PROGRAMA DE INGENIERIA ELECTRICA

SISTEMAS DE GENERACIN
STEAM TURBINES

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The steam turbine generator is the primary power conversion component of the power plant. The function of the steam turbinegeneratoristoconvertthethermalenergyofthesteam from the steam generator to electrical energy. Two separate components are provided: the steam turbine to convert the thermal energy to rotating mechanical energy, and the generator to convert the mechanical energy to electrical energy. Typically, the turbine is directly coupled to the generator. Theprincipalmediumtolargesteamturbine manufacturers in the United States are General Electric and Westinghouse. The major European manufacturers who supply turbine generators to the United States are ASEA Brown Boveri, Siemens, MAN, and GEC Alsthom. The major Japanese manufacturers are Hitachi, Mitsubishi, Toshiba, and Fuji Electric.

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OPERATINGPRINCIPLES Theoperationofthesteamturbinegeneratorinvolvesthe expansion of steam through numerous stages in the turbine, causing the turbine rotor to turn the generator rotor. The thermal energy of the steam is converted to mechanical energy by expanding the steam through the turbine. The expansion of the steam occurs in two types ofstages:impulse andreaction.The impulse stagecan be compared to a water wheel on which a stream of water strikes the paddles, causing the wheel to turn. The reaction stage can be compared to a rotating sprinkler in thatthejetofwaterfromthesprinklercausesthearmsto rotate.

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Impulse turbine. This stage design is often compared with a water wheel because nozzles direct the steam that flows through highvelocity jets. These steam jets, which contain kinetic energy, flow against the moving turbine blades or buckets. This energy is converted into mechanical energy by rotatingthe shaft.In a pure impulse turbine, when the steam passes through the stationary blades, it incurs a pressure drop. There is no pressure drop in the steam as it passes throughtherotatingblades.Therefore,inanimpulseturbine, allthechangeofpressureenergyintokineticenergyoccursin the stationary blades, while the change of kinetic energy into mechanical energy takes place in the moving blades of the turbine.

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Impulse Stages. An impulse stage consists of a stationary nozzle with rotatingbucketsorbladesFig. The steam expands through the nozzle, increasing in velocity as a result of the decrease in pressure. The steam then strikes the rotating buckets and performs work on the rotating buckets, which in turn decreases the steam velocity. The impulse stages can be grouped together in velocity compound stages orpressurecompoundstages.

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Reaction turbine. This design uses the reaction force resulting from the steam accelerating through the nozzles. The nozzles are actually created by the blades, as shown in Fig. Each stage of the turbine consists of a stationary set of bladesandarowofrotatingbladesonashaft.Sincethereisa continuous drop of pressure throughout each stage, steam is admitted around the entire circumference of the blades and, therefore, the stationary blades extend around the entire circumference. Steam passes through a set of stationary blades that direct the steam against the rotating blades. As the steam passes through these rotating blades, there is a pressure drop from the entrance side to the exit side that increases the velocity of the steam and produces rotation by thereactionofthesteamontheblades.

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The velocity compound stage involves a stationary nozzle followed by several rotating and stationary buckets. The nozzle has a large pressure drop with a resulting increase in velocity. The first set of rotating buckets partially decreases thevelocityasaresultoftheworkperformedonthebuckets. The velocity compound stage can consist of the stationary nozzles and many rotating and stationary buckets; however, there usually are only two rotating bucket rows and one stationarybucketrow.Thevelocitycompoundstage typically is used as the first stage of a turbine because of its ability to withstand highpressure reductions and the resultant efficiency in quickly reducing pressure and minimizing the requirements for highpressure casings. The velocity compoundstageisalsocalledaCurtisstage.

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The Curtis stage (see Figure). After steam passes through the nozzles,itpassesthroughthefirst set of moving blades. In the first set of moving blades, work is extracted from the steam causing the velocity to drop. After passing through the moving blades, the steam then passes through the nonmoving blades. The only purpose the nonmoving blades serve is to redirect steam from the first set of moving blades to thesecondsetofmovingblades.

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TheCurtisstage On an impulse turbine, nonmoving blades do not have any effect on the pressure or the velocity of the steam passing throughthem.Afterleavingthenonmovingbladesthesteam passes through another set of moving blades. This setup of a nozzle followed by a set of moving blades, nonmoving blades, and moving blades makes up a single Curtis stage. After steam exits the nozzle there are no further pressure drops. However, across both sets of moving blades there is a velocity drop. This causes the Curtis stage to be classified as velocitycompoundedblading.

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TheRateaustage. The remaining stages of the HP turbine are a series of Rateau stages. It consists of a nozzle diaphragm followed by a row of moving blades. As steam passes through the nozzle, velocity is increased and pressure is decreased. After leaving the nozzle, steam then enters the moving blades where once againworkisextractedfromthe steam.

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TheRateaustage. As work is extracted from the steam, its velocity will once again decrease even though its pressure will not be effected. consideredpressurecompounded. Even though there is a velocity increase and a velocity decrease in each Rateau stage, the overall velocity from the inlet of the first Rateau stage to the exhaust of the final Rateau stage is not changed. In contrast, there is a pressure drop in each Rateau stage, resulting in an overall pressure dropfromtheinletofthefirstRateaustage tothe exhaustof the final Rateau stage. This overall pressure drop causes the Rateaustagingtobetobeconsideredpressurecompounded.

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Low pressure (LP) turbine: The LP turbine (see Figure 6) is located next to the HP turbine. The LP turbine is a pressure compounded, either single or dual axial flow, condensing reaction turbine.

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The major difference between the HP turbine and the LP turbine is the type of blading used. Because the steam entering the HP turbine is at a high pressure it is more efficient to use impulse blading. The steam entering the LP turbine is at a significantly lower pressure than the steam entering the HP turbine. In order to efficiently extract work out of this lower pressure steam, reaction blading is used on the LP turbine

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Reaction blading works on the same concept as a jet engine. Similarly, each moving reaction blade, is designed to act as a nozzle. As the steam passes through a reaction blade it causes the reaction blade to be propelled forward, resulting in rotation of the LP turbine rotor. Both the moving blades and the non-moving blades of a reaction turbine are designed to act like nozzles. As steam passes through the non-moving blades, no work is extracted. Pressure will decrease and velocity will increase as steam passes through these nonmoving blades. In the moving blades work is extracted. Even though the moving blades are designed to act like nozzles, velocity and pressure will decrease due to work being extracted from the steam

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Impulse Versus Reaction Comparison. Three significant differences related to the nature of the expansion process are the number of stages, the bucket design, and the stage sealingrequirements. Peak efficiency is obtained in an impulse stage with more work per stage than in a reaction stage, assuming the same bucket diameter. Relative to an impulse turbine, this results in a reaction turbine requiring either 40% more stages, 40% greater stage diameters, or some combination of the two to obtain the same peak efficiency. This contrast is more prevalent in the high and intermediatepressure turbines. The contrast is less in the lowpressure turbines where the long bucket lengths significantly increase velocity of the bucket from the root to the tip and require both impulse and reactiondesignfeaturesintheblades.

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The pressure drop in an impulse turbine occurs across the stationary nozzle, whereas the reaction turbine has pressure dropacrossthestationarynozzleandtherotatingbucket. Pressure drop across a rotating bucket causes thrust in the rotor. To minimize the thrust load to the rotor, the high and intermediatepressure sections of reaction turbines have the rotating blades mounted directly on the rotor, resulting in a small overall diameter and the need for a large number of stages. Impulse turbines do not have this thrust concern, and the buckets are mounted on disk extension of the rotor (wheels), resulting in larger overall diameters, smaller rotor diameters, and fewer stages than reaction turbines, as noted previously.

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Turbines have internal sealing systems between the rotating bucketsandthestationarycasingandbetweenthestationary nozzlesandtherotor. However, it should be noted that true impulse stages having 0%reactionandreactionstagesthatalwayshaveatleast50% reactiondonotexistinpracticalturbinedesign. Theamountofreactioninabladevariestoaccommodatethe natural variation of reaction with the blade height. Impulse stages typically have 3% to 5% reaction at the base of a rotatingbladeinordertoavoidzeroornegativereactionthat results in efficiency loss and may lead to flow separation in the rotating blade or bucket. For long reaction stage blades, the reaction percentage at the mean diametermay be as low as 40%. Thus, impulse and reaction turbines in the classical definitiondonotexistinpracticalpowerplantapplications.

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SteamExpansion
This expansion process can be examined by plotting it on a Mollier chart {hs diagram). The expansion of the steam in a steam turbine for a typical thermal power plant is shown in FigAs shown in Fig. 8 4,the steam enters the turbine at 2,414.7 psia (16.65 MPa), 1,000 F(537.8 C),and1,460.15Btu/lb(3,396.31J/g).Thesteamexpands through the highpressure turbine and exhausts the turbine to the cold reheat lines at 550 psia (3.79 MPa), 640 F (337.8 C), and 1,318.54 BtuAb (3,066.92 J/g). The steam then flows to the reheater of the steam generator where it is reheated and returned to the inlet of the intermediatepressure turbine at 500 psia (3.45 MPa), 1,000 F (537.8 C), and 1,520.74 BtuAb (3,537.24 J/g). The steamthenexpandsthroughtheintermediatepressureturbineand the lowpressure turbine, exhausting to the condenser at a pressure of 1.5 in. HgA (5.08 kPa) with an expansion line end point enthalpyof1,010.00 (2,349.26J/g).

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SteamExpansion The energy extracted from each pound of steam can be determined for each turbine section by subtracting the exhaust enthalpy conditions (hout.act) from the inlet enthalpy conditions (hin.act). Dividing this quantity by the amount of energy that would have been extracted if the process were isentropicorideal(hin.act hout.ideal) provides the efficiency of the turbine section. This is expressed by the following equation. For the turbine section shown in Fig., the highpressure section of the turbine has an efficiency of 78.65%, and the combined intermediate and lowpressure turbine sections haveanefficiencyof90.20%.

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SteamExpansion Ideally,theefficiencywouldbe: Theturbineworkperunitmasspassingthroughtheturbineis simplythedifferencebetweentheentranceenthalpyandthe lowerexitenthalpy:wt =hin hout Thepowerdeliveredbytheturbinetoanexternalload,such asanelectricalgenerator,isgivenbythefollowing: TurbinePower=mswt =ms(hin hout)[Btu/hr|kW] wherems[lbm/hr|kg/s]isthemassflowofsteamthough thepowerplant.

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TURBINETYPES Steam turbines are divided into many types with various designations. The designations may indicate the various combinations of turbine types that make up a turbine as well as the turbine size. Figure shows various representative turbinetypes.The commonlyusedturbine typesaredescribedin thefollowingsections.

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TURBINETYPES ExhaustConditions Two designations exist based on the turbine exhaust conditions: condensing and noncondensing. The condensing turbine exhausts to a condenser where the steam is condensed at subatmospheric pressure (vacuum). The low pressure turbines of a typical power plant cycle are condensing turbines in that they exhaust to a steam surface condenser or to a direct condensingaircooledcondenser.Thecondensingturbineshave large exhaust areas since the steam is expanded to low pressures,extractingasmuchoftheusefulenergyasreasonably possible prior to being exhausted. The low pressures result in a large volume of steam, requiring a large exhaust area to minimizeenergylossintheexhaustingprocess.

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TURBINETYPES Turbines are classified in two ways: (1) steam supply and exhaustconditionsand(2)casingorshaftarrangement. Steam supply and exhaust conditions. When classifying steamturbinesbytheir steam supply and exhaust conditions, they are categorized as condensing, noncondensing or backpressure, reheatcondensing, and extraction and induction. 1. Condensing turbine. This type of steam turbine exhaust steamatlessthanatmosphericpressuretoacondenser,they can be has one or more extraction points. This extraction point withdraws steam that is used to heat feedwater in the feedwaterheaters,oritcanbeusedforsomeplantprocess.

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TURBINETYPES 2. Noncondensing or backpressure turbine. This type of turbine is used primarily in process plants, where the exhaust steam pressure is controlled by a regulating station that maintains the process steam at the required pressure. These turbines shown can be designed for initial steam conditions of up to 1450 psi and930F,anditcanproduceoutputsbetween2and28MW. 3. Reheatcondensing turbine. These turbines are used primarily in electricityproducing power plants. In these units, the main steam exhausts from the highpressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler, where it is reheated with theassociatedincreaseinsteamtemperature.Thesteamisnow at a lower pressure but often at the same superheat temperatureastheinitialsteamconditions,anditisreturnedto the intermediate and/or lowpressure sections of the turbine forfurtherexpansion.

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TURBINETYPES 4. Extraction and induction turbine. This type of turbine is alsofoundprimarilyinprocessplants.Onextractionturbines, steam is taken from the turbine at various extraction points and is used as process steam. In induction turbines, low pressure steam is introduced into the unit at an intermediate stage to produce additional power. This extraction steam can beusedforfeedwaterheatingorforsomeprocess.

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Lasdosfuncionesdelosprensesysellosdelaturbinason: 1. Prevenir o reducir las fugas de vapor entre las componentes rotatoriasyestacionariasdelaturbina,silapresindelvaporesmayor quelaatmosfrica. 2. Prevenir o reducir la entrada de aire entre las componentes rotatoriasyestacionariasdelaturbina,silapresindelvaporesmenor que la atmosfrica. Las ltimas etapas de las turbinas de baja presin normalmentetienenunapresindevaco.

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Las fugas de vapor o de aire ocurren cuando el eje de la turbina se extiende ms all de las paredes de la misma hacia la atmsfera. Una prdida de energa se asocia con las fugas de vapor o entrada de aire. As, el diseo de los prenses y sellos se ha optimizado para reducir las fugas. Las turbinas de vapor modernas utilizan sellos de vapor de laberinto para restringir las fugas de vapor y de aire. Sin embargo, los prensaestopas en anillo de carbono se utiliza todava en algunas turbinas de ms antiguas.

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