Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

Language of Film Final Paper: Hollywood Depictions of Colonialist Ambition in the New World
The depiction of early European exploration and conquests in the Americas presents filmmakers with the opportunity to explore themes pertinent to the cultural clashes that characterized the era. The portrayals of both the colonialist and indigenous populations involved in these clashes allow for the examination of how narrative structure as well as film form can combine to highlight the universality of mans struggle against natures vast and unforgiving frontier. An important consideration in such an examination is how relatively recent Hollywood depictions of the time period compare with films produced in prior decades and by non-American directors. To this end, this paper will analyze five films that exhibit filmic similarities as well as subtle differences in their examination of cultural clashes in the New World. Dances With Wolves (Kevin Costner, 1990), The Last of the Mohicans (Michael Mann, 1992) and The New World (Terrence Malick, 2005) are all demonstrative of the narrative and formal techniques that characterize recent Hollywood depictions of European conquests and struggles in North A merica. Werner Herzogs Fitzcarraldo (1982) offers a different examination, both in narrative structure and setting, of the colonialist attempt to overcome nature. Finally, The Last Samurai (Edward Zwick, 2003) presents the inherent structures of the Hollywood depiction of colonialist clashes with the indigenous population, albeit transposed to the context of late 19 th century Japan. All five films are characterized by a white protagonist, and while the Hollywood depictions focus on the structure of this protagonist struggling between colonialist ambitions and empathy with the indigenous way of life, Herzogs hero is fundamentally incapable of such empathy, and is thus condemned to failure.

Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

One of the most important narrative structures found in Hollywood depictions of colonialism is the use of romance as a vehicle for the protagonists struggle between colonialist ambitions and empathy with the indigenous. All four Hollywood films present the structure of the white protagonist engaged in a romantic relationship with a female character of the opposing culture. The New World and The Last Samurai present this structure in its simplest form, with John Smith (played by Colin Farrell) and John Rolfe (played by Christian Bale) both engaging in a romantic relationship with Pocahontas (played by Qorianka Kilcher) in the former and Nathan Algren (played by Tom Cruise) involved with the widowed Taka (played by Koyuki Kato) in the latter. Dances With Wolves and The Last of the Mohicans exhibit slight deviations from this structure. Kevin Costners character too falls for a widow, although the woman in question, Stands With A Fist (played by Mary McDonell) is the adopted white daughter of the Sioux medicine man. In The Last of the Mohicans, Nathaniel Hawkeye (played by Daniel Day-Lewis) is the adopted white son of Mohicans, and his romantic interest is Cora Munro (played by Madeleine Stowe), the daughter of an English colonel. Nevertheless, all four films employ the central tenet of a romantic relationship marked by cultural differences. This proves to be a powerful structure in bringing together contrasting civilizations. During the first sex scene between Smith and Pocahontas, the internal monologue delivered by Kilcher emphasises the concept of two becoming one, while Coras rejection of the English soldier Duncan Heyward (played by Steven Waddington) in favour of Nathaniel emphasises her preference for the indigenous values and way of life, despite Nathaniel and Duncans racial commonality. Romance is also presented as a force that is able to provide respite against the harsh impact of nature. During the waterfall scene near the end of The Last Of The Mohicans, Nathaniel and Coras silhouettes are framed between two rocks as falling water
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Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

pounds them, providing a natural metaphor for the dire situation they face. The only respite they have from both the physical and societal problems they face comes in the form of a loving embrace, itself symbolic of the union between two conflicting cultures. In addition to serving as a structure through which culture can be transcended by human universality, romance also serves as a source of conflict between the colonialists ambition and his empathy for the indigenous way of life. The mutual exclusivity between pursuing a relationship with an indigenous woman and establishing a colonialist outpost that is opposed to indigenous values and desires is the central source of conflict for Smith in The New World. This conflict brings to the fore the twofold notion of duty: that to his king and country and that to his true feelings. His decision to betray Pocahontas and fake his death is not really a decision at all, as the complex social constructs that are indispensible to the colonialist ambition dominate his carefree romance, and necessitate his abandonment in order to secure his life. Mann also explores this conflict between duty to self and duty to country. In her piece Style and the Sentimental Gaze in "The Last of the Mohicans"1 Diane Herndl notes that Nathaniels proclamation I do not call myself subject to much at all" in response to questions of his patriotism cements his place as the ultimate individual, not a subject in either sense of the word . Nathaniel represents the greatest rejection of colonialist ambition (a white man raised by Native Americans) and his romance eventually comes to fruition, while Smith, constrained by his ambition and duty must eventually suffer from the incompatibility of his romantic and colonialist desires. The centrality of romance to the protagonists struggle is only present in Hollywood films examined in this paper. Herzogs Fitzcarraldo (played by Klaus Kinski) arrives in Peru with

Herndl, Diane P. "Style and the Sentimental Gaze in "The Last of the Mohicans"" Narrative 3rd ser. 9 (2001): 259-82. Print.
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Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

his lover Molly (played by Claudia Cardinale) and the suggestion of any romantic involvement by any colonialist figure with an indigenous character is never touched upon. Fitzcarraldos struggle is simply between his grand ambition and natures resistance. A key contrast in depictions of colonialists and the indigenous in these films is how opposed to and in tune with nature the two groups are respectively. This contrasts lends itself particularly well to formal filmic elements, most notable the mise-en-scene. Fitzcarraldo is invariably clad in all-white, and throughout the film, strongly contrasts the natural backdrop, while the indigenous population wear brown clothing that seamlessly integrates them into the surroundings. This opposition of colour is present in the Hollywood films too. Edward Buscombe notes that, in The New World, the natural landscape is dominated by a luminous and vibrant green, while the English soldiers are presented in strong contrast with dirty greys and browns2. The soldiers in The Last Of The Mohicans and The Last Samurai are clad in hues of red and blue that stand out sharply against the earthy colours not only present in nature, but associated with the indigenous populations. The divide between the colonialists and the indigenous extends far beyond colour however. The opening of The New World features underwater shots of the Native Americans swimming naked, capturing their effortless union with nature. Buscombe notes that inescapably we associate the Indians with the natural world while our dominant view of the colonialists is them clump*ing+ around in their heavy armor. This union between the indigenous populations and their natural surroundings is an important factor in motivating the colonialist protagonist, who experiences natures rejection and resistance, to empathize with the opposing culture. The shots in which Smith

Buscombe, Edward. "What's New in the New World?" Film Quarterly 3rd ser. 62 (2009): 35-40. Print. 4

Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

and Pocahontas are together in nature, away from all civilization, are presented as as a kind of dream and Pocahontas herself serves as an outlet of escapism for both Smith and Rolfe, who are together representative of the colonial gaze. A key narrative structure in promoting this sense of a dreamlike state within nature is Malicks favouring of internal monologues over dialogue, which serves to cast a nostalgic spell over what is seen and heard. Monologues also play an important role in Dances With Wolves and The Last Samurai, and the structure is slightly modified through the narrative tool of a journal, which both John Dunbar and Nathan Algren use to record their thoughts. The journals serve as an intimate look into the progression of both characters from staunch representatives of the colonialist force (both characters are soldiers) to empathizers, allies and eventually integrated members of the respective indigenous cultures. While the colonial protagonists display a willingness to empathize with and learn from the opposing culture, the colonial force itself is portrayed as not only averse to mutual understanding, but fundamentally incapable of recognizing its benefits. In a particularly telling scene, two illiterate soldiers in Dances With Wolves are shown using pages from Dunbars journal as a substitute for toilet paper, exhibiting the ultimate disdain towards the concept of cross-cultural learning. If the journal serves as an outlet through which the colonial gaze slowly takes on an appreciation for the indigenous, there is also the reverse integration, in which the colonial gaze is shared with the indigenous. Shortly after the arrival of the buffalo in Dances With Wolves, Dunbar allows Kicking Bird to use his small telescope to view the herd. The frame that was exclusively available to the colonialists is now shared with the indigenous, and the transfer of the colonial gaze to the indigenous cements the bond between the two cultures. The mutual struggle of man, both colonial and indigenous, against nature is also
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Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

emphasises through the shared gaze in another scene, wherein Dunbar, Kicking Bird and Stands With A Fist are shown in an extreme long shot as they look out at the vast frontier. A similar shot is used in the final scene of The Last Of The Mohicans, in which Nathaniel, Chingachgook and Cora stand atop the hillside confronting the unending forest. In both films, these comparable scenes feature a white colonialist character (Dunbar and Cora), a Native American (Kicking Bird and Chingachgook) and a white character raised by Native Americans (Kicking Bird and Nathaniel) sharing in the universal struggle against nature through a mutual gaze. Contrastingly, in Fitzcarraldo, the division between the colonial and the indigenous gaze is enforced throughout the film, with the former clearly dominant even in scenes featuring only the indigenous population, which take on the feel of a documentary. It is this division, perpetuated by Fitzcarraldos unwillingness and inability to empathize with the local tribesmen that eventually sees his ambitions succumb to the power of nature. This agency afforded to the force of nature is of central importance in Herzogs film, in fact it has been argued that Herzog promotes nature to the role of an actor in and of itself3. If the colonial protagonist in Hollywood depictions is shown to confront nature through empathy and unity with the indigenous populace, the colonial force he comes to question is concerned only with imposing itself upon nature. A central motif in this imposition is the colonial reliance on and association with guns. Dunbar is shown sleeping with his gun and reaching for it almost instinctively when he feels uneasy. Algren is introduced to the viewer as a skilled marksman brought to Japan to instruct the imperial army in the art of shooting, while the colonial forces in The New World and The Last Of The Mohicans are

Koepnick, Lutz P. "Colonial Forestry: Sylvan Politics in Werner Herzog's Aguirre and Fitzcarraldo." New German Critique 60th ser. (1993): 133-59. Print. 6

Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

intimately associated with firearms. While gunshots do disrupt and overwhelm the diegetic sounds in the movies, and are portrayed as devastating to nature (particularly in the buffalo slaughter in Dances With Wolves), they are not entirely negatively portrayed in the films. Indeed, in Dances With Wolves, it is Dunbars provision of guns to the Sioux that allows them to defeat the Pawnee attackers. In the Last Of The Mohicans, Nathaniel shoots Duncan to end his agonizingly slow death by burning, thereby portraying the gun as a symbol of mercy against the savagery of the Native American execution. It is important to note that these positive associations with guns are only exhibited when the empathetic colonial protagonist is involved. In Fitzcarraldo, the most prominent imposition upon nature (apart from that of Fitzcarraldo himself) is the steamship used to fulfil the protagonists ambitions. Like Fitzcarraldo, the ship is entirely white, and as it is being dragged over the Amazonian hill, it cuts diagonally across the frame, billowing smoke. Despite Fitzcarraldos success in moving the ship, its eventual destruction at the hands of the rivers rapids acts as a physical representation of natures dominance over colonialist ambition. While narrative structure such as romance and inner monologue serve to further the protagonists empathetic view of the indigenous, it is the portrayal of social constructs an d participation in foreign customs that cement the acceptance of the colonialists. At the simplest level, such social interaction is depicted through the basic human senses. Fitzcarraldo and The New World in particular present scenes in which the first interaction between the colonialists and the indigenous consists of simply looking at and touching each other. Such scenes may be used to either indicate the superficial differences (the indigenous peoples sense of wonder at Fitzcarraldos blonde hair) or to highlight the existence of commonalities (Smith and the Native Americans comparing tattoos).
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Ishan Dutt

Language of Film

Fall 2011

Participation in customs, and in particular combat, serves to further emphasise universal concepts through engagement with the other. Both The Last Samurai and The New World include scenes in which the protagonist attempts to master the combat skills of the indigenous people. In the former, the scene goes beyond simply establishing unity between the protagonist and the indigenous. Sean Tierney asserts that the proof of the White characters viability as a master of an Asian martial art is inscribed by his defeating an Asian practitioner4. Indeed the comparison between Algrens ease at learning difficult samurai combat techniques and the portrayal of Japanese soldiers as incompetent with rifles establishes a dichotomy in the ability of one culture to assimilate to the customs of the other. As an extension of the sharing of customs, the choice of how language, and the barriers it can create, is portrayed in the films exhibits the degree to which the colonial gaze imposes itself upon the indigenous. In The New World, despite Smiths sense of wonder towards the indigenous way of life and the process of assimilation he undergoes for a significant portion of the film, he never endeavours to learn the native language. Instead, Pocahontas is the one who makes the effort to overcome the language barrier. Furthermore, for long spells of the film, the Native American language goes without subtitles render[ing] the Indians even more unknowable, at times simply a part of the natural world, at other times a culture which is impenetrable.5 Conversely, Dunbar in Dances With Wolves makes significant efforts to learn the Lakota language, aided by the

Tierney, Sean M. "Themes of Whiteness in Bulletproof Monk, Kill Bill, and The Last Samurai." Journal of Communication 56.3 (2006): 607-24. Print. 5 Buscombe, Edward. "What's New in the New World?" Film Quarterly 3rd ser. 62 (2009): 35-40. Print. 8

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Language of Film

Fall 2011

bilingual Stands With a Fist. His immersion into the Sioux culture is far more absolute than Smiths, as he is not burdened by the sense of duty that necessitates Smiths betrayal. Through their cinematic portrayals of colonialist clashes with the people and natural landscape of the Americas, Hollywood directors exhibit their reliance on certain narrative structures and formal elements in order to consolidate the differences and struggles of the conflicting cultures. The most notable element is the archetype of a colonialist male protagonist who faces a conflict between his colonialist ambition and his empathy and appreciation for the indigenous way of life. Although this archetype can be somewhat flexible, it almost always also relies on a cross-cultural romance as a vehicle for the eventual merging of cultures in the face of universal threats. As evidenced by the structures present in The Last Samurai, such elements can transcend historical context and be applied to the more general case of American interaction with a fundamentally different society. Furthermore, the intrinsic link between these structures and Hollywood is emphasised by the avoidance of such techniques in Herzogs Fitzcarraldo, which presents a more direct conflict between colonialist ambition and natures resistance. Nevertheless, all five films exhibit the importance of cultural empathy and the acknowledgement of universality in the face of the vast and unforgivable New World.