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Journal of Divorce & Remarriage

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Perceived Parental Marital Satisfaction and Divorce

Avidan Milevsky
a a

Department of Psychology, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, Kutztown, PA, 19530, USA Version of record first published: 23 Sep 2008.

To cite this article: Avidan Milevsky (2004): Perceived Parental Marital Satisfaction and Divorce, Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 41:1-2, 115-128 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J087v41n01_07

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Perceived Parental Marital Satisfaction and Divorce: Effects on Sibling Relations in Emerging Adults
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Avidan Milevsky

ABSTRACT. The current study is an examination of how parental

marital satisfaction and divorce relates to sibling relationships in emerging adulthood. Participants were 116 men and 189 women between the ages of 19 and 33. Participants were administered questionnaires regarding their parental marital satisfaction and divorce, sibling closeness, sibling communication, and sibling support. Results indicated that individuals from non-divorced families were closer to their siblings, communicated more with their siblings, and received greater levels of support from their siblings compared with individuals from divorced families. Additionally, perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to be a significant predictor of total sibling communication, closeness, and support. Finally, perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between parental
Avidan Milevsky, PhD, is Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania, Kutztown, PA 19530 (E-mail: Milevsky@ kutztown.edu). The author would like to thank Mary Levitt and Anita Meehan for their comments on the manuscript, and Amy Ruppe, Melissa Leh, Kylie Smoot, Abby Siverling, Amanda Goldenberg, Julie Perhacs, Kathy Spess, Andrea Offenbacher, Christine Bailey, and Carol Towers for their assistance with data collection. Portions of this paper will be presented at the meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Baltimore, March 2004. Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, Vol. 41(1/2) 2004 http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JDR 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J087v41n01_07

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divorce and total sibling support and between parental divorce and total sibling closeness. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@ haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]

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KEYWORDS. Children of divorce, sibling relationships, emerging adults, marital satisfaction, divorce

In recent years, there has been a steady increase in research relating to the outcomes associated with parental divorce. Parental divorce has been shown to have detrimental consequences for children in multiple arenas. When compared with children from non-divorced families, children of divorced families are more likely to have increased aggression and hostility, to be less socially responsive, to have fewer close intimate relationships, to have academic difficulties, to drop out of school, to engage in sexual activity at a younger age, to abuse drugs, to associate with antisocial peer groups, to have lower self-esteem and higher degrees of depression and anxiety, and to have poorer physical health (Amato & Keith, 1991; Hetherington, 1989; Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980). Although an extensive body of research has been dedicated to examining the negative effects of divorce on the lives of children, there have been a growing number of studies examining the long-term effects of divorce by examining the consequences of parental divorce on adults. Several studies have examined the effects of parental divorce on adult socioeconomic status. Adult children of divorced parents are more likely than adult children of non-divorced parents to achieve less education, to have lower occupational status, and lower income (Powell & Parcel, 1997; Ross & Mirowsky, 1999). Other studies examined the negative socioemotional outcomes associated with parental divorce. Adult children of divorce are more likely to marry young, more likely to divorce, and more likely to report instability and conflict in their marriage compared to adult children of non-divorced families (Amato, 1996; Ross & Mirowsky, 1999). One of the many outcomes associated with parental divorce that has not received much theoretical or empirical attention is the influence of parental divorce on sibling relationships. Although many aspects of sibling relations have only recently been receiving attention in empirical studies, it is rather evident that siblings play a major role in peoples lives.

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Investigations examining sibling relationships reveal that children who have a positive relationship with a sibling show greater emotional understanding (Dunn, Brown, Slomkowski, Telsa, & Youngblade, 1991), greater cognitive abilities (Howe & Ross, 1990; Smith, 1993), greater social understanding (Bryant & Crockenberg, 1980; Dunn & Munn, 1986), greater moral sensibility (Dunn, Brown, & Maguire, 1995), and better psychological adjustment (Dunn, Slomkowski, Beardsall, & Rende, 1994; Milevsky, 2003). Studies assessing sibling relations in adulthood have reported similar findings (Stocker, Lanthier, & Furman, 1997). Research assessing the variables influencing sibling relationships has focused primarily on structural variables such as birth order, sex, family size, and age difference between the siblings (Pulakos, 1990). However, in recent years researchers have been more interested in understanding process-oriented factors that may influence sibling relationships, such as parental divorce. THEORETICAL FOUNDATION The theoretical work on the issue has proposed two distinct, and seemingly contradictory, hypotheses about the relationship between parental divorce and sibling relationship quality. The buffering hypothesis perspective suggests that it would be adaptive for an individual to seek out additional sources of support to assist in the coping process in the event of stressful occurrences (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Thus, a child may develop a close sibling bond in the event of familial disharmony and parental divorce to buffer against the stressful event. In a review of theoretical contributions to the study of sibling relations, Bank and Kahn (1982) reported several qualitative analyses which examined specific sibling relationships. In many of the examples, they detailed the absence of parental emotional or psychological support contributed to a strong sibling bond. The authors explained that when siblings grow up in a disharmonious family, the children are forced to form their own supportive social structure. On the other hand, based on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), it would be expected that a child growing up in a disharmonious home and, thus, lacking a positive model for interpersonal and social skills would develop difficulties in maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships. These social problems would be manifested in the childs interactions with all social beings, including siblings. Several empirical studies assessing the interpersonal habits of children from divorced families support this theoretical proposition (Amato & Keith, 1991; Beaty, 1995; Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980).

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RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF PARENTAL MARITAL HOSTILITY AND DIVORCE Most of the limited work on the link between parental marital disharmony, divorce, and sibling relations has primarily focused on childrens sibling relationships. In a longitudinal study assessing the effects of divorce on childrens adjustment, Hetherington (1989) found that boys from divorced families were more aggressive, avoidant, rivalrous, and less warm and involved with their siblings compared to boys from non-divorced families. MacKinnon (1989) reported that siblings from divorced families containing an older brother were more hostile and less compliant than siblings from non-divorced families containing an older brother. Furthermore, studies have suggested that marital conflict may increase hostility between siblings in childhood (Dunn, 1992; Erel, Margoline, & John, 1998; Stocker & Youngblade, 1999). On the contrary, in accordance with the buffering hypothesis perspective outlined earlier, several other studies have found that siblings from divorced families provide emotional and psychological support to each other (Brubaker, 1985; Nichols, 1986; Scott, 1983). Due to the structural and functional differences between the sibling relationships of children and the sibling relationships of adults, research on the effects of divorce on children may not provide sufficient insight into the processes associated with the effects of parental divorce on adult sibling relationships. Hence, it is important to examine the long-term influence of marital divorce on adult sibling relationship quality (Riggio, 2001). More specifically, current research on young adulthood has focused on a distinct and separate group of adults, defined as the emerging adult population, when assessing individuals in the postsecondary school years. Arnett (2000) suggests that the emerging adult population must be viewed apart from the adolescent and adult populations due to the dynamic and unpredictable quality of this age period. The autonomy, exploration, and changing roles of the postsecondary school years entail many unique characteristics that must be examined in all aspects of scientific inquiry. Hence, empirical investigations on divorce and sibling relations should parallel the emphasis given to the emerging adult population in other areas of socio-emotional study. In one of the only studies examining parental divorce and the sibling relationships of emerging adults, Riggio (2001) administered several questionnaires to a sample of 264 young adults. To assess sibling relations, the author administered the Lifespan Sibling Relationship Scale (Riggio, 2000). The author found that young adults who experienced

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parental divorce during late childhood experienced less positive feelings toward their most important sibling compared to young adults from non-divorced families and compared to young adults who experienced parental divorce during early childhood. In a similar study assessing the influence of parental marital conflict and divorce on an individuals relationship with a specific sibling, Panish and Sticker (2001) reported that both parental marital conflict and divorce were associated with sibling conflict in young adults. However, the authors continued on to report that compared to family intactness, martial conflict was found to be a stronger predictor of sibling conflict. In sum, although there seems to be evidence that parental divorce and hostility may influence sibling relationships, most of the work has been done on childhood sibling relationships. The few studies examining these processes in adult samples were primarily focused on the relationship with a specific sibling and not with the overall sibling network. In addition, while parental hostility has been shown to influence the sibling interactions of children and adults, much less in known about the influence of perceived parental martial satisfaction on sibling relationships in emerging adults. PRESENT STUDY The first goal of the present study was to assess the effects of parental divorce on the overall sibling relationships of emerging adults. Participants reported on their overall sibling closeness, communication, and support. Additionally, participants were asked to report on their relationship with their closest and most important sibling. In accordance with Riggio (2001), analyses examined not only differences between divorced and non-divorced adult children, but also differences between those who experienced parental divorce during childhood and those who experienced parental divorce in late childhood or adolescence. The second intent of the present study was to examine the effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction on sibling relationships. Studies have suggested that marital conflict may increase hostility between siblings in childhood (Dunn, 1992; Erel, Margoline, & John, 1998; Stocker & Youngblade, 1999). Additionally, martial conflict has been found to be a stronger predictor of conflict with a specific sibling than family intactness (Panish & Sticker, 2001). However, less is known about the effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction on the overall sibling relationships of emerging adults.

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Finally, the third purpose of the present study was to examine the mediating effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction on the relationship between parental divorce and sibling relationships. More specifically, the current study attempted to determine whether the variability found in sibling relationships is a function of parental divorce or whether the different relationship patterns can be attributed to perceived parental marital satisfaction.
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METHOD Sample Data were collected using two procedures, 247 participants were recruited from undergraduate and graduate psychology and education classes in a northeastern rural state university, and 58 noncollege students were recruited through a snowball sampling technique; that is, researchers asked people they knew to fill out the survey, who in turn asked people they knew, thus creating a snowball effect. The participants in the total sample were 305 young adults (116 men and 189 women) between the ages of 19 and 33 (M = 22.41, SD = 3.25). By ethnicity, the sample consisted of 10 African-Americans, 5 Hispanic-Americans, 269 European-Americans, 3 Asian-Americans and 1 with no ethnicity data. Procedures The college sample participants were administered questionnaires in small groups and received extra credit for taking part in the study. The noncollege sample participants received the questionnaire directly from the researchers and returned the completed questionnaire in a sealed envelope. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Measures Measures included indices of general sibling closeness, communication, and support in addition to measures of specific sibling relations. Additionally, participants were asked about their parental martial status and parental martial satisfaction. If their parents were divorced, they were

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asked to indicate their age at the time of their parents divorce. The following specific measures were analyzed. General Sibling Closeness. Overall sibling closeness was measured by asking the participants to indicate, in reference to each of their siblings, How close do you feel to this sibling? (1) extremely close, (2) close, (3) somewhat close, (4) not close, or (5) not at all close? The total sibling closeness score was obtained by averaging the scores of all siblings. General Sibling Communication. Overall sibling communication was measured by asking the participants to indicate, in reference to each of their siblings, How often do you communicate with this sibling in person, by phone, or e-mail? (1) every day, (2) once a week, (3) once a month, (4) a few times a year, or (5) once a year or less? The total sibling communication score was obtained by averaging the scores of all siblings. General Sibling Support. Overall sibling support was assessed using the support questions from the adolescent version of the Convoy Mapping Procedure (Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993). Specifically, they were asked to indicate to what extent do they agree or disagree with the following statements regarding their overall relationship with their sibling: I confide in my siblings about things that are important to me, They reassure me when something bothers me or I am not sure about something, They would make sure I am cared for if I were ill, They like to be with me and do enjoyable things with me, They would give me immediate help if I needed it, and They make me feel special or good about myself. Participants responded on a five-point scale with higher scores indicating higher levels of support. Total sibling support was obtained by averaging the scores of all six support functions. Alpha reliability for sibling support was .92. Sibling Relationships. The warmth and conflict subscales of the short version Adult Sibling Relationship Questionnaire (ASRQ) (Lanthier & Stocker, 1992) was used to assess specific sibling relationships. Participants were asked to respond to the items on the scale based on their relationship with their closest or most important sibling. A sample item for the warmth subscale is How much do you know about this sibling? and a sample item for the conflict subscale is How much do you put this sibling down? Participants were asked to respond on a five-point scale with higher scores indicating higher levels of warmth or conflict. Alpha reliabilities were .95 for the warmth subscale and .91 for the conflict subscale.

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RESULTS Parental Divorce and Sibling Relationships Sibling relationship differences between individuals with married parents (n = 217), those who had experienced parental divorce in early childhood (n = 37), and those who had experienced parental divorce after the early childhood years (n = 35) were analyzed using a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with gender and parental marital status as the independent variables and sibling closeness, communication, support, and the ASRQ warmth and conflict scores as the dependent variables. The MANOVA indicated a significant main effect for parental marital status, F (10,566) = 4.59, p < .01. Univariate tests indicated that the three groups differed significantly in sibling closeness, F (2,286) = 9.49, p < .01, sibling communication, F (2,286) = 18.93, p < .01, and sibling support, F (2,286) = 9.35, p < .01. The MANOVA was followed with Tukey LSD post hoc comparisons yielding a significant difference in sibling closeness at the .01 significance level between those with married parents (M = 3.93, SD = .82) and those who had experienced parental divorce in early childhood or after the early childhood years (M = 3.39, SD = .84, and M = 3.51, SD = .85, respectively). Additionally, the post hoc comparison yielded a significant difference in sibling communication at the .01 significance level between those with married parents (M = 4.00, SD = .70) and those who had experienced parental divorce in early childhood or after the early childhood years (M = 3.34, SD = .83, and M = 3.46, SD = .86, respectively). The post hoc comparison also yielded a significant difference in sibling support at the .01 significance level between those with married parents (M = 4.08, SD = .84) and those who had experienced parental divorce in early childhood or after the early childhood years (M = 3.56, SD = .69, and M = 3.62, SD = .87, respectively). Intercorrelations of Study Variables Intercorrelations of the predictor and outcome variables and correlations of the predictor variables with the sibling relationship criteria are presented in Table 1. As expected, parental divorce was correlated with perceived parental marital satisfaction. Sibling support, closeness, communication, and the ASRQ warmth subscale were all intercorrelated. A correlation of parental divorce with the sibling relationship criteria indicated that individuals from non-divorced families reported higher levels

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of sibling support, closeness, and communication. Perceived parental marital satisfaction was positively correlated with sibling support, closeness, communication, and the ASRQ warmth subscale. Parental Divorce, Marital Satisfaction and Sibling Relationships To determine the contribution of perceived parental marital satisfaction in predicting sibling relationships, a simple regression was performed. Perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to be a significant predictor of total sibling communication, F (1,282) = 36.03, p < .01, accounting for 11% of the variance, total sibling closeness, F (1,282) = 31.54, p < .01, accounting for 10% of the variance, total sibling support, F (1,282) = 40.90, p < .01, accounting for 13% of the variance, and the ASRQ warmth subscale, F (1,282) = 11.15, p < .01, accounting for 4% of the variance. Finally, hierarchical regression analyses were used to determine the mediating effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction on the relationship between parental divorce and sibling relationships. For the analyses, family intactness was entered into block 1 of the regression, followed by the parental marital satisfaction variable in block 2. The results of the regression analyses are presented in Table 2. Mediating effects were determined, using the method detailed by Baron and Kenny (1986), by assessing the contribution of family intactness after perceived parental martial satisfaction was entered into the equation. If after parental marital satisfaction is entered into the regression parental
TABLE 1. Intercorrelations of the Predictor and Outcome Variables and Correlations of the Predictor Variables with the Sibling Relationship Criteria
Measures Measures 1. Parental Divorce 2. Martial Satisfaction 3. Sibling Support 4. Sibling Closeness 5. Sibling Communication 6. ASRQ Warmth 7. ASRQ Conflict
*p < .05 ** p < .01

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2 .57** --

3 .24** .36** --

4 .24** .32** .61** --

5 .34** .34** .42** .53** --

6 .08 .20** .57** .60** .32** --

7 .06 .06 .15** .08 .00 .12* --

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divorce is no longer found to be significantly related to the outcome variable, a mediating effect can be assumed. Perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between parental divorce and total sibling support (t = .64, p = .52) as well as the relationship between parental divorce and total sibling closeness (t = 1.04, p = .30).
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DISCUSSION The goals of the current study were (a) to assess whether parental divorce relates to sibling relationships in emerging adulthood, (b) to determine whether perceived parental marital satisfaction relates to sibling relationships, and (c) to examine the mediating effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction on the relationship between parental divorce and sibling relationships. Overall, the findings of the current study involving emerging adults are consistent with previous work on the effects of marital disharmony on childrens sibling relations (Hetherington, 1989; MacKinnon, 1989). Emerging adults from divorced families perceive their overall sibling relationships as being less close and less supportive than the sibling relationships of emerging adults from intact families. Furthermore, the findings suggest that emerging adults from divorced families communicate with their siblings less often than emerging adults from intact families. These findings support the social learning theorys view on divorce
TABLE 2. Path Analysis of Parental Divorce, Parental Marital Satisfaction and Sibling Relationship Measures
Criteria Total Sibling Communication Stages/Predictors Beta .34* r2 .12 Total Sibling Support Beta .24* r2 .06 Total Sibling Closeness Beta .24* r2 .06

Stage 1 Analysis Parental Divorce Stage 2 Analysis Parental Divorce

Marital Satisfaction

.22* .21*

.15 .15

.04 .34*

< .01 .13

.07 .29*

< .01 .12

* p < .01

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and sibling relations. Social learning theory proposes that a child growing up in a disharmonious home, lacking a positive model for interpersonal and social skills, would develop difficulties in maintaining healthy interpersonal relationships, including sibling relationships (Bandura, 1977). In contrast with Riggio (2001), the current study did not yield any differences in overall sibling relationships based on the age at which the parental divorce occurred. Riggio (2001) suggested that individuals who experience parental divorce at an older age have been exposed to negative parental interactions for a longer period of time compared to those who experience parental divorce at a younger age. Thus, the prolonged exposure to negative parental interactions may impact the sibling relationships of young adults negatively. Additionally, Riggio (2001) proposed that young adults who experience parental divorce at a younger age have had ample time to recover from the divorce and, hence, would have more positive sibling interactions. As the effects of divorce on sibling relationships in emerging adults has not received much empirical attention, conclusions regarding this issue are necessarily speculative. Further research is necessary in order to gain some insight into the variability of sibling relationships as a function of developmental stage and parental divorce. In relation to the second goal of the current study, perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to be a significant predictor of total sibling communication, total sibling closeness, total sibling support, and specific sibling warmth in emerging adulthood. Although there has not been extensive research dealing with the connection between perceived parental martial satisfaction and sibling relations in adulthood, the current findings are somewhat consistent with research on marital hostility and sibling relationships in childhood and adulthood. Several studies have suggested that marital hostility may increase conflict between siblings in childhood (Dunn, 1992; Erel, Margoline, & John, 1998; Stocker & Youngblade, 1999) and adulthood (Panish & Sticker, 2001). This interconnection between parental and sibling relationships is further evidence for the need to examine specific family relationships in the context of the entire family system. According to the family systems theory (Cicirelli, 1991), familial relationships can be categorized into three subsystems: the spousal subsystem, the parent-child subsystem and the sibling subsystem, with each of the subsystems influencing the other. The dynamic nature of social relationships and the importance of assessing these integrated processes has been the focus of several recent theoretical and empirical investigations (Levitt et al., 1993; Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1994; Magnusson & Stattin, 1998). As Magnusson

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(1998) has acknowledged, The developmental processes of an individual cannot be understood by studying single variables in isolation from other, simultaneously operating variables (p. 38). The importance of examining parental relationship variables when assessing divorce and sibling relations is further supported by the mediating effects of perceived parental marital satisfaction found in the current study. Mediating effects were determined by assessing the contribution of family intactness after perceived parental martial satisfaction was entered into the regression equation. Family intactness was not found to be significantly related to sibling support and closeness once perceived parental marital satisfaction was accounted for. Similarly, Panish and Sticker (2001) found that marital conflict was more important in predicting sibling conflict than family intactness. The importance of assessing the mediators of divorce effects has been highlighted in several recent studies (Amato, 2000; Hetherington, Bridges, & Insabella, 1998). However, most studies emphasize postdivorce variables as possible mediators of the effects of divorce (Goodman, 1993; Kitson, 1992; Masheter, 1991). As opposed to the narrow focus of examining the effects of divorce, it is becoming evident that future studies should examine pre- and postdivorce mechanisms through which divorce may influence an individuals outcome. There are some limitations to the present study. First, in order to capture the true nature of sibling relationships, it would be more appropriate to study both partners of the sibling dyad. Relying on the responses of only one member of the dyad does not supply information about the interdependence of the sibling relationship (Riggio, 2001). Additionally, although the present study used a relatively large sample of participants, the present results may not generalize beyond the homogeneous sample included in the study. Previous studies have reported ethnic differences in divorce adjustment (Kitson, 1992) and in sibling relationships (Avioli, 1989; Hays & Mindel, 1973). Additional work is needed using a sample drawn from a more urban, multiethnic community to assess the generality of the influence of parental divorce and marital satisfaction on sibling relationships. In sum, the results indicate that parental divorce and perceived parental marital satisfaction is related to sibling relations in emerging adulthood. In addition, the study highlights the importance of examining the mechanisms through which divorce may influence an individuals functioning. In general, the current study contributes to an important area of inquiry by identifying significant but complex associations between parental relationships and sibling interactions within the emerging adult population.

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