Prepared by: Ma. Katrina Therese R. Cuaycong & Christer John M.

Uy Differential pressure flowmeters use various methods of obstructing flow to create a pressure drop across a section of pipe. The pressure drop is proportional to the square of the fluid velocity. 1. VARIABLE-AREA FLOWMETERS are among the most popular flowmeters because of their straightforward, direct reading. General Information: In fluid flowing through a slightly tapered tube causes a float piston, or vane to change position inside the tube, adjusting the area available for fluid to pass through. The fluid velocity determined the final float position. Equipment Design: Rotameters contain a float inside a tapered tube to indicate flowrate. The higher the float, the higher the flowrate. A number of tube and float shapes are used to compensate for various flow conditions. Plastic rotameter are capable of handling strong and corrosive chemicals. Piston meters have a spring loaded piston mounted on a tapered shaft in place of a float. Fluid flow pushes the piston against the spring until the pressure forces are balanced such that the annular area between the piston and the shaft is proportional to the flow rate.; can be used for water and oil. Vane meters are also spring-loaded. Fluid flow causes the vane to rotate against the spring to increase the orifice area in a chamber through which the fluid flows. It monitors high pressure water flows. Piston and vane meters can either be outfitted with electrical sensing equipment, or have a pointer attached to the shaft of the spring to indicate the flow rate. Usage examples: They can be used to indicate flow of concrete additives, anesthesia delivery, suction in portable halogen leak detectors, and flow of pressurized dry air used to keep moisture out of telephone cables.

2. ORIFICES General Information Orifices are also called orifice plates, constrict fluid flow using flat metal disc with a circular hole in the center. This constriction causes a pressure drop across the plate. Pressure taps on both sides of the orifice measure the differential. Different flow conditions are accommodated by changing the location of the orifice in the plate and the way the edge is bored.

Flow nozzles are similar to orifice plates in that they can contain a circular hoe smaller than a concentric with the pipe diameter that constructs fluid flow, causing a pressure differential. In flow nozzles however, the nozzle follows the hole, reducing the pressure differential across the device. Flow nozzles are typically used to meter steam and gases or liquids with a small degree of suspended solids. Advantages -can handle suspended solids -for same flow rate, has a significantly lower pressure drop than orifice plate -may be mounted horizontally or vertically -less susceptible to erosion and corrosion than an orifice plate Disadvantages -Unsuitable for viscous flow and sticky materials -requires consistently smooth flow profile, cant handle eddies or vortices -requires straight pipe runs up and downstream 4. VENTURI AND FLOW TUBES General Information Venturi tubes are specially shaped pipe section with tapered inlets and outlets and strait throats. As the pipe diameter decreases, the fluid velocity increases, causing a pressure drop proportional to the flowrate across the venture tubes throat. Flow tubes operate on the same principle as venturi tubes but differ in shape. Flow tubes have no tapered entrance but they do have a tapered throats as well as a long tapered exit. Usage Example Venturi tubes are common in water and wastewater treatment facilities, power plants,

Usage Examples Most gas, water, steam, and air applications are easily metered by orifice plates. Orifice meters that are made of stainless steel can handle corrosive materials such as strong acids and bases. Advantages -No moving parts, low maintenance -Low cost -Small

Disadvantages -Low accuracy -Pressure drops can be large -requires lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream -contraction of flow reduces accuracy of downstream pressure measurement 3. FLOW NOZZLES General Information

and chemical and petrochemical processing operations. Flow tube is designed to meter fluids such as cooling water, steam, and combustion air. Advantages -handle large flow volumes at low pressure drops -no moving parts, low maintenance -accommodate liquids with high solids content -shape is inherently self-cleaning -may be mounted horizontally or vertically Disadvantages -require four or more pressure taps to accurately measure pressure differential -require lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream -accuracy depends on consistent flow profile -less accurate at flowrates 5. PITOT TUBES General Information Pitot tubes measure the difference between impact pressure in a flowing stream and static pressure at the pipe wall. The impact tubes end is bent at a right angle to face the flow and has a hole in the tip. Fluid flows into the hole and up the length of the tube. Static tube is straight and has one or several holes along its length. The height of the liquid in the tube indicates the pressure. Usage Example Pitot tubes are used industrially to meter clean liquids,, gases and steam. They are also frequently used to measure air velocity, as in the plane.

Advantages -suitable for measuring steam -low pressure drop -no moving parts, low maintenance -easy to install and ideal for retrofitting Disadvantages -subject to clogging -limited to point measurements 6. TARGET METERS General Information -target meters measure the force of a flowing stream on a target, usually a vane or disc, suspended in the stream. The force on the target, measured by a strain gauge is directly proportional to the streams velocity. Usage Examples Target meters are among the very few flowmeters capable of measuring solids flow. It can be used to meter pulverized coal and coke, plastic pellets, food and beverage dairy, and pharmaceutical industries. Advantages -particularly useful for stream, corrosive materials, and liquid flows with suspended solids. -One of the only methods of measuring solids flow -low maintenance Disadvantages -reduced accuracy in gas and liquid metering compared to other types of flowmeters 7. V-CONE General Information

V-cone flowmeters work in much the same manner as other differential pressure flowmeters, A cone inserted into the path of flow causes a pressure drop proportional to the flowrate. Pressure taps are located slightly upstream and in the downstream face of the cone. The shape of the cone is designed to smooth the velocity profile so that an accurate measurement can be made regardless of the fluids flow characteristics. V-cone flowmeters are often used in application where static mixing is desired due to formation of vortices as the base of the cone. Usage Example V-cone flowmeters are often used in chemical and pharmaceutical processing, the food and beverage industry, the pulp and paper industry, and in water and wastewater operations. They are also commonly used to meter air flow for fans and air motors and leakage from airplane cabins and home windows. Advantages -dont require straight pipe runs; can be located closer to upstream disturbances than other differential pressure meters -lower pressure drop than orifice plates -low cost -vortex formation immediately behind the cone encourages mixing, prevents buildup Disadvantages -reduced accuracy at lower flowrates 8. ELBOW METERS General Information When fluid flows through an elbow, it exerts centrifugal force on the inside of the pipe wall, creating a pressure differential between the inner and outer radii of the elbow. Pressure taps in the elbow measure his differential, which is proportional to the elbows radius. In

most cases, one tap at the 45o point is enough, as in the schematic but an additional tap at the 22.5o point may also be used. Elbow meters are used when lack of space prohibits use of most other flowmeters, which require long, straight pipe.

9. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW METERS General Information Liquid flows with a free surface. Common Examples of Open Channel Tunnels Non-pressurized sewers Partially Filled Pipes Canals Streams Rivers

Flow measurement is based upon the head or depth of the fluid. As liquid flows across weirs or flumes, the two main types of open channel measurement devices, the head changes. The difference in head across the device indicates the flowrate. Equipment Design The depth-related methods of measuring open channel flow operate on the principle that instantaneous flow rate can be determined from measuring the head of a flowing stream. The head is a function of the flow velocity based on the type and shape of the primary measuring device. Level detectors, usually sonic devices that bounce sound waves off the fluid surface, are used as secondary measurement devices. They determine the head in an open channel, and thus the area and velocity of the stream. When the flowing liquid has high solids content or minimum head loss is necessary, flumes are

used. Flumes must be located where there is little or no disruption of smooth flow. The Parshall flume consists of a converging upstream section, a throat, and a diverging downstream section. The walls are vertical and the floor of the throat is inclined downward difference between the entrance Ha and the exit Hb of the flume is used to determine flowrate. Parshall flumes are designed to handle moderate flowrates, which make the device self-cleaning.

Cippolletti weir has a trapezoidal notch in its crest. The slope is intended to correct contractions of the nappe (the over-falling liquid) usually seen in rectangular weirs. Cippolletti weirs are designed to handle the same flow ranges as rectangular weirs.

Triangular, or V notch, weirs have a triangular notch. They are not usually used for flow ranges greater than 0 2000 gpm. Triangular weirs are typically constructed with an angle of 60 or 90 and may be used for flow ranges as low as 0 150 gpm. A weir is a partial obstruction of an open channel which causes liquid backup, forming a higher head behind the barrier. It consists of a notched vertical plate with a sharp crest. Weirs are classified by the notch shape. Rectangular, Cippolletti (or trapezoidal), and triangular (or V notch) weirs are the simplest of all head-producing primary flow measuring devices for open channels. Rectangular weirs, the first type of weirs used. Simple design and ease of construction make them the most popular weir in use today. Rectangular weirs can be configured to handle flow ranges from 0-250 gpm to 0 10,000 gpm.

Usage Examples Triangular weir box and Parshall flume are seen every day in sewage pipes and particularly in manholes, canal, streams and rivers. Flumes, due to their inherently self-cleaning design, meter flow with sand, grit, and other heavy solids. Advantages Easy to construct

Simple to determine flow with proper equations Parshall flumes produce one-fourth the head loss of a weir designed to handle the same flow range Parshall flumes are accurate in a wide range of conditions.

Turbine meters and paddlewheels are used in the same types of applications. In addition to metering chemicals, water and fuel, they are used in oil drilling operations or for metering cryogenic gases. Turbine meters are made of PVDF which can be used to meter food and beverages or chemicals. Turbine meters equipment. Advantages One meter can be manufactured to handle a wide range of flowrates Turbine meters are highly accurate Low cost May be constructed of a variety of materials to handle a variety of fluids Paddlewheels provide a more costeffective alternative when less accuracy is required or with viscous flow Low mass of rotor allows rapid response and ability to measure pulse flow are used in firefighting

Disadvantages Devices must be installed in the stream location where there is no disruption of steady flow by upstream or downstream blockages Requires consistent flow profiles Specific constraints on pipe/channel sizes and grades

VELOCITY

Velocity flowmeters are popular because they give a direct measure of fluid velocity, the characteristic most commonly associated with flowrate. These flowmeters are among the most sensitive to process conditions. 10. TURBINE AND PADDLEWHEEL General Information When fluid flows past a turbine meter, the meters vaned rotor rotates. The same occurs in a paddlewheel, except the paddlewheels blades are perpendicular to the direction of flow. In both cases, the angular velocity of the rotor is proportional to the velocity of the fluid. Equipment Design A magnetic pickup coil is mounted outside the pipe. The turbine or paddlewheel blades are made of or contain magnetic material/ as the fluid flows and each blade passes by the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil changes, causing a voltage pulse. A sensor measures the pulse rate and from that determines the flowrate. Usage Examples

Disadvantages Can cause large pressure drops Flashing or bubble formation may occur if the downstream pressure of a liquid stream is too low Require lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream

11. ULTRASONIC Ultrasonic flow meters use sound waves to measure flowrate. General Information The principle behind ultrasonic flowmeters is the variation between transmitted and received sound waves as a result of fluid flow. Two types of ultrasonic flowmeters are commonly used today: time-of-travel (or transit-time) and Doppler. Equipment Design

Ultrasonic flowmeters send sound waves through a stream via transducers. The returning sound wave provides information about the streams flowrate. Time-of-travel ultrasonic meters consist of two opposing transducers installed inside a pipe, one upstream of the other. The upstream transducer sends a sound wave downstream to the other transducer, and vice versa. The difference between the velocity of sound with the flow and against the flow is directly proportional to the velocity of the stream. When no fluid is flowing, the upstream and downstream transit times are the same. When fluid is flowing, the transit time downstream is less than the transit time upstream. Doppler flowmeters continuously send sound waves at a constant frequency through pipe walls via a sensor mounted on the outside of the pipe. Particles or bubbles in the stream reflect sound waves back to the sensor. If the fluid is flowing, the sound waves come back at a different frequency. The frequency shift is directly proportional to the velocity of the stream. Usage Examples The time-of-travel sonic meter meters gas flows such as emissions, stack gases, fuel gases, incinerator air flow, biogases, and recovered vapors. the ultrasonic Doppler sensor is used to measure flow in open channels such as sewer pipes, canals, and rivers. Ultrasonic flowmeters are also found in the food and beverage and chemical processing industries. Advantages Non-invasive, so no pressure drop Measures flow of fluids and slurries that ordinarily cause damage to conventional sensors Responds quickly to changes in velocity Eliminates local mechanical and electrical noise, permitting use in a variety of locations

Works with a variety of pipe sizes and flow conditions Accommodates flow in either direction Measures independently of temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, and electrical conductivity Non-contact, lack of moving parts greatly reduce maintenance requirements and sensor fouling Easy installation

Disadvantages Doppler: cant measure gas flow Time-of-travel: requires relatively clean fluid Excess solids or entrained gases may block ultrasonic pulses Requires steady flow, cant handle wide and/or rapid fluctuations

12. ELECTROMAGNETIC Electromagnetic flowmeters, commonly called mag meters, are used to meter conductive fluids. General Information The operation of electromagnetic flowmeters is based on Faradays Law. When a conductor moves at right angles to a magnetic field, a voltage difference is induced in the conductor that is proportional to the conductors velocity. The two types of electromagnetic flowmeters, wafer-style and insertion style, use different methods of creating the magnetic field through which the conductive fluid flows. Equipment Design Wafer-style flowmeters establish a magnetic field across the entire cross-section of a pipe from the outside the pipe. This design allows the magnetic field to be evenly exposed to flow conditions at all points in the pipe cross section. Insertion-style flowmeters use sensors inserter into the pipe to generate the magnetic field.

Electrodes in the sensors detect the voltage across the liquid which is used to determine the flowrate. Electromagnetic flowmeters can handle changes in the liquids conductivity as long as the change is uniform through the flow and not below the minimum conductivity threshold of the meter. The meter must also be grounded and the measuring tubed lined with or made of insulating material to prevent current flow through the liquid, pipe and other surrounding equipment. A number of factors affect the conductivity of liquids and must be carefully evaluated. Most importantly, conductivity is a function of temperature and concentration, but how each affects conductivity depends on the liquid. Therefore, process conditions must always be known. Unknown impurities also have adverse effects. Usage Examples The food and beverage, pharmaceutical, chemical, cosmetic industries use flowmeters. Mag meter is used in an ore mining facility and water sewage treatment operations. Specially designed electromagnetic flowmeters can be used to measure flow in open channels. Sensors, along with proper housing are used to create the magnetic field. The entire mechanism is submerged in a manhole or stream to monitor flowrate. Advantages Low pressure drop No moving parts means less wear, no routine maintenance Insensitive to density, viscosity, pressure, temperature and flow profile Usable for a variety of otherwise difficult to meter fluids Accurate Relatively low cost Measures forward and reverse flow

Disadvantages Can only meter fluids Liquids must be conductive Nearly electromagnetic noise causes interference Will not work in partially full pipes, even if electrodes are wetted Requires lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream Allowing sludges and greasy fluids to flow too slow causes buildup, which affects measurement

13. VORTEX-SHEDDING Vortex-shedding meters use the principles of turbulence to measure flowrate. General Information When fluid flows past a blunt (non-streamlined) object, turbulence forms at the sides of the object in the form of eddies, or vortices. As the eddies flow downstream, they separate, or shed, from the blunt object and grow in size. These vortices shed alternately from each side of the object and swirl in opposite directions. The rate of shedding and size of the vortices is directly proportional to the flowrate of the fluid. This phenomenon is the same as that which makes a flag flap in the wind. Equipment Design Vortex-shedding flowmeters differ from each other in the type of sensor used to detect vortices. Some of these flowmeters use a metal sphere or disc that shifts back and forth as the vortices flow past it. A magnetic coils count the objects oscillations. The frequency at which the bar flexes is proportional to the flowrate. A second type of sensor includes a vane which waves back and forth. Electronic sensors detect the vanes motion or the mechanical stress on the vane created by the passing eddies.

Another method of detecting vortices uses a thermistor, which is cooled by the vortices. The thermistors fluctuating temperature causes changes in its electrical resistance, which is used to detect the vortices and determine the flowrate. Usage Examples The vortex meter is lined with Teflon, making it useful for difficult to handle or easily contaminated materials. A vortex meter can also monitor steam, gas and liquid flows. High pressure and extreme temperature fluids such as cryogenic liquids and superheated steam can be metered by using a vortex meter. Advantages Accurate regardless of temperatures, pressure, density and viscosity when flow is turbulent Excellent for metering stream flow.

Coriolis meters typically consist of a U-shaped flow tube outfitted with a magnetic driver and two electromagnetic sensors. The driver, located at the bend of the tube, causes the tube to vibrate slightly up and down, much like a tuning fork. As fluid flows into the U-tube meter, its forced to take on the tubes vertical movement. As the tube swings upward, the entering fluid resists the upward motion by pushing down on the tube. When this fluid exits the tube, it resists having its vertical motion decreased by pushing up on the tube. This causes the tube to twist. Fluid entering the tube during its downward swing causes it to twist in the opposite direction. The twisting tube serves as a rotating frame. Electromagnetic sensors, located at the sides of the tube, are a stationary reference point from which the tube velocity measured. The tube velocity, due to Coriolis acceleration, is an indicator of the linear velocity of the fluid. Thus the amount of twist is directly proportional to the mass flowrate of the fluid in the tube. Straight-tube coriolis meters are becoming more popular because they are easier to clean than U-tube meters and are installed in-line with piping. They operate in much the same way as U-tube coriolis meters. The magnetic driver forces the tube to oscillate, and fluid flowing through the tube pushes opposite the tubes motion, causing it to distort. Usage Examples U-tube coriolis meters are used to meter polymer solutions, dyes and paints, chemicals and petrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals. They are designed to handle temperature up to 800F. Straight-tube coriolis meters are often used to meter a variety of food products, such as sugar solution, milk, and chocolate. They are also used in the chemical and petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries.

Disadvantages Flow must be turbulent Ineffective for slurries and viscous flow.

MASS FLOWMETERS Mass flowmeters measure flow in one of two ways: inferentially or directly. Coriolis and thermal meters are both direct mass flowmeters. 14. CORIOLIS In Coriolis meters, liquid travels through a vibrating U-shaped or straight tube. General Information Coriolis mass flowmeters are true mass meters in that they directly measure mass flowrates, as opposed to volumetric flowrates. These flowmeters operate based on Coriolis principle. Equipment Design

Straight-tube meter handles high viscosity and pasty fluids such as mayonnaise. Advantages Can be accommodated liquid, liquid/gas, and liquid/solid flow Can be constructed from a variety of materials Measurement independent of flow conditions (temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, flow profile) Straight-tube: minimal flow obstruction and pressure drop.

first one, and a temperature gradient is generated. The difference in temperature between the sensors is directly proportional to the mass flowrate of the gas. The corresponding change in resistance of the coil is used to determine and display the mass flowrate. Hot-wire and hot-film anemometers operate similarly to the heated tube except that they use a platinum wire or film directly exposed to the gas flow instead of coils. Immersion probe meters, also known as insertion probe meters, consist of two sensors immersed in the fluid flow. One sensor measures the ambient temperature of the gas, and the other sensor is maintained at a constant temperature 75-100F above the gas temperature. As the gas flows past the heated sensor, heat is transferred from the sensor to the gas. The amount of heat transferred from the sensor is proportional to the mass flowrate. The amount of current required to keep the sensor at its designated temperature is used to determine the flowrate. Usage Examples The heated tube mass flowmeter is calibrated to meter air. The flow controller meters the flow of nitrogen gas. Advantages Unaffected by temperature, pressure, density, viscosity within regular operating limitations Can be calibrated to measure a variety of gases Easy to maintain Excellent low-flow sensitivity

Disadvantages Extreme temperature may affect oscillating capabilities of tube Cannot handle high solids content U-tube: subject to clogging and disrupts flow More expensive than most flowmeters

15. THERMAL Thermal mass flowmeters use heat transfer to measure flowrate. General information The operation of thermal mass flowmeters is based on the tendency of molecules to absorb het. As gas molecules flow through the meter, heat is transferred from the meter to the gas. The more gas flows by, the more heat is lost by the meter. Equipment Design The most common type of thermal mass flow meter is the heated tube. A portion of gas flow is diverted through a sensing tube. The tube has two sensors which conduct heat to the gas via a wire coiled around the tube. When flow occurs, gas molecules carry heat from the upstream coil to the downstream coil. Thus, less heat is transferred from the second coil than from the

Disadvantages Extremely sensitive to solid particles, gas must be very clean

Special, much more expensive, designs required for liquid flow 17. Helical Rotor General Information/Equipment Design In helical rotor meters, two nested rotors create pockets of fixed volume. The counter-rotation of the rotors carries the pockets of liquid axially down the length of the rotors. The rotation rate and number of rotations, determined by the flowrate is measured using electronic sensors. Usage Examples

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOWMETERS Positive Displacement flowmeters measure flowrate through the continuous filling and emptying of a chamber of known volume. Positive displacement flowmeters differ from positive displacement pumps only in that, rather than being driven by motors; they are driven by the fluid flowing through then.

16. Oval Gear & Impeller General Information/Equipment Design Oval gear meters and impeller meters operate in the same manner, but differ in shape of the gears. Fluid flowing through the measuring chamber causes gears to turn, displacing an exact volume of fluid. A magnetic or mechanical device counts the number of turns, determining the volumetric flowrate. Usage Examples The oval gear meter meters the filling of gearboxes with transmission fluid. The sanitary impeller meter is frequently used in food and beverage, dairy, pharmaceutical, and medical industries. The durability of the cast iron impeller meter makes it useful to meter petroleum-based fluids. Advantages High accuracy and repeatability Handles viscous flow Cost-effective Accuracy unaffected by changes in viscosity Requires little maintenance

High viscosity materials such as concrete can be monitored by the helical rotor meter. The meter is designed for use in the food industry, where it commonly meters such fluids as molasses, soy bean oil, and animal and vegetable fat. Advantages Especially well-suited for measurement of highly viscous and hard to meter fluids Highest accuracy and repeatability of any positive displacement flowmeter Unaffected by flow profile and does not require straight lengths of pipe Low pressure drop Rotor action is self-cleaning

Disadvantages Can only meter liquids Typical materials of construction will corrode in the presence of water or water-based fluids Cannot handle abrasive fluids

18. ROTARY VANE General Information/Equipment Design

Disadvantages Typical construction materials are susceptible to corrosion by water based fluids A circular rotor mounted in a round compartment contains a number of sliding vanes that isolate fixed volumes of liquid

between the rotor and the wall of the compartment. The center of the rotor is offset from that of the compartment. This keeps the rotor in constant contact with the wall of the compartment opposite that of the liquid pockets, to prevent backwashing. The more vanes in the rotor, the higher the accuracy of a rotary vane meter at low flowrates. Usage Examples Rotary vane meters are often used in the petroleum and agricultural industries due to their rugged construction. As with many positive displacement flowmeters, they also function as batchers. Advantages Sweeping action of vanes prevent buildup of sediment and keeps compartment clean Wide choice of construction materials High accuracy and repeatability Low pressure drop over entire range of flow measuring capabilities

Usage Example These flowmeters are often used in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Advantages -high accuracy and repeatability -only one moving part to cause wear -can be made of materials to ensure sanitary needs of food and beverage processing Disadvantages -can only be used with relatively clean liquids 20. NUTATING DISC General Information A disc attached to a sphere is mounted inside a spherical chamber. As fluid flows through the chamber, the disc and sphere unit nutates. The nutation causes a pin, mounted on the sphere perpendicular to the disc, to rock. Each revolution of the pin indicated a fixed volume of liquid has passed. A mechanical or electromagnetic sensor detects the rocking of the pin. Usage Example Nutating discs made with Al or bronze discs are commonly used to meter hot oil and chemicals. Advantages -may be constructed from a variety of materials -high accuracy and repeatability Disadvantages -accuracy is adversely affected by viscosities below the meters designated threshold.

Disadvantages Relatively complex design increases cost

19. RECIPROCATING PISTON General Information Fluid enters a reciprocating piston meter also know as an oscillating piston meter, through an inlet port. The port leads to a precisely measure gap created by a piston in a round chamber. As the piston oscillates around the chamber, it displaces an exact volume of fluid. Electromagnetic sensors outside the meter detect the rotation of a magnet inside the center of the piston which indicates the quantity or rate of fluid passing through the meter.