Chapter 1 Functions and Limits

1.1. Introduction Calculus is concerned with change and motion; it deals with quantities that approach other quantities. The origins of calculus go back at least 2500 years to the ancient Greeks, who found areas using the method of exhaustion. They knew how to find the area of any polygon by dividing it into triangles as in Figure 1 and adding the areas of these triangles. It is a much more difficult problem to find the area of a curved figure. The Greek method of exhaustion was to inscribe polygons in the figure and circumscribe polygons about the figure and then let the number of sides of the polygons increase. Figure 2 illustrates this process for the special case of a circle with inscribed regular polygons.

There are two basic applications of calculus: one is called differential calculus and the other integral calculus. The simplest introduction to differential calculus involves an explicit series of numbers. Given the series (42, 43, 3, 18, 34), the differential of this series would be (1, 40, 15, 16). The new series is derived from the difference of successive numbers which gives rise to its name "differential". Rarely, if ever, are differentials used on an explicit series of numbers as done here. Instead, they are derived from a series of numbers defined by a continuous function which are described later. 1.2. Function - The formal definition of a function states that a function is actually a rule that associates elements of one set called the domain of the function, with the elements of another set called the range of the function. In symbol; y = f(x) read as y is a function of x

For each value we select from the domain of the function, there exists a corresponding element in the range of the function. 1.3. Two kinds of quantities a) Variable Quantity a quantity whose value changes in a given problem. Types: a) Independent variable (domain / argument) a variable to which values may be assigned at pleasure within limits depending on the particular problem. b) Dependent variable (range / function) a variable whose value is determined when the value of the independent variable is given. b) Constant Quantity a quantity whose value does not change in a given problem. Types: a) Numerical or absolute constants they retain the same value in all problems. b) Arbitrary constants are constants to which numerical values may be assigned, and they retain these assigned values through out the investigation. 1.4. Ways of Specifying a Function a) By an equation form: Ex: y = 2x + 3 b) By a table Ex: x 1 2 3 c) By a graphical form y 5 7 9

d. By a set of ordered pairs: Ex: (1, 5), (2, 7), (3, 9) 1.5. Types of functions a) Single valued function: y = f(x) ex. y= 2x + 1 b) Double valued function: y2 = f(x) ex. y2 = 2x + 1

c) Many valued function: yn = f(x) ex. y n = 2x + 1 Note: If f(x) is a given function of x and it is desired to find the value of this function when x assumes a certain value, then, substitute that value for x in the given function of x.