Networking

SEMINAR ON INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

(June-July, 2013) NETWORKING IN UNIVERSITY (CCNA)

Submitted by HARPREET SINGH Registration Number 10807828 Under the Guidance of MR MUKESH

Discipline of CSE/IT Lovely Professional University, Phagwara June-July, 2013.

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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that I have completed my six weeks summer training at JETKING, CHANDIGARH from 5TH June 2013 to 20th July 2013 under the guidance of Mr Mukesh. I have worked with full dedication during these six weeks and my learning outcomes fulfill the requirements of training.

Name of Student : HARPREET SINGH Registration Number : 10807828

Date : 25th July 2013

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am grateful to JETKING ,CHANDIGARH for providing me the opportunity to undertake the project at their organization and for allowing me to use all their resources during the course of the project.I also take this opportunity to express my sincere, humble and deepest gratitude to _________________________ ,our project managers for assigning me the project and assisting throughout the time period of my project. I find it difficult to verbalize the deepest sense of indebtedness to my family and friends for their boundless love and support, which has always been a source of inspiration and kept my going to complete this venture.And above all I must acknowledge with complete humility, the power and the mental ability given to me by the Almighty incompletion of project as well as writing the report.

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INDEX

1 2 3 4 5

Chapter 1- Organization profile Chapter 2- Introduction to technology Chapter 3- Introduction to project Chapter 4- Snapshots Chapter 5- Bibliography

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CHAPTER 1
ORGANISATION PROFILE

Jetking is the first and only professional CISCO training institute around Haryana, Punjab, Uttaranchal, HP, J & K, Rajasthan which is providing CCIE training, led by a team of highly qualified CISCO trainers. Jetking was born when experts from the field of internetworking who had significant experience both in industry as well as educational training came together to start their own institute. It is providing CISCO training from the basic level to the advanced level, so the students who want to enter into the field of IT do not find any difficulty in acquiring and developing the required expertise. Our motto is to train students from around the world who are looking forward to excel in the field of Internetworking. It has one of the best networking equipment in this region complete in all respects. There is a tremendous dearth of qualified human resource in the internetworking service industry. Even the huge number of academic institutions offering Degrees and Diplomas do not fill this ever widening gap. Jetking has been founded to fill this wide gap by preparing an individual to best fit the industry requirements. We have a highly qualified team for our integration business, which enables us to provide to our students best of real life training in the industrial world. The leadership of Jetking possesses sound technical knowledge to ensure that Jetking trainers are masters in the internetworking technologies in general and are SMEs (Subject Matter Experts) for the courses they deliver. It is the only institute in the region which has CCIE trainers having a past experience of more than 8 years in the training industry.Jetking aims to strategize relations with global IT majors which set the trends and raise our bar to internationally acclaimed IT power house. Association with the standard setters will facilitate the students getting hands on experience and ready resources for complete all round IT training to excel in any of the large list of fields the ITindustry. They had envisaged being the leading provider of CISCO certification training in Mohali when we stared operations and we achieved this in just a few months. We now have our sights set on establishing an international presence through strategically chosen partners who can meet the standards we have set to ascertain the quality we are known & respected for.

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CHAPTER 02 FUNDAMENTALS OF A NETWORK: 2.1 What is a Network? A network, often simply referred to as a computer network, is a collection of computers and devices connected by communications channels that facilitates communications among users and allows users to share resources with other users. A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices connected to the network.

A computer network is a group of two or more computers connected to each electronically. This means that the computers can "talk" to each other and that every computer in the network can send information to the others.

In the world of computers, networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Fig 2.1: A Computer Network

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Thus networking is the practice of linking two or more computers or devices with each other. The connectivity can be wired or wireless. In a nutshell computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with the communication between computer systems or devices. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and electronics engineering since it relies heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines. 2.2 Network Classification: As a computer network is a system for communication among two or more computers. Though there are numerous ways of classifying a network, the most popular categorization is by range, functional relationship, network topology and specialized function. 2.2.1 By Range: Local area network (LAN): A local area network is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Current wired LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial cables, phone lines and power lines).

Fig 2.2: A Typical Local Area Network All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers,

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where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic networks' customer access routers. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and no need for leased telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s. Metropolitan area network (MAN): A metropolitan area network is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiberoptical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks and the Internet. A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

Fig 2.3: A Simple MAN

Wide area network (WAN): The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a large geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the intermediate nodes. A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a requirement that they lease communications circuits from telephone companies or other communications carriers. Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625 Mbps (or sometimes considerably more). Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks, and airline reservation networks. Some WANs are very extensive, spanning the globe, but most do not provide true global coverage. Organisations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as Network Service

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Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet. By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet Interchanges (sometimes called "peering points") a global communication infrastructure is formed. NSPs do not generally handle individual customer accounts (except for the major corporate customers), but instead deal with intermediate organisations whom they can charge for high capacity communications. They generally have an agreement to exchange certain volumes of data at a certain "quality of service" with other NSPs. So practically any NSP can reach any other NSP, but may require the use of one or more other NSP networks to reach the required destination. NSPs vary in terms of the transit delay, transmission rate, and connectivity offered. Since radio communications systems do not provide a physically secure connection path, WWANs typically incorporate encryption and authentication methods to make them more secure. Unfortunately some of the early GSM encryption techniques were flawed, and security experts have issued warnings that cellular communication, including WWAN, is no longer secure. UMTS (3G) encryption was developed later and has yet to be broken. Personal area network (PAN): A personal area network is a computer network used for communication among computer devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body. The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire. A wireless personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, UWB, Z-Wave and ZigBee.

Fig 2.4: Personal Area Network Virtual Private Network (VPN): A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits

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in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunnelled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. A VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point.

Fig 2.5: VPN used to interconnect 3 office and Remote users 2.2.3 By Network Topology: Bus network: A bus network topology is a network architecture in which a set of clients are connected via a shared communications line, called a bus. There are several common instances of the bus architecture, including one in the motherboard of most computers, and those in some versions of Ethernet networks. Bus networks are the simplest way to connect multiple clients, but may have problems when two clients want to transmit at the same time on the same bus. Thus systems which use bus network architectures normally have some scheme of collision handling or collision avoidance for communication on the bus, quite often using Carrier Sense Multiple Access or the presence of a bus master which controls access to the shared bus resource. A true bus network is passive the computers on the bus simply listen for a signal; they are not responsible for moving the signal along. However, many active architectures can also be described as a "bus", as they provide the same logical functions as a passive bus; for example, switched Ethernet can still be regarded as a logical network, if not a physical one. Indeed, the hardware may be abstracted away completely in

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the case of a software bus. With the dominance of switched Ethernet over passive Ethernet, passive bus networks are uncommon in wired networks. However, almost all current wireless networks can be viewed as examples of passive bus networks, with radio propagation serving as the shared passive medium. The bus topology makes the addition of new devices straightforward. The term used to describe clients is station or workstation in this type of network. Bus network topology uses a broadcast channel which means that all attached stations can hear every transmission and all stations have equal priority in using the network to transmit data.

Fig 2.9: Bus Topology Star network: Star networks are one of the most common computer network topologies. In its simplest form, a star network consists of one central switch, hub or computer, which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. Thus, the hub and leaf nodes, and the transmission lines between them, form a graph with the topology of a star. If the central node is passive, the originating node must be able to tolerate the reception of an echo of its own transmission, delayed by the two-way transmission time (i.e. to and from the central node) plus any delay generated in the central node. An active star network has an active central node that usually has the means to prevent echo-related problems. The star topology reduces the chance of network failure by connecting all of the systems to a central node. When applied to a busbased network, this central hub rebroadcasts all transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, sometimes including the originating node. All peripheral nodes may thus communicate with all others by transmitting to, and receiving from, the central node only. The failure of a transmission line linking any peripheral node to the central node will result in the isolation of that peripheral node from all others, but the rest of the systems will be unaffected. It is also designed with each node (file waver, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It is also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is

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common with twisted pair cable. However, it can also be used with coaxial cable or optical fibre cable.

Fig 2.10: Star Topology

Ring network: A ring network is a network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet. Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link. A node failure or cable break might isolate every node attached to the ring. FDDI networks overcome this vulnerability by sending data on a clockwise and a counter clockwise ring: in the event of a break data is wrapped back onto the complementary ring before it reaches the end of the cable, maintaining a path to every node along the resulting "C-Ring". 802.5 networks -- also known as IBM Token Ring networks -- avoid the weakness of a ring topology altogether: they actually use a star topology at the physical layer and a Multistation Access Unit (MAU) to imitate a ring at the data link layer. Many ring networks add a "counter-rotating ring" to form a redundant topology. The numerous advantages of ring topology include Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit. Performs better than a star topology under heavy network load. Can create much larger network using Token Ring. Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between the computers

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Fig 2.11: Ring Topology 2.3 Elements of a Network: A network element is usually defined as a manageable logical entity uniting one or more physical devices. This allows distributed devices to be managed in a unified way using one management system. Elements of the network include the entities on which the network runs upon. This includes routers, switches, hubs, bridges, network cards, repeaters, filters, modems, connecting cables. All of these network components are discussed in detail below:

Routers: A router is a device that interconnects two or more computer networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one network to another. Where multiple routers are used in a large collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange information about target system addresses, so that each router can build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router is a networking device whose software and hardware are customized to the tasks of routing and forwarding information. A router has two or more network interfaces, which may be to different physical types of network or different network standards. Each network interface is a small computer specialized to convert electric signals from one form to another. Routers connect two or more logical subnets, which do not share a common network address. The subnets in the router do not necessarily map one-to-one to the physical interfaces of the router. The term "layer 3 switching" is used with the term "routing". The term switching is generally used to refer to data forwarding between two network devices that share a common network address. This is also called layer 2 switching or LAN switching.

Switches: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that connects network segments. Switches may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport (i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is known as a multilayer switch. In switches intended for commercial use, built-in or modular interfaces make it possible to connect different types of networks, including Ethernet, Fibre Channel, ATM, ITU-T G.hn and 802.11. This connectivity can be at any of the layers mentioned. While Layer 2 functionality

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is adequate for speed-shifting within one technology, interconnecting technologies such as Ethernet and token ring are easier at Layer 3. Interconnection of different Layer 3 networks is done by routers. If there are any features that characterize "Layer-3 switches" as opposed to general-purpose routers, it tends to be that they are optimized, in larger switches, for high-density Ethernet connectivity.

Hubs: A hub, essentially an network hub is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in collision detection, forwarding a jam signal to all ports if it detects a collision. A network hub is a fairly unsophisticated broadcast device. Hubs do not manage any of the traffic that comes through them, and any packet entering any port is broadcast out on all other ports. Since every packet is being sent out through all other ports, packet collisions resultwhich greatly impedes the smooth flow of traffic. The need for hosts to be able to detect collisions limits the number of hubs and the total size of a network built using hubs (a network built using switches does not have these limitations). For 10 Mbit/s networks, up to 5 segments (4 hubs) are allowed between any two end stations. For 100 Mbit/s networks, the limit is reduced to 3 segments (2 hubs) between any two end stations, and even that is only allowed if the hubs are of the low delay variety. Some hubs have special (and generally manufacturer specific) stack ports allowing them to be combined in a way that allows more hubs than simple chaining through Ethernet cables, but even so, a large Fast Ethernet network is likely to require switches to avoid the chaining limits of hubs.

Fig 2.15: A Simple Hub Bridges: A Network Bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term Bridge formally means a device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are very much alike; a switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch is often used interchangeably with Bridge. Bridges are similar to repeaters or network hubs, devices that

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connect network segments at the physical layer; however, with bridging, traffic from one network is managed rather than simply rebroadcast to adjacent network segments. Bridges are more complex than hubs or repeaters. Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the network.

Fig 2.16: A Network Bridge Repeaters: A network repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless (Wi-Fi) local area network (LAN). In the past, wired network repeaters were used to join segments of Ethernet cable. The repeaters would amplify the data signals before sending them on to the uplinked segment, thereby countering signal decay that occurs over extended lengths of wire. Modern Ethernet networks use more sophisticated switching devices, leaving the wireless flavour of the network repeater a more popular device for use with wireless LANs (WLANs) at work and home. Another option is to setup a network repeater on the lower floor, halfway between the basement and the upstairs office. The repeater should magnify the signal enough to get good coverage in the upstairs floor. If the building is quite large, several network repeaters can be placed strategically to draw the signal where required, though this concept has its limits. Devices communicating with an intermediate network repeater will have lower performance stats than those communicating directly with the router. This becomes more of an issue as additional repeaters are used in line.

Fig 2.17: Network Repeaters Modems: A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode

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the transmitted information. The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data. Modems can be used over any means of transmitting analog signals, from driven diodes to radio. The most familiar example is a voice band modem that turns the digital data of a personal computer into analog audio signals that can be transmitted over a telephone line, and once received on the other side, a modem converts the analog data back into digital. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given time, normally measured in bits per second (bit/s, or bps). They can also be classified by Baud, the number of times the modem changes its signal state per second. A simple type of a modem is shown below in the figure:

Fig 2.18: Modem Network Cables: Communication is the process of transferring signals from one point to another and there must be some medium to transfer those signals. In computer networking and especially in the local area networking, there are certain communication mediums. This section provides the basic overview of the network cables, LAN communication system and other transmission mediums in LAN and WAN. Today many standardized communication cables and communication devices are in use the according to the needs of a computer network. LAN data communication systems there are different types of cables are used. The most common types of the LAN cables are the Ethernet UTP/STP cables. An Ethernet cable is a twisted pair cable that is consist of eight cables that are paired together to make four pairs. A RJ-45 connector is joined with both ends of the cables and one end of the connector is connected with the LAN card of the computer and the other end of the cable is connected with the hub or switch. Cable testers are used to test the performance of each cable. The preferable cable in the Ethernet networking is the 100baseT, which provides the best communication speed. UTP/STP is a standardize cable in which data is transferred which provides the transmission speed of 10/100 mbps. The most commonly used cable in the star topology is the UTP/STP cable. UTP/STP cables are same in functionality only a slight difference is that an extra protective silver coated layer surrounds the cable. UPT/STP cables are further divided into straight over and cross over cables. The most common use of

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the UTP/STP cables is the serial transmission, Ethernet, ISDN, fixed and modular interfaces in the WAN networking. Straight over cables are used to connect the computer with the hub or switch and a cross over cable is used to connect the hub with a hub or with a switch.

Fig 2.19: Types of Cables Coaxial cables are also used in the microwave frequencies but there not as popular as other cables. The most advanced form of the communication cables is the fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cables are designed for high speed data communication for the corporate offices and ISPs, backbones and in the telecommunication industry. Fiber optic cable acts as a backbone cable when it connects two ISPs with each other. In the internet communication, there is a major role of the fiber optic cable, which acts as a backbone. There is another type of cable which is called Twisted Pair cable that is used connect the consoles of the Cisco Routers and switches and RJ-45 connectors are used to at the both ends of the twisted pair cables. 2.4 Networking Models: Network models define a set of network layers and how they interact. There are several different network models depending on what organization or company started them. The most important two are:

The TCP/IP Model - This model is sometimes called the DOD model since it was designed for the department of defence. It is also called the internet model because TCP/IP is the protocol used on the internet.

OSI Network Model - The International Standards Organization (ISO) has defined a standard called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. This is a seven layer architecture listed in the next section.

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2.4.1 The TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model is a description framework for computer network protocols created in the 1970s by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense. It evolved from ARPANET, which were the world's first wide area network and a predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model or the DoD Model. The TCP/IP model, or Internet Protocol Suite, describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP provides end-toend connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.

Fig 2.20: TCP/IP Model Layers in the TCP/IP Model: The layers near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the nittygritty detail of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol. The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level: i. Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in Internet literature. This is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be

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hardware independent. As a result TCP/IP has been implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology in existence. The Data Link Layer is used to move packets between the Internet Layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These will perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, and then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium.
ii.

Network Layer: The Network Layer solves the problem of sending packets across one or more networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing. In the Internet Protocol Suite, the Internet Protocol performs two basic functions: Host addressing and identification and Packet routing. IP can carry data for a number of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

iii.

Transport Layer: The Transport Layer's responsibilities include end-to-end message transfer capabilities independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End to end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), or connectionless, implemented in User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Transport Layer can be thought of as a transport mechanism, e.g., a vehicle with the responsibility to make sure that its contents (passengers/goods) reach their destination safely and soundly, unless another protocol layer is responsible for safe delivery. The Transport Layer provides this service of connecting applications through the use of service ports. Since IP provides only a best effort delivery, the Transport Layer is the first layer of the TCP/IP stack to offer reliability. IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC). Protocols above transport, such as RPC, also can provide reliability.

iv.

Application Layer: The TCP/IP network interface layer provides network functions such as frame synchronization, media access, and error control. It is sometimes referred to as the network access layer, and is roughly equivalent to the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model's data link layer. The network interface layer's functionality is divided between the network interface carddriver combination and the low-level protocol stack driver. Application Layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as

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"black boxes" which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. As noted above, layers are not necessarily clearly defined in the Internet protocol suite. 1.4.2 OSI Reference Network Model: The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how information from a software application in one computer moves through a network medium to a software application in another computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. The model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model for intercomputer communications. The OSI model divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each layer is reasonably selfcontained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be updated without adversely affecting the other layers. The following diagram details the seven layers of the Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model:

Fig 2.21: The OSI Reference Model Showing Seven Layers Characteristics of the OSI Layers: The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories: upper layers and lower layers. The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software applications that contain a communications component. The term upper layer is sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model. The lower layers of the OSI model handle data

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transport issues. The lowest layer, the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium and is responsible for actually placing information on the medium.

Fig 2.22: Two Sets of Layers Make Up the OSI Layers

Description of the OSI Layers: I. Physical Layer: It defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, and physical connectors. Physical layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN specifications. The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium, Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively shared among multiple users, modulation and conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. II. Data Link Layer: The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link. Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol characteristics, including physical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames, and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how devices are addressed at the data link layer. Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define how devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology. Error notification alerts upperlayer protocols that a transmission error has occurred, and the sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of sequence. Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.

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III.

Network Layer: The network layer defines the network address, which differs from the MAC address. Some network layer implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP), define network addresses in a way that route selection can be determined systematically by comparing the source network address with the destination network address and applying the subnet mask. Because this layer defines the logical network layout, routers can use this layer to determine how to forward packets. Because of this, much of the design and configuration work for internetworks happens at Layer 3, the network layer.

IV.

Transport Layer: The transport layer accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for transport across the network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible for making sure that the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Flow control generally occurs at the transport layer. Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the transmitting device does not send more data than the receiving device can process. Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport layer. Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors, while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting that data be retransmitted, to resolve any errors that occur.

V.

Session Layer: The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions. Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that coordinates the name binding process; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), the DECnet Phase IV session layer protocol.

VI.

Presentation Layer: The system. Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the application layer of one system would be readable by the application layer of another common data representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes. Common data representation formats, or the use of standard image, sound, and video formats, enable the interchange of application data between different types of computer systems. Conversion schemes are used to exchange information with systems by using

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different text and data representations, such as EBCDIC and ASCII. Standard data compression schemes enable data that is compressed at the source device to be properly decompressed at the destination. Standard data encryption schemes enable data encrypted at the source device to be properly deciphered at the destination. VII. Application Layer: The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.

2.4.3 OSI and TCP/IP layering differences:

The three top layers in the OSI modelthe Application Layer, the Presentation Layer and the Session Layerare not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model where it is just the Application Layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack needs to impose monolithic architecture above the Transport Layer. For example, the Network File System (NFS) application protocol runs over the Xternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol with Session Layer functionality, Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can run safely over the best-effort User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transport. The Session Layer roughly corresponds to the Telnet virtual terminal functionality which is part of text based protocols such as the HTTP and SMTP TCP/IP model Application Layer protocols. It also corresponds to TCP and UDP port numbering, which is considered as part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model. Some functions that would have been performed by an OSI presentation layer are realized at the Internet application layer using the MIME standard, which is used in application layer protocols such as HTTP and SMTP.

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CHAPTER - 03 CISCO SYSTEMS AND ITS CERTIFICATIONS: 3.1 Historical Perspective: Cisco is an American multinational corporation that designs and sells consumer electronics, networking and communications technology and services. Headquartered in San Jose, California, Cisco has more than 65,000 employees and annual revenue of US$36.11 billion as of 2009. The stock was added to the Dow Jones Industrial Average on June 8, 2009, and is also included in the S&P 500 Index the Russell 1000 Index, NASDAQ100 Index and the Russell 1000 Growth Index. Cisco is one of the world's biggest technology corporations.

Fig: 3.1: Headquarter buildings of the Cisco Systems campus in San Jose Len Bosack and Sandy Lerner, a married couple who worked as computer operations staff members at Stanford University, later joined by Richard Troiano, founded Cisco Systems in 1984. Lerner moved on to direct computer services at Schlumberger, moving full time to Cisco in 1987. The name "Cisco" was derived from the city name, San Francisco, which is why the company's engineers insisted on using the lower case "cisco" in the early days. For Cisco's first product, Bosack adapted multiple-protocol router software originally written some years before by William Yeager, another Stanford employee who later joined Sun Microsystems. The company's first CEO was Bill Graves, who held the position from 1987 to 1988. In 1988, John Morgridge was appointed CEO, and was succeeded in 1995 by John Chambers. While Cisco was not the first company to develop and sell a router, it was one of the first to sell commercially successful routers supporting

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multiple network protocols. As the Internet Protocol (IP) became widely adopted, the importance of multi-protocol routing declined. Today, Cisco's largest routers are primarily used to deliver IP packets. In 1990, the company was listed on the NASDAQ stock exchange. Lerner was fired; as a result Bosack quit after receiving $200 million. Most of those profits were given to charities and the two later divorced.

Fig: 3.2: Earlier Logo of cisco The company filed for a U.S. trademark of "Cisco" on June 13, 1988, and it was granted on June 6, 1989. Related to the original inspiration for the Cisco name was an early registered mark of a suspension bridge that is synonymous with San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge. The company's first indicated commercial use of the stylized bridge was May 18, 1986. This classic Cisco image rendition was first used on product packaging and products. In their trademark filing to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, the mark is described as, "stylized two-tower suspension bridge similar to a script letter "U" with lines extending form the "U" to a bottom line in the manner of cables holding up a roadway." The image combines both elements of Cisco's gateway and bridge electrical products that interconnect local area networks and also a representation of the Bay Area's landmark bridge. Cisco acquired a variety of companies to bring in products and talent into the company. Several acquisitions, such as Stratacom, were the biggest deals in the industry when they occurred. During the Internet boom in 1999, the company acquired Cerent Corporation, a start-up company located in Petaluma, California, for about US$7 billion. It was the most expensive acquisition made by Cisco to date, and only the acquisition of Scientific-Atlanta has been larger. Several acquired companies have grown into $1Bn+ business units for Cisco, including LAN switching, Enterprise Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP), and home networking. Cisco acquired Linksys in 2003. In late March 2000, at the height of the dot-com boom, Cisco was the most valuable company in the world, with a market capitalization of more than US$500 billion. In July 2009, with a market cap of about US$108.03 billion, it is still one of the most valuable companies. CSCO was voted stock of the decade on NASDAQ, but no one knows when. The company was a 2002-03 recipient of the Ron Brown Award, a U.S. presidential honor to recognize companies "for the exemplary quality of their relationships with employees and communities".

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3.3 CISCO Career Certifications: Cisco Career Certifications are IT Professional certifications for Cisco Systems products. The tests are administered by Pearson VUE. There are five levels of certification: Entry, Associate, Professional, Expert, and Architect, as well as seven different paths, Routing & Switching, Design, Network Security, Service Provider, Storage Networking, Voice, and Wireless.

3.3.1 Training: Traditional educational institutions that teach Cisco skills are called "the Cisco Networking Academy". Cisco Networking Academy Students can request exam vouchers that allow them to take the retired exam for an extended period of time. Cisco courses are also offered at collegiate institutions. Training is also available from Cisco Learning Partners, Cisco 360 Learning Program for CCIE and Cisco Learning Network. 3.3.2 Re-certification All CCNA, CCDA, CCNP, CCDP, CCSP, CCVP, CCENT, CCNA Security, CCNA Voice, CCNA Wireless and CCIP certifications are valid for 3 years. All CCIE certifications and Specialist certifications are valid for 2 years. Re-certification requires re-taking the current exam previously passed, or passing a higher level examination. 3.3.3 Entry Level Certification: The lowest level of Cisco's certification is CCENT (Cisco Certified Entry Networking Technician). CCENT covers basic networking knowledge. It is appropriate for entry-level network support positions. CCENT certified people can install, manage, maintain & troubleshoot a small enterprise network, including basic network security. CCENT is the first step towards a CCNA certification. The CCENT certification is earned upon passing the Interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1 (ICND1) Exam (640-822 ICND1). 3.3.4 Associate Level Certifications: CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate) The CCNA validates the ability to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot medium-size enterprise level router and switched networks. This includes design implementation and verification

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of connections to remote sites in a WAN. New CCNA training includes basic mitigation of security threats, introduction to wireless networking and Voice. The CCNA certification is earned upon passing the ICND1 640-822 and ICND2 640-816 exams. Examinees may take the exams separately or the single 640-802 CCNA composite exam. CCDA (Cisco Certified Design Associate) CCDA certified people can design switched or routed networks of LANs, WANs, and broadband services. A CCNA certification is not required to take the CCDA exam (640-863 DESGN), but Cisco recommends being familiar with CCNA-level material, as well as BCMSNlevel knowledge of Cisco-based LANs. 3.3.5 Professional Level Certifications: Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP) certification validates knowledge and skills required to install, configure and troubleshoot converged local and wide area networks with 100 to 500 or more end devices. A valid CCNA certification is required to obtain and maintain a CCNP certification. Cisco Certified Network Professional (CCNP) The CCNP is considered proof of having the ability to work with medium-sized networks with technology such as QoS, broadband, VPNs, and security-minded features. In addition to CCNA exams, professionals must pass either four separate exams, or a composite exam along with two separate exams.

642-901 BSCI: Building Scalable Cisco Internetworks (BSCI) 642-812 BCMSN: Building Cisco Multilayer Switched Networks (BCMSN) 642-825 ISCW: Implementing Secure Converged Wide Area Networks (ISCW) 642-845 ONT: Optimizing Converged Cisco Networks (ONT)

Cisco Certified Design Professional (CCDP) The CCDP certification is an advanced network design certification validating knowledge of Cisco devices and the way to interconnect them. Active CCNA and CCDA certifications are required to earn this certification. There are two exams in common between the CCNP and CCDP

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(642-901 BSCI & 642-812 BCMSN) so that a CCNP and CCDA certified person can attain CCDP certification by passing a single test (642-873 ARCH). Required Exams:

642-901 BSCI: Building Scalable Cisco Internetworks (BSCI) or 642-902 ROUTE: Implementing Cisco IP Routing (ROUTE) 642-812 BCMSN: Building Cisco Multilayer Switched Networks (BCMSN) or 642-813 SWITCH: Implementing Cisco IP Switched Networks (SWITCH)

642-873 ARCH: Designing Cisco Network Service Architecture

Cisco Certified Internetwork Professional (CCIP) The CCIP certification is a professional certification covering the end-to-end protocols used in large scale networks. To attain this certification tests must be passed in the areas of routing, BGP, MPLS, Quality of service and the routing exam from the CCNP track (642-901 BSCI). Required Exams:

642-901 BSCI: Building Scalable Cisco Internetworks (BSCI) or 642-902 ROUTE: Implementing Cisco IP Routing 642-642 QOS: Quality of Service 642-611 MPLS: Implementing Cisco MPLS 642-661 BGP: Configuring BGP on Cisco Routers

Cisco Certified Voice Professional (CCVP) The CCVP is a certification covering all aspects of IP Telephony/VOIP networks and applications. To attain this certification, five tests must be passed in the areas of Quality of service, Cisco VoIP, IP Telephony Troubleshooting, Cisco IP Telephony, and Gateway Gatekeeper and must have a valid CCNA Voice certification. The required exams for a CCVP certification are as follows:

642-642 QoS: Quality of Service (QoS) 642-436 CVOICE: Cisco Voice over IP (CVOICE v6.0) 642-426 TUC: Troubleshooting Cisco Unified Communications Systems (TUC v1.0)

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642-446 CIPT1: Implementing Cisco Unified Communications Manager Part 1 (CIPT1 v6.0)

642-456 CIPT2: Implementing Cisco Unified Communications Manager Part 2 (CIPT2 v6.0)

3.3.6 Expert-level certifications Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert (CCIE) Cisco Certified Internetwork Expert is the highest level of professional certification that Cisco currently provides and is considered one of the hardest certifications in the world. There are five active CCIE tracks, as shown below. As of January 6, 2010 there are 20,810 people with active CCIE certifications in the world and from 2002 to 2005, it was voted as such in CertCities magazine. It has also been voted the most technically advanced IT certification by CertMag and is generally reported as the highest salaried certification in IT salary surveys. Cisco began its CCIE program in 1993 originally with a two day lab, later changing it to the one day format used today. Fewer than 3% of Cisco certified individuals attain CCIE certification, and on average will spend thousands of dollars and 18 months studying before passing. Many candidates build training-labs at home using old Cisco equipment, selling it again to other candidates after passing. Alternatively candidates may rent "rack time" online and practice lab scenarios on Cisco equipment hosted on the Internet for that purpose.

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CHAPTER 04 ROUTING: 4.1 Definition: Routing (or routeing) is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and transportation networks. Here we are concerned primarily with routing in electronic data networks using packet switching technology In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes; typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers' memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. In more narrow sense of term, Routing is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Because structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet, though bridging is still widely used within localized environment 4.3 Classification of Routing:

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Routing can be classified on the basis of route telling scheme to the router about neighbouring networks. This can be done in two ways, either we can tell the router about the neighbouring networks statically or they can be told dynamically. Hence the classification comes out to be: Static routing and dynamic routing 4.3.1 Static routing: Small networks may involve manually configured routing tables (static routing) or NonAdaptive routing, while larger networks involve complex topologies and may change rapidly, making the manual construction of routing tables unfeasible. Nevertheless, most of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) uses pre-computed routing tables, with fallback routes if the most direct route becomes blocked (see routing in the PSTN). For (static routing) or Non-Adaptive routing there is no algorithm, and is manually engineered. The advantage of this routing type is maximum computing resources are saved but are conditioned. Networks have to be prepared for disaster, by additional planning. 4.3.2 Dynamic routing: Adaptive routing or Dynamic routing attempts to solve this problem by constructing routing tables automatically, based on information carried by routing protocols, and allowing the network to act nearly autonomously in avoiding network failures and blockages. For larger networks, static routing is avoided. Examples for (Dynamic routing) or Adaptive routing algorithms are Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF). Dynamic routing dominates the Internet. However, the configuration of the routing protocols often requires a skilled touch; one should not suppose that networking technology has developed to the point of the complete automation of routing. Dynamic routing is further classified into different algorithms which can be classified on the basis of the method on which any routing protocol decides the path either on the basis of distance or on the basis of processing done by CPU. This classification is as follows: 4.3.2.1 Distance vector algorithms: Distance vector algorithms use the Bellman-Ford algorithm. This approach assigns a number, the cost, to each of the links between each node in the network. Nodes will send information from point A to point B via the path that results in the lowest total cost (i.e. the sum of the costs of the links between the nodes used). The algorithm operates in a very simple manner. When a node first starts, it only knows of its immediate neighbours, and the direct cost involved in reaching them. Each node, on a regular basis, sends to each neighbour its own current idea of the

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total cost to get to all the destinations it knows of. The neighbouring node(s) examine this information, and compare it to what they already 'know'; anything which represents an improvement on what they already have, they insert in their own routing table(s). Over time, all the nodes in the network will discover the best next hop for all destinations, and the best total cost. When one of the nodes involved goes down, those nodes which used it as their next hop for certain destinations discard those entries, and create new routing-table information. They then pass this information to all adjacent nodes, which then repeat the process. 4.3.2.2 Link-state algorithms: When applying link-state algorithms, each node uses as its fundamental data a map of the network in the form of a graph. To produce this, each node floods the entire network with information about what other nodes it can connect to, and each node then independently assembles this information into a map. Using this map, each router then independently determines the leastcost path from itself to every other node using a standard shortest paths algorithm such as Dijkstra's algorithm. The result is a tree rooted at the current node such that the path through the tree from the root to any other node is the least-cost path to that node. This tree then serves to construct the routing table, which specifies the best next hop to get from the current node to any other node. 4.4 Routing Protocol Basics: 4.4.1 Administrative distance The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information received on a router from a neighbour router. An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to 255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route. If a router receives two updates listing the same remote network, the first thing the router checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has a lower AD than the other, then the route with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table. If both advertised routes to the same network have the same AD, then routing protocol metrics will be used to find the best path to the remote network. The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table. Route source Connected Static route EIGRP RIP IGRP OSPF External EIGRP Unknown Default AD 0 1 90 120 100 110 170 255 (this route will never be used)

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Table 4.1: Administrative Distances

4.5 Major Routing Protocols: 4.5.1 RIP The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a dynamic routing protocol used in local and wide area networks. As such it is classified as an interior gateway protocol (IGP). It uses the distance-vector routing algorithm. It was first defined in RFC 1058 (1988). The protocol has since been extended several times, resulting in RIP Version 2 (RFC 2453). Both versions are still in use today, however, they are considered to have been made technically obsolete by more advanced techniques such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and the OSI protocol IS-IS. RIP has also been adapted for use in IPv6 networks, a standard known as RIPng (RIP next generation), published in RFC 2080 (1997). 4.5.1.2 Technical details RIP is a distance-vector routing protocol, which employs the hop count as a routing metric. The hold down time is 180 seconds. RIP prevents routing loops by implementing a limit on the number of hops allowed in a path from the source to a destination. The maximum number of hops allowed for RIP is 15. This hop limit, however, also limits the size of networks that RIP can support. A hop count of 16 is considered an infinite distance and used to deprecate inaccessible, inoperable, or otherwise undesirable routes in the selection process. RIP implements the split horizon, route poisoning and hold down mechanisms to prevent incorrect routing information from being propagated. These are some of the stability features of RIP. It is also possible to use the so called RIP-MTI algorithm to cope with the count to infinity problem. With its help, it's possible to detect every possible loop with a very small computation effort. Originally each RIP router transmitted full updates every 30 seconds. In the early deployments, routing tables were small enough that the traffic was not significant. As networks grew in size, however, it became evident there could be a massive traffic burst every 30 seconds, even if the routers had been initialized at random times. RIP is implemented on top of the User Datagram Protocol as its transport protocol. It is assigned the reserved port number 520.

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4.5.1.3 Versions There are three versions of the Routing Information Protocol: RIPv1, RIPv2, and RIPng. RIP version 1 The original specification of RIP, defined in RFC 1058, uses classful routing. The periodic routing updates do not carry subnet information, lacking support for variable length subnet masks (VLSM). This limitation makes it impossible to have different-sized subnets inside of the same network class. In other words, all subnets in a network class must have the same size. There is also no support for router authentication, making RIP vulnerable to various attacks. The RIP version 1 works when there is only 16 hop counts (0-15).If there is more than 16 hops between two routers it fails to send data packets to the destination address. RIP version 2 Due to the deficiencies of the original RIP specification, RIP version 2 (RIPv2) was developed in 1993 and last standardized in 1998. It included the ability to carry subnet information, thus supporting Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR). To maintain backward compatibility, the hop count limit of 15 remained. RIPv2 has facilities to fully interoperate with the earlier specification if all Must Be Zero protocol fields in the RIPv1 messages are properly specified. In addition, a compatibility switch feature allows fine-grained interoperability adjustments. In an effort to avoid unnecessary load on hosts that do not participate in routing, RIPv2 multicasts the entire routing table to all adjacent routers at the address 224.0.0.9, as opposed to RIPv1 which uses broadcast. Unicast addressing is still allowed for special applications. RIPng RIPng (RIP next generation), defined in RFC 2080, is an extension of RIPv2 for support of IPv6, the next generation Internet Protocol. The main differences between RIPv2 and RIPng are:

Support of IPv6 networking. While RIPv2 supports RIPv1 updates authentication, RIPng does not. IPv6 routers were, at the time, supposed to use IPSec for authentication.

RIPv2 allows attaching arbitrary tags to routes, RIPng does not;

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RIPv2 encodes the next-hop into each route entries; RIPng requires specific encoding of the next hop for a set of route entries.

4.5.1.4 Limitations

Without using RIP-MTI, Hop count cannot exceed 15, in case if it exceeds it will be considered invalid.

Most RIP networks are flat. There is no concept of areas or boundaries in RIP networks. Variable Length Subnet Masks were not supported by RIP version 1. Without using RIP-MTI, RIP has slow convergence and count to infinity problems.

4.5.2 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (IGP) invented by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, MTU, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all interface addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space. 4.5.2.1 Advancement: In order to address the issues of address space and other factors, Cisco created EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). EIGRP adds support for VLSM (variable length subnet mask) and adds the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) in order to improve routing and provide a loop less environment. EIGRP has completely replaced IGRP, making IGRP an obsolete routing protocol. In Cisco IOS versions 12.3 and greater, IGRP is completely unsupported. In the

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new Cisco CCNA curriculum (version 4), IGRP is mentioned only briefly, as an "obsolete protocol".

4.5.3 OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF): Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a dynamic routing protocol for use in Internet Protocol (IP) networks. Specifically, it is a link-state routing protocol and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4. The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008). 4.5.3.1 Overview OSPF is an interior gateway protocol that routes Internet Protocol (IP) packets solely within a single routing domain (autonomous system). It gathers link state information from available routers and constructs a topology map of the network. The topology determines the routing table presented to the Internet Layer which makes routing decisions based solely on the destination IP address found in IP datagrams. OSPF was designed to support variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) or Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing models. OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, very quickly and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. It computes the shortest path tree for each route using a method based on Dijkstra's algorithm, a shortest path first algorithm. The link-state information is maintained on each router as a link-state database (LSDB) which is a tree-image of the entire network topology. Identical copies of the LSDB are periodically updated through flooding on all OSPF routers. An OSPF network may be structured, or subdivided, into routing areas to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often in octet-based dot-decimal notation, familiar from IPv4 address notation. By convention, area 0 (zero) or 0.0.0.0 represents the core or backbone region of an OSPF network. The identifications of other areas may be chosen at will, often, administrators select the IP address of a main router in an area as the area's identification. Each additional area must have a direct or virtual connection to the backbone OSPF area. Such connections are maintained by an interconnecting router, known as area border router (ABR). An ABR maintains separate link state databases for each area it serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the network.

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4.5.3.3 Area types in OSPF: Backbone area The backbone area (also known as area 0 or area 0.0.0.0) forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, and inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. Note that in OSPF the term Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internet-visible autonomous system, RFC1996. Stub area A stub area is an area which does not receive route advertisements external to the autonomous system (AS) and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. This reduces the size of the routing databases for the area's internal routers. Modifications to the basic concept of stub areas exist in the not-so-stubby area (NSSA). In addition, several other proprietary variation have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the totally stubby area (TSA) and the NSSA totally stubby area, both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment. 4.5.3.4 Applications OSPF was the first widely deployed routing protocol that could converge a network in the low seconds, and guarantee loop-free paths. It has many features that allow the imposition of policies about the propagation of routes that it may be appropriate to keep local, for load sharing, and for selective route importing more than IS-IS. IS-IS, in contrast, can be tuned for lower overhead in a stable network, the sort more common in ISP than enterprise networks.

.5.5 EIGRP 4.5.5.1 Introduction

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Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol - (EIGRP) is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol loosely based on their original IGRP. EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol, with optimizations to minimize both the routing instability incurred after topology changes, as well as the use of bandwidth and processing power in the router. Routers that support EIGRP will automatically redistribute route information to IGRP neighbours by converting the 32 bit EIGRP metric to the 24 bit IGRP metric. Most of the routing optimizations are based on the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) work from SRI, which guarantees loop-free operation and provides a mechanism for fast convergence. 4.5.5.2 Basic operation The data EIGRP collects is stored in three tables:

Neighbour Table: Stores data about the neighbouring routers, i.e. those directly accessible through directly connected interfaces.

Topology Table: Confusingly named, this table does not store an overview of the complete network topology; rather, it effectively contains only the aggregation of the routing tables gathered from all directly connected neighbours. This table contains a list of destination networks in the EIGRP-routed network together with their respective metrics. Also for every destination, a successor and a feasible successor are identified and stored in the table if they exist. Every destination in the topology table can be marked either as "Passive", which is the state when the routing has stabilized and the router knows the route to the destination, or "Active" when the topology has changed and the router is in the process of (actively) updating its route to that destination.

Routing table: Stores the actual routes to all destinations; the routing table is populated from the topology table with every destination network that has its successor and optionally feasible successor identified (if unequal-cost load-balancing is enabled using the variance command). The successors and feasible successors serve as the next hop routers for these destinations.

Unlike most other distance vector protocols, EIGRP does not rely on periodic route dumps in order to maintain its topology table. Routing information is exchanged only upon the establishment of new neighbour adjacencies, after which only changes are sent.

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EIGRP also maintains a hop count for every route; however, the hop count is not used in metric calculation. It is only verified against a predefined maximum on an EIGRP router (by default it is set to 100 and can be changed to any value between 1 and 255). Routes having a hop count higher than the maximum will be advertised as unreachable by an EIGRP router.

4.5.5.4 Important Terms Used in EIGRP Successor A successor for a particular destination is a next hop router that satisfies these two conditions:

it provides the least distance to that destination it is guaranteed not to be a part of some routing loop

The first condition can be satisfied by comparing metrics from all neighbouring routers that advertise that particular destination, increasing the metrics by the cost of the link to that respective neighbour, and selecting the neighbour that yields the least total distance. The second condition can be satisfied by testing a so-called Feasibility Condition for every neighbour advertising that destination. There can be multiple successors for a destination, depending on the actual topology. Feasible Successor A feasible successor for a particular destination is a next hop router that satisfies this condition:

it is guaranteed not to be a part of some routing loop

This condition is also verified by testing the Feasibility Condition. Thus, every successor is also a feasible successor. However, in most references about EIGRP the term "feasible successor" is used to denote only those routers which provide a loop-free path but which are not successors (i.e. they do not provide the least distance). From this point of view, for a reachable destination there is always at least one successor, however, there might not be any feasible successors.

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The feasible successor effectively provides a backup route in the case that existing successors die. Also, when performing unequal-cost load-balancing (balancing the network traffic in inverse proportion to the cost of the routes), the feasible successors are used as next hops in the routing table for the load-balanced destination. By default, the total count of successors and feasible successors for a destination stored in the routing table is limited to four. This limit can be changed in the range from 1 to 6. In more recent versions of Cisco IOS (e.g. 12.4), this range is between 1 and 16.

CHAPTER - 05 SWITCHING 5.1 Layer 2 Switching: Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a number of wiring and signalling standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI networking model as well as a common addressing format and Media Access Control at the Data Link Layer. Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. The combination of the twisted pair versions of Ethernet for connecting end systems to the network, along with the fiber optic versions for site backbones, is the most widespread wired LAN technology. It has been in use from around 1980 to the present, largely replacing competing LAN standards such as token ring, FDDI, and ARCNET.

Fig 5.1: A standard 8P8C (often called RJ45) connector 5.1.1 History Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1975. Ethernet was inspired by ALOHA net which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his Ph. D. dissertation. In 1975, Xerox

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filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker and Butler Lampson as inventors. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper. Metcalfe left Xerox in 1979 to promote the use of personal computers and local area networks (LANs), forming 3Com. He convinced Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard, the so-called "DIX" standard, for "Digital/Intel/Xerox"; it specified the 10 megabits/second Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and a global 16-bit Ether type field. The first standard draft was first published on September 30, 1980 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Support of Ethernet's carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) in other standardization bodies (i.e. ECMA, IEC and ISO) was instrumental in getting past delays of the finalization of the Ethernet standard due to the difficult decision processes in the IEEE, and due to the competitive Token Ring proposal strongly supported by IBM. Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary systems, Token Ring and Token Bus. Through the first half of the 1980s, Digital's Ethernet implementation utilized a coaxial cable about the diameter of a US nickel which became known as Thick Ethernet when its successor, Thinnet Ethernet was introduced. Thinnet use a cable that was a version of the cable television cable of the era. The emphasis was on making installation of the cable easier and less costly.

5.1.5 Bridging and switching: While repeaters could isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forwarded all traffic to all Ethernet devices. These created practical limits on how many machines could communicate on an Ethernet network. Also as the entire network was one collision domain and all hosts had to be able to detect collisions anywhere on the network, the number of repeaters between the farthest nodes was limited. Finally segments joined by repeaters had to all operate at the same speed, making phased-in upgrades impossible. To alleviate these problems, bridging was created to communicate at the data link layer while isolating the physical layer. With bridging, only well-formed Ethernet packets are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated. Bridges learn where devices are, by watching MAC addresses, and do not forward packets across segments when they know the destination address is not located in that direction.

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Prior to discovery of network devices on the different segments, Ethernet bridges (and switches) work somewhat like Ethernet hubs, passing all traffic between segments. However, as the bridge discovers the addresses associated with each port, it only forwards network traffic to the necessary segments, improving overall performance. Broadcast traffic is still forwarded to all network segments. Bridges also overcame the limits on total segments between two hosts and allowed the mixing of speeds, both of which became very important with the introduction of Fast Ethernet. Early bridges examined each packet one by one using software on a CPU, and some of them were significantly slower than hubs (multi-port repeaters) at forwarding traffic, especially when handling many ports at the same time. This was in part due to the fact that the entire Ethernet packet would be read into a buffer, the destination address compared with an internal table of known MAC addresses and a decision made as to whether to drop the packet or forward it to another or all segments. When a twisted pair or fiber link segment is used and neither end is connected to a hub, full-duplex Ethernet becomes possible over that segment. In full duplex mode both devices can transmit and receive to/from each other at the same time, and there is no collision domain. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and is sometimes advertised as double the link speed (e.g. 200 Mbit/s) to account for this. However, this is misleading as performance will only double if traffic patterns are symmetrical (which in reality they rarely are). The elimination of the collision domain also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used and that segment length is not limited by the need for correct collision detection (this is most significant with some of the fiber variants of Ethernet). 5.2 Layer 3 Switching: The only difference between a layer 3 switch and router is the way the administrator creates the physical implementation. Also, traditional routers use microprocessors to make forwarding decisions, and the switch performs only hardware-based packet switching. However, some traditional routers can have other hardware functions as well in some of the higher-end models. Layer 3 switches can be placed anywhere in the network because they handle high-performance LAN traffic and can cost-effectively replace routers. Layer 3 switching is all hardware-based packet forwarding, and all packet forwarding is handled by hardware ASICs. Layer 3 switches really are no different functionally than a traditional router and perform the same functions, which are listed here

Determine paths based on logical addressing

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Run layer 3 checksums (on header only) Use Time to Live (TTL) Process and respond to any option information Update Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) managers with Management Information Base (MIB) information

Provide Security

The benefits of layer 3 switching include the following

Hardware-based packet forwarding High-performance packet switching High-speed scalability Low latency Lower per-port cost Flow accounting Security Quality of service (QoS)

5.3 Layer 4 Switching: Layer 4 switching is considered a hardware-based layer 3 switching technology that can also consider the application used (for example, Telnet or FTP). Layer 4 switching provides additional routing above layer 3 by using the port numbers found in the Transport layer header to make routing decisions. These port numbers are found in Request for Comments (RFC) 1700 and reference the upper-layer protocol, program, or application. Layer 4 information has been used to help make routing decisions for quite a while. For example, extended access lists can filter packets based on layer 4 port numbers. The largest benefit of layer 4 switching is that the network administrator can configure a layer 4 switch to prioritize data traffic by application, which means a QoS can be defined for each user. For example, a number of users can be defined as a Video group and be assigned more priority, or band-width, based on the need for video conferencing.

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5.5 Spanning Tree Protocol: The Spanning tree protocol (STP) is a link layer network protocol that ensures a loop-free topology for any bridged LAN. Thus, the basic function of STP is to prevent bridge loops and ensuing broadcast radiation. In the OSI model for computer networking, STP falls under the OSI layer-2. It is standardized as 802.1D. As the name suggests, it creates a spanning tree within a mesh network of connected layer-2 bridges (typically Ethernet switches), and disables those links that are not part of the spanning tree, leaving a single active path between any two network nodes. Spanning tree allows a network design to include spare (redundant) links to provide automatic backup paths if an active link fails, without the danger of bridge loops, or the need for manual enabling/disabling of these backup links. Bridge loops must be avoided because they result in flooding the internet network. 5.6 Virtual LAN A virtual LAN, commonly known as a VLAN, is a group of hosts with a common set of requirements that communicate as if they were attached to the same broadcast domain, regardless of their physical location. A VLAN has the same attributes as a physical LAN, but it allows for end stations to be grouped together even if they are not located on the same network switch. Network reconfiguration can be done through software instead of physically relocating devices.

5.6.1 Uses VLANs are created to provide the segmentation services traditionally provided by routers in LAN configurations. VLANs address issues such as scalability, security, and network management. Routers in VLAN topologies provide broadcast filtering, security, address summarization, and traffic flow management. By definition, switches may not bridge IP traffic between VLANs as it would violate the integrity of the VLAN broadcast domain. This is also useful if someone wants to create multiple Layer 3 networks on the same Layer 2 switch. For example, if a DHCP server (which will broadcast its presence) is plugged into a switch it will serve any host on that switch that is configured to get its IP from a DHCP server. By using VLANs you can easily split the network up so some hosts won't use that DHCP server and will obtain link-local addresses, or obtain an address from a different DHCP server. Virtual LANs are essentially Layer 2 constructs, compared with IP subnets which are Layer 3 constructs. In an

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environment employing VLANs, a one-to-one relationship often exists between VLANs and IP subnets, although it is possible to have multiple subnets on one VLAN or have one subnet spread across multiple VLANs. Virtual LANs and IP subnets provide independent Layer 2 and Layer 3 constructs that map to one another and this correspondence is useful during the network design process. By using VLANs, one can control traffic patterns and react quickly to relocations. VLANs provide the flexibility to adapt to changes in network requirements and allow for simplified administration. 5.6.3 Cisco VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) On Cisco Devices, VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocol) maintains VLAN configuration consistency across the entire network. VTP uses Layer 2 trunk frames to manage the addition, deletion, and renaming of VLANs on a network-wide basis from a centralized switch in the VTP server mode. VTP is responsible for synchronizing VLAN information within a VTP domain and reduces the need to configure the same VLAN information on each switch. VTP minimizes the possible configuration inconsistencies that arise when changes are made. These inconsistencies can result in security violations, because VLANs can cross connect when duplicate names are used. They also could become internally disconnected when they are mapped from one LAN type to another, for example, Ethernet to ATM LANE ELANs or FDDI 802.10 VLANs. VTP provides a mapping scheme that enables seamless trunking within a network employing mixed-media technologies. VTP provides the following benefits:

VLAN configuration consistency across the network Mapping scheme that allows a VLAN to be trunked over mixed media Accurate tracking and monitoring of VLANs Dynamic reporting of added VLANs across the network Plug-and-play configuration when adding new VLANs

As beneficial as VTP can be, it does have disadvantages that are normally related to the spanning tree protocol (STP) as a bridging loop propagating throughout the network can occur.

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Cisco switches run an instance of STP for each VLAN, and since VTP propagates VLANs across the campus LAN, VTP effectively creates more opportunities for a bridging loop to occur. Before creating VLANs on the switch that will be propagated via VTP, a VTP domain must first be set up. A VTP domain for a network is a set of all contiguously trunked switches with the same VTP domain name. All switches in the same management domain share their VLAN information with each other, and a switch can participate in only one VTP management domain. Switches in different domains do not share VTP information. Using VTP, each Catalyst Family Switch advertises the following on its trunk ports:

Management domain Configuration revision number Known VLANs and their specific parameters

5.6.4 Establishing VLAN memberships The two common approaches to assigning VLAN membership are as follows:

Static VLANs Dynamic VLANs

Static VLANs are also referred to as port-based VLANs. Static VLAN assignments are created by assigning ports to a VLAN. As a device enters the network, the device automatically assumes the VLAN of the port. If the user changes ports and needs access to the same VLAN, the network administrator must manually make a port-to-VLAN assignment for the new connection. Dynamic VLANs are created through the use of software. With a VLAN Management Policy Server (VMPS), an administrator can assign switch ports to VLANs dynamically based on information such as the source MAC address of the device connected to the port or the username used to log onto that device. As a device enters the network, the device queries a database for VLAN membership. See also FreeNAC which implements a VMPS server. 5.6.5 Port-based VLANs With port-based VLAN membership, the port is assigned to a specific VLAN independent of the user or system attached to the port. This means all users attached to the port should be members of the same VLAN. The network administrator typically performs the VLAN assignment.

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The port configuration is static and cannot be automatically changed to another VLAN without manual reconfiguration. As with other VLAN approaches, the packets forwarded using this method do not leak into other VLAN domains on the network. After a port has been assigned to a VLAN, the port cannot send to or receive from devices in another VLAN without the intervention of a Layer 3 device. The device that is attached to the port likely has no understanding that a VLAN exists. The device simply knows that it is a member of a subnet and that the device should be able to talk to all other members of the subnet by simply sending information to the cable segment. The switch is responsible for identifying that the information came from a specific VLAN and for ensuring that the information gets to all other members of the VLAN. The switch is further responsible for ensuring that ports in a different VLAN do not receive the information. This approach is quite simple, fast, and easy to manage.

CHAPTER - 06 WIDE AREA NETWORKS 6.1 Introduction: A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively.

6.1.1 WAN design options WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service

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providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.

CHAPTER 07

PROJECT DETAILS 7.1 About Networking in College:

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The concepts of networking used to demonstrate and configure the networks are as follows: Routing Protocols o Link State Routing Protocol ( OSPF ) o Distance Vector Routing Protocol ( RIP ) Access-Lists o Standard o Extended Domain Name System The elements of networks used in the configuration are as follows:Routers ( Cisco 2811) Switches ( Cisco 2960 24 TT )

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COLLEGE NETWORK The college network comprises an autonomous system which uses OSPF which is a Link State Routing Protocol. There are 2 routers used in the network. 10.0.0.0/8 network is used for connecting computers of department 1, thus using class A private addresses. 192.168.21.0/24 network is used for connecting computers of department 2, thus using class C private addresses. The College Server uses 22.0.0.0/8 network Network Cables o Serial cables o Straight Ethernet Cables o Crossover Ethernet Cables Servers OSPF NETWORK TOPOLOGY

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RIP NETWORK TOPOLOGY

ROUTES R4#show ip route R 10.0.0.0/8 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:29, Serial0/1/1

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[120/2] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0 R 20.0.0.0/8 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:29, Serial0/1/1 [120/2] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0 R 22.0.0.0/8 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:29, Serial0/1/1 [120/2] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0 R R C C R R 23.0.0.0/8 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:24, Serial0/1/1 30.0.0.0/8 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:24, Serial0/1/1 34.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Serial0/1/1 45.0.0.0/8 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0 56.0.0.0/8 [120/1] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0 192.168.21.0/24 [120/2] via 34.0.0.1, 00:00:29, Serial0/1/1 [120/2] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0 R* 0.0.0.0/0 [120/1] via 45.0.0.1, 00:00:00, Serial0/0/0

The TCP/IP configuration of computers:-

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Different parts of an Access List Deny Specifies the permission whether to permit/deny the access Tcp This specifies the type of traffic we want to permit/deny The type of traffic we can control is:IP Represents all the traffic flowing on the internet. TCP Represents only the packets which use Transmission Control Protocol UDP - Represents only the packets which use the User Datagram Protocol ICMP - Represents only the packets which use Internet Control Message Protocol Host 192.168.21.50 This section specifies the source machine we want to control access to Host 60.0.0.60 - This section specifies the destination machine we want to control access to Instead, if we want to control the access to all the machines, we do it by writing any like:Permit ip any any

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BIBLIOGRAPHY: [1] Muthukrishnan, A, On Incorporating Payout Adaption and Loss Recovery in VoIP Applications, Department of ECSE, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, New York. [2] Schulzrinne,H and Rosenburg,J. Internet Telephony: architecture and protocols an IETF perspective Computer Networks, vol. 31, Feb 1999. Pp237-255. [3] Vocal Installation Guide, available from Vovida Networks, Inc., www.vovida.org [4] Schulzrinne,H and Rosenburg,J. The Session Initiation Protocol: Providing

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Advanced Telephony Services across the Internet Bell Labs Technical Journal, October-December 1998. Pp144-159 [5] www.tutorial-web.com/asp/database/ [6] www.101-asp-tutorials.com [7] www.google.com [8] Todd, Lammle, CCNA: Cisco Certified Network Associate Study Guide, Sixth Edition, Exam 640-802.