundary layer
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FLOW SEPARATION
- Requires:
(1) a layer of slow-moving fluid (boundary layer)
(2) free-stream deceleration (adverse pressure gradient)
- There is near-surface flow reversal
- To satisfy continuity, flow breaks away from the surface
adverse pressure
gradient
backflow
flow
separation
speeds up ... ... slows down
FLOW SEPARATION
- Occurs on sufficiently convex surfaces
- Almost inevitable at sharp corners
- A viscous effect but causes large pressure drag
H L
High
pressure
Low
pressure
LAMINAR vs TURBULENT BOUNDARY
LAYERS
Laminar Turbulent
Adjacent layers dont mix
Momentum transfer by
viscous stress:
Blasius velocity profile
Adjacent layers mix (a lot)
Mean momentum transfer by
net effect of mixing:
Logarithmic mean-velocity profile
Important:
- Turbulent boundary layers are less likely to separate
- Controlling separation can greatly reduce drag
y
u
d
d
=
y
u
d
d
>>
u(y)
y
u(y)
y
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FORCES ON OBJECTS
Drag = component of force parallel to approach flow.
Lift = component of force perpendicular to approach flow.
U
0
lift F
drag
DRAG AND LIFT COEFFICIENTS
Drag coefficient
Lift coefficient
A U
c
D 2
0 2
1

drag
=
A U
c
L 2
0 2
1

lift
=
SOURCE OF DRAG FORCE
Drag coefficient
A U
c
D 2
0 2
1

drag
=
Bluff bodies
- force is predominantly pressure drag
- A is projected area (normal to flow)
- c
D
= O(1)
Streamlined bodies
- force is predominantly viscous drag
- A is plan area (parallel to flow)
- c
D
<< 1
A
U0
A
U0
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MOMENTUM FLUX

=
=
u uA) (
velocity flux mass flux momentum
(
]
(
= A u d
2
flux momentum
For a continuously-varying profile:
MOMENTUM FLUX
(
]
(
= A u d
2
flux momentum
Velocity profile Area elements Momentum flux
Uniform
Area A
2-dimensional
dA = wdy
Axisymmetric
dA = 2r dr
A U
2

(
]
(
y u w d
2
(
]
(
dr r u 2
2
w
dy
u(y)
dr r
u(r)
EXAMPLE, PAGE 18
A cylinder spans a wind tunnel of rectangular cross section and height h = 0.3 m, as shown in the
figure. The spanwise width w = 0.6 m and the cylinder diameter is 90 mm. The upstream velocity is
u
A
and is uniform. The velocity profile measured a short distance downstream of the cylinder is
symmetric about the centreline and is given by
where u is the velocity in m s
1
and y is the distance from the centreline in m.
(a) Assuming that the downstream velocity profile has no discontinuities, what is the value of u
B
?
(b) Calculate the upstream velocity u
A
.
(c) Assuming that Bernoullis theorem is applicable outside the wake of the cylinder calculate the
pressure difference between upstream and downstream sections.
(d) Neglecting drag on the walls of the tunnel, calculate the total drag force on the cylinder.
(e) Define a suitable drag coefficient and calculate its value.

>
s
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1 . 0 if ,
1 . 0 if ,
1 . 0
4
1 . 0
6 1 10
3
2
y u
y
y y
u
B
y
h
cylinder
u
A
u
B
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EXAMPLE, PAGE 18
Water enters a horizontal pipe of diameter 20 mm with uniform velocity 0.1 m s
1
at
point A. At point B some distance downstream the velocity profile becomes fully-
developed and varies with radius r according to:
where R is the radius of the pipe. The pressure drop between A and B is 32 Pa.
(a) Find the value of u
0
.
(b) Calculate the total drag on the wall of the pipe between A and B.
(c) Beyond point B the pipe undergoes a smooth contraction to a new diameter
D
C
. Estimate the diameter D
C
at which the flow would cease to be laminar.
The critical Reynolds number for transition in a circular pipe, based on average
velocity and diameter is 2300.
Take the density and kinematic viscosity of water as = 1000 kg m
3
and
= 1.110
6
m
2
s
1
respectively.
) / 1 (
2 2
0
R r u u =
FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES
Measure the change of momentum of the fluid
... deduce the force on the body
F
Force on BODY
F
Force on FLUID
FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES
Momentum principle:
(
]
(

(
]
(
=
(
]
(

(
]
(
+
in out out in
A u A u A p A p F d d d d
2 2
(
]
(

(
]
(

(
]
(
+ =
out
in
on cancellati of amount large
out in
A u u u
A u A u F
d ) (
d d
2 2

force pressure net
(i) constrained (change in free-stream velocity) (ii) unconstrained (change in free-stream velocity)
inflow wake
streamline
body
inflow wake
body
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FORCES ON IMMERSED BODIES
Force deduced from downstreammeasurements only:
(
]
(
+ =
out
in in
A p p u u u F d )] ( ) ( [
For unconstrained case or streamlined bodies:
(
]
(
~

out
A u u u F d ) (
(i) constrained (change in free-stream velocity) (ii) unconstrained (change in free-stream velocity)
inflow wake
streamline
body
inflow wake
body
EXAMPLE SHEET, Q8
A hydraulic jump occurs in an open channel of width 1.0 m (see figure). Upstream of
the jump the depth is 0.1 m and the velocity is u
A
(uniform). The velocity profile just
downstream of the jump is of the form
where u is the velocity at a distance y from the bed of the channel, u
B
is the velocity
near the bed and D (= 0.8 m) is the depth downstream of the jump.
(a) Determine u
B
, leaving your answer as a function of u
A
.
(b) Calculate the difference between the hydrostatic pressure forces on the fluid
cross-sections upstream and downstream of the jump.
(c) Neglecting viscous stresses on the channel bed or the free surface, use the
momentum principle to find the upstream velocity u
A
.
]

cos 1 [
2
B
D
y u
u + =
0.1 m
u
B
0.8 m
u
A
BERNOULLIS EQUATION: DERIVATION
Mechanical-energy equation (rate form):
rate of change in (KE + PE) = rate of working by non-con. forces
Steady flow; thin stream tube:
(energy flux)
2
(energy flux)
1
= rate at which work is done on fluid
W pAU pAU U gz Q U gz Q

+ = + +
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
Divide by mass flow rate, Q = (UA)
1
= (UA)
2
Q
W p p
U gz U gz

( )

( ) ( ) (
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1

+ = + +
mass unit per done work U gz
p
= + + )

(
2
2
1
Incompressible: density constant along a streamline
volume unit per done work U gz p = + + ) (
2
2
1
u
1
u
2
1
2
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BERNOULLIS EQUATION
constant U gz p = + +
2
2
1

Assumptions:
- applies along a streamline
- steady
- incompressible
- inviscid (no losses)
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Energy equation (rate form):
rate of change in (IE + KE + PE) = rate of working + supplying heat
Steady flow; thin stream tube:
(energy flux)
2
(energy flux)
1
= rate of working + supplying heat
H
Q W pAU pAU U gz e Q U gz e Q

+ + = + + + +
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
Divide by mass flow rate, Q = (UA)
1
= (UA)
2
Q
Q W p p
U gz e U gz e
H

( )

( ) ( ) (
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1

+
+ = + + + +
mass unit per supplied heat done work ) ( )

(
2
2
1
+ = + + + U gz
p
e
Density is not constant along a streamline
(or e + pv) is called specific enthalpy

p
e +
u
1
u
2
1
2
ENERGY AND HEAD
2
2
1
U gz p + +
g
U
z
g
p
2
2
+ +
energy per unit volume
energy per unit weight (= total head)
pressure head
dynamic head
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POWER
Flow rate Q, change of head H
time
d transforme energy
Power =
gQH = Power
Q
t
m
= (mass flow rate)
t
mgH
=
QgH =
STATIC AND STAGNATION PRESSURE
Stagnation pressure
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
2
2
1
U p +
p
2
2
1
U
(= Pitot pressure, p
0
)
stagnation point (highest pressure)
U= 0, P=P
0
2
2
1
0
U p p + =
MANOMETRY PRINCIPLES
In a stationary fluid:
(1) Same fluid, same height same pressure
(2) Same fluid, different height p = g z
(3) Different fluids: pressure is continuous at an interface
U-Tube Manometer

arm right
m B C
arm left
A
gh gy p p y h g p ) ( + + = = + +
gh p p
m B A
) ( =
gh p
m
) ( =
Inclined Manometer
sin L h =
L (large)
h (small)
u
A B
h
C
y

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MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY
Basic idea: measure the difference between Pitot and static pressures
pressure
dynamic
pressure
static
pressure
Pitot
U p p
2
2
1
0
=
Free-surface flows
Internal flows
Piezometer
and Pitot tube
Pitot-static
tube
free surface
U/2g
2
stagnation point
U
piezometer Pitot tube
U
g 2
2
static holes
stagnation point
static pressure tube
total pressure tube
MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME FLOW RATE
Basic idea:
- Provide constricted section to change speed and measure change in pressure
- Use a combination of Bernoullis eqn and continuity.
Venturi flowmeter Orifice flowmeter
2
2 2
1
2
2
1 2
1
1
U p U p + = +
2 2 1 1
A U A U =
Bernoulli:
Continuity:
2 / 1
2
2 1
2
1

1 ) / (
2
)
`

=
p
A A
A
Q
ideal
ideal d
Q c Q =
(c
d
= discharge coefficient)
1
2
FREE DISCHARGE UNDER GRAVITY
Bernoulli: 2
2
2 2
1
2 1
2
1 2
1
1
gz U p gz U p + + = + +
gh z z g U ) (
2 1
2
2 2
1
= =
gh U
exit
2 = Torricellis Formula:
Ideal quantity of flow:
Actual quantity of flow:
exit exit ideal
A U Q =
ideal d
Q c Q=
h
1
2
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TANK FILLING OR EMPTYING
out in
Q Q
t
V
=
d
d
Rate of change of volume = (volume flow rate)
in
(volume flow rate)
out
h A V
s
d d =
out in s
Q Q
t
h
A =
d
d
e.g. Emptying under gravity:
exit exit d out
A U c Q =
gh U
exit
2 =
Volume
V
h(t)
flow in flow out
A
s
dh
EXAMPLE, PAGE 31
A conical hopper of semi-vertex angle 30 contains water to a depth of
0.8 m. If a small hole of diameter 20 mm is suddenly opened at its point,
estimate (assuming a discharge coefficient c
d
= 0.8):
(a) the initial discharge (quantity of flow);
(b) the time taken to reduce the depth of water to 0.4 m.
0.8 m
30
o
METHODS FOR NON-IDEAL FLOW
Discharge coefficients
Loss coefficients
Momentum and energy coefficients
ideal d
Q c Q =
g
V
K H
2

2
=
) (
2
2
1
V K p =
e.g pipe friction ( = friction factor):
D
L
K =
Momentum coefficient (): (
]
(
= ) ( d
2 2
A u A u
av
Kinetic energy coefficient (): (
]
(
= ) ( d
3 3
A u A u
av