OSCILLATORS

OSCILLATOR FEEDBACK LOOP

The basic structure of a sinusoidal oscillator consists of an amplifier and a frequency selective network connected in a positive feedback loop: . The gain with feedback is thus given by:

Consider the block diagram shown.

This equation thus has two solutions:

The second solution is the condition for oscillation, and this is also implied in the gain with feedback transfer function in which when the loop gain is unity.

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The Barkhausen Criterion states that when

It should be noted that the frequency of oscillation is determined solely by the phase characteristics of the feedback loop; the loop oscillates at the frequency for which the phase is zero.

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THE WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

The Wein Bridge oscillator consists of:

An op amp connected in the noninverting configuration with a closed loop gain of Positive feedback

The capacitors are used for varying the frequency of oscillation while the resistors are used for range setting. Note that as discussed in the feedback section, the maximum frequency of oscillation is limited by the slew rate of the op amp. Consider the non-inverting amplifier component with negative feedback. The gain is:

, which means that

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, the output is self sustaining.

Now consider the positive feedback signal provided by the RC network with impedances

Side fact: For low frequency oscillators, we tend to use RC feedback networks whereas high frequency oscillators are usually constructed using LC feedback networks

The loop gain is obtained by multiplying the transfer function of the feedback network by the amplifier gain.

To ensure oscillatory output, the Barkhausen criterion must be satisfied:

But:

Thus:

There are 2 conditions which are required for which oscillatory output can be obtained: Note that in order for T to be real the frequency must be:

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This now gives: This is the ideal condition to ensure oscillations start. In practice however, we set . 2

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AMPLITUDE STABILISATION SCHEMES

Since in practice we have Saturation Non-linearity Distortion , oscillations increase:

One possible amplitude stabilization scheme employs symmetrical feedback limiter. It is formed by diodes , together with resistor , .

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During oscillations we find that . In the positive cycle, only will conduct under certain conditions. When conducts, is shunted across gain of the amplifier and limits the output voltage. which reduces the

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BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS SCHMITT TRIGGER

Devices which are non-linear wave-form generators are known as multivibrators. The bistable multivibrator indicates that there are two states. The Schmitt Trigger is a comparator circuit (a resistive voltage divider) with a positive feedback path. Such a circuit allows it to be used as a: Square wave generator Triangular wave generator Comparator

Since cannot exist for any length of time this state is a metastable state and forces the circuit to switch to one of the stable states. This means that the golden rule that rule cannot apply in this situation.

Consider the circuit shown of a positive feedback loop capable of bistable operation. If initially was close to zero potential, and: Noise is positive, this is fed back via the resistive network with a fraction of . Since

, then the fed back signal will be greater than the

TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS

The operation of the circuit depends highly on the basic equation of the opamp:

Let us assume that the output is at positive saturation and . When increases beyond the point , a net negative voltage developes between the input terminals, and the output will then go negative. This in turn causes:

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This increases the net negative input to the op amp and keeps the regenerative process going. The process culminates to the op amp saturating in the negative direction with and . at which and .

Suppose that now decreases. Nothing happens until reaches point a net positive voltage develops across the terminals and The complete transfer characteristic combines both of these situations.

Note that the circuit exhibit its hysteresis because the circuit changes state at different values of . The hysteresis voltage is given by the different of the two threshold voltage:

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original increment in due to the noise. This regenerative process continues until the output voltage reaches positive saturation. Noise is negative, this signal is fed back and will be more negative that the original leading to a regenerative process that stops when saturation on the negative rail is reached

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NON INVERTING SCHMITT TRIGGER

At the non-inverting input:

Assume that it is initially in positive saturation

. This means that:

To trigger the circuit to go into negative saturation, we must make:

Where was found by superposition of the voltage and Note that negative saturation is achieved by ensuring that we find that the input needed is:

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To put it back into positive saturation we need: Such that: We can see that the hysteresis voltage is given by:

Now:

and:

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on the feedback network. . By rearranging then,

Example Find the upper and lower threshold voltage at voltage for the Schmitt trigger shown. and hence determine the hysteresis

Note that that the Schmitt trigger is very much like a comparator, and the reference voltage is . This is the critical voltage in which the op amp switches state since:

We cannot use the golden rules due to positive feedback. We do however know that:

Suppose initially

, and recall that the threshold voltage for

Now that

, we require

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to be at a voltage to trigger positive saturation:

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is found when

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SQUARE WAVE GENERATOR

The square wave generator shown is a astable multivibrator.

Consider the circuit shown a bistable multivibrator with an RC circuit with

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At time , .

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us assume that . The Capacitor will charge toward this level through resistor R. The voltage across this capacitor is the voltage applied to the inverting terminal of the opamp. Note that is voltage rises exponentially towards with . At this point in time: .

When the capacitor reaches , the bistable multivibrator switches state and and . At this point, the capacitor discharges at a exponential decaying rate towards . Again, this new state will continue until .

The period can be found by noting the capacitors (dis)charge rate:

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. Let

Similarly, the time it takes to reach the lower threshold start from is given by:

The total period of oscillation is thus:

It is possible to make the output non-symmetrical by replacing R with the following circuit such that:

Example

The comparator output saturates at and oscillation frequency, expressing

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Schmitt Trigger RC Circuit

Notice that the circuit is a square wave generator because it consists of a bistable multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger) and an RC circuit on the inverting terminal of the op amp. We break this circuit up into those two parts:

Suppose , . Thus in order for the circuit to saturate in the -12V direction. We assume that the output of the op amp is ideal, and hence acts as an ideal voltage source.

Note that the capacitor likes to maintain its voltage. If we assume that , this means that that capacitor voltage needed to be to trigger this state.

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and the diode is ideal. Derive the waveforms as a function of . 8

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Recall that

, where R is the (Thevenin) resistance seen by the capacitor:

Note that the

term is the

We now seek to find the voltage at that point is:

, in which case, the capacitor acts like an open circuit, and

Norton equivalent current

Recall that we wish to find the frequency

using the above capacitor (dis)charge formula. The time for charging stops when

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We now require for a switch to occur:

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Using the same formula:

Now that , . We must thus have a voltage of in order for the circuit to be in positive saturation again. This time, the diode is off due to a negative voltage, and we now have an open circuit. Now with:

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. We can find the period for charging by