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3.

3 Identification of threats, concerns and other issues related to lower plants

In this section the author reports a summary of the threats, concerns and other relevant issues identified by him based on the literature survey and also on the discussions made with expert bryologists, namely, Dr. Benito C. Tan, (Department of Biological Sciences, NUS, Singapore), Dr. W.M.G. Asanga S.T.B. Wijethunga ( Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka), Dr. Dr.R.H.G. Ranil Rajapaksha,( Senior Lecturer, Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya), and Dr. S.C.K.Rubasinghe ( Lecturer in Botany, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya). 3.3.1 Major threats to Sri Lankan lower plants

Two categories of threats on Sri Lankan lower plants are identified by the author:

i)

Man-made threats ii)

Natural threats.

i) Man-made threats.

Rapid urbanization, industrialization, change in land use pattern, demand on forest products, etc. are creating serious threats to diversity of lower plants. The impacts of biotic factors are stated below,

a. Habitat destruction

Nowadays, destruction of natural habitats for development of township, agriculture or industrialization is destroying lower plant habitats. Trades on forest products like timber, bamboo, cane, medicinal plants, etc. are also destroying habitat of lower plants.

b. Over exploitation

With increasing population, demands on forest products are also increasing. Unsustainable utilization of forest products for trade, daily need of people residing in the vicinity of forests, etc. is responsible for gradual vanishing of lower plants. And some ferns are also highly over exploited for their medicinal and horticultural values. Eg: Huperzia pulcherrima (Kuda-hadaya), H. phlegmaria (Maha-hadaya), Asplenium nidus (Birdnest fern).

c. Lack of awareness

Most people are not aware of the importance of lower plants. These plants are less popular among scientists and only a few botanists are interested in this group of plants resulting the lack of research on the same. Even before being investigated , much of the lower plant habitats are being destroyed unknowingly, leading to extinction of many rare taxa. So, lack of proper knowledge about this group may lead to loss of genetic diversity of this group.

d. Lack of intensive and extensive exploration

In Sri Lanka, many lower plant habitats are yet to be explored. Due to lack of intensive and extensive exploration in the country, many lower plants are still known from a single locality only and some have not been collected after their initial record. Because of this, proper in situ conservation of rare taxa is being hampered and as a result species extinction rate is increasing. For example Ranil et al (2006) revealed that although there were 29 species of ferns recorded in Udawattakele Man & Biosphere reserve in Sri Lanka during 1888-1954 period, only 9 species were found in 2006.

ii) Natural factors

a. Catastrophic activities

Natural factors like heavy rains, floods, landslides, forest fires etc. can destroy lower plant habitats. For example, due to monsoon rainfalls in Sri Lanka, large shallow rooted trees along the road and riverside can get uprooted. Along with such trees epiphytic lower plants are also destroyed. In hill country during the monsoon, heavy showers cause landslide destroying flora including lower plants.

b. Biological imparities

Biological imparities among taxa are also responsible for their rarity and loss of genetic diversity. Some species of bryophytes are only known through their male plants or female plants. Those species are thus naturally forced to reproduce asexually. For some liverworts, spores do not germinate and the species reproduce by tubers only. These things cause gradual loss in genetic diversity of this group leading to extinction of many taxa.

c. Global warming

Global warming is one of the most harmful reasons responsible for loss of biodiversity. The lower plants grow mainly in cool, moist climatic zone in hilly areas. Their growth is totally dependent on an ample supply of water. Epiphytic bryophytes and ferns also grow on bark or leaf of trees where sufficient moisture is present. Due to global warming, microclimate required for their growth is changing. Temperature and precipitation amount in hilly areas are changing day by day, thus resulting loss of microhabitats for lower plants.

3.3.2 Current status of conservation of lower plants in Sri Lanka

3.3.2.1 CITES listed lower plants in Sri Lanka.

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Sri Lanka was the 49th country to the sign of CITES convention. And the date of entry into force is 04/08/1979. The only Sri Lankan lower plant in the CITES list is Cyathea walkerae Hook which was added to the CITES database in 23/06/20102.

3.3.2.2 Protected lower plants by Fauna and Flora Protection (Amendment) Act, No.22 of

2009

Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance was introduced to the country in 1937 to protect the biodiversity of Sri Lanka. An ordinance to provide for the protection and conservation Of the fauna and flora of Sri Lanka and their habitats ; for The prevention of commercial and other misuse of such fauna And flora and their habitats, for the conservation of the Biodiversity of Sri Lanka ; and to provide for matters Connected therewith or incidental thereto. (Fauna and Flora Protection (Amendment) Act. 2009). After 1937 there were several revisions, amendments and acts introduced to protect the fauna and flora of the country. Until 2009 amendment, there was no any lower plant species added to the ordinance or to acts. This act stated the protection of one moss species Sphagnum ceylonicum and 95 fern and fern allies species (See Appendix IV).

3.3.2.3 The Red List of Threatened Flora of Sri Lanka .

The Red List of Threatened Fauna and Flora of Sri Lanka in 1999 and 2007 do not contain any of the lower plant species in Sri Lanka (IUCN Sri Lanka. 2000, IUCN Sri Lanka and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 2007). However, in the Red listing programme of 2012 evaluates the status of ferns and fern allies, but none

of the bryophytes of Sri Lanka (Perera 2012 pers.com., Gunawardana 2012 pers. com., Ranil 2012. pers. com.). But there is a list on Threatened Pteridophytes in Sri Lanka in biodiversity conservation in Sri Lanka; A

Framework for Action with 90 ferns and fern allies belonging to 19 families (MFE. 1999)(See

Appendix V).

3.3. 2. 4 A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon series.

Vol. XV, Part A & Part B were published in 2006 By M.D Dassanayake and M. ShafferFehre for Fern and fern allies flora of Sri Lanka. But still there are any Flora revisions on Bryophytes in Sri Lanka and now there are some discussions for that project (Gunathilake 2012. pers. com.). 3.3.2.6 Some recently published taxonomic research works on lower plants in Sri Lanka CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

According to the literature survey, there is a huge diversity of lower plants in Sri Lanka. There are 952 of bryophyte species making them second only to the number of angiosperm species in Sri Lanka. However, this number is only based on literature based data, and specimen based data are scarce. It is most likely that due to the threats faced, some species can be extinct before they were explored. So there is an urgent need of proper taxonomic survey of bryophytes in Sri Lanka. And there are 350 species of Ferns and fern allies present in the country, and hopefully there is ongoing assessment of distribution and diversity of ferns and fern allies by the Biodiversity Secretariat and National Herbarium of Sri Lanka for National Red listing programme. After publication of that data, the conservation measures can be easily taken for the pteridophytes.

The major problem of identification, classification, and conservation of lower plants in Sri Lanka is lack of expertise. So, it is a country need for training experts for this field and supplying of enough resources. For examples, when someone is going to identify a liverwort, there is not any good guide or manual in Sri Lanka to identify that species.

When preparing this report, author had to face several difficulties. Lack of data and literature related to Sri Lankan bryophytes, especially on liverworts and hornworts were the major problem. The recently updated liverwort check list was prepared in 1978. And it is a 34-year old document. So author had to collect all the data related to Sri Lankan liverworts and hornworts. But none of the data after 1978 was found from Sri Lankan libraries. Without the help of Anders Hogberg of Field Museum of United States of America in providing the author with relevant literature on liverworts, compilation of data on liverworts would not have been possible..

Suggestions to address the issues on conservation of Sri Lankan lower plants:

1. Understanding and documenting plant diversity. Proper understanding and documenting of the plant diversity is a must for conservation. When considering Sri Lanka, there are no any specimen based updated data on Bryophytes. To achieve this step, taxonomic studies, flora revisions, Red data books and lists and distribution data bases are some of the essential steps.

2. Conserving plant diversity After identification of critical species using above data, this approach should encourage the conservation of key habitats for lower plants and make sure their presence in the Sri Lankan

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list. There is a necessity to conserve key habitats and the niches within them for lower plants to be recognized and highlighted for action.

3. Using plant diversity sustainably The sustainable use of biodiversity is one of the successful conservation in the Convention of Biological Diversity. The urgent need for research and assessment of sustainable collection practice resulting in a code of conduct is reflected in the actions identified in this strategy.

4. Promoting education and awareness about plant diversity Central to this strategy is the need to provide a sustainable future for lower plant conservation in Sri Lanka through a central core of taxonomic expertise in each field. This requires the recruitment of taxonomic expertise in each field. this require the involvement of institutional parties like Botanical gardens, Ministry of environment and natural resources and Biodiversity secretariat. This requires raising awareness and advising to policy makers.

I. Raising awareness The strategy aims to raise awareness of lower plants. It identifies a number of actions that would achieve this. However in order for these actions to be realized, posts for a lower plant conservation officer and an education officer are needed. These should be centrally funded and would serve all lower plants learned societies. These posts would coordinate awareness raising and information services. Awareness raising would develop approaches already in use by the specialist societies, including guided walks, interpretative booklets, simple identification guides and updated floras. A structured approach to education activities needs to be developed to include field training workshops and supporting local groups. Training opportunities need to be developed for Rangers and other extracurricular educational providers to enable them to introduce lower plants to children and adults and provide identification workshops for land managers and conservation practitioners.

II.Advice to policy makers Plant conservation organizations have an important role in informing policy and policy makers. Those organizations must comment on policy consultations where appropriate, including for example amendments for Fauna and flora protection ordinance , biodiversity and nature conservation legislation.

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