C H A P T E R T H I RT E E N

Controlling Prime Movers

rime mover control systems regulate input of energy to the prime mover and the conversion of this energy into power in a safe and efficient manner. Regardless of whether the prime mover drives a generator to produce electric power or drives a mechanical load, such as a compressor or pump, energy flows into the prime mover and the prime mover converts it into developed power (PD) and developed torque (TD). The driven load exerts a load power (PL) and load torque (TL) in the opposite direction of the developed power. Torque is a measure of force of rotation and power, which is the rate of doing work, is equal to torque times the speed of rotation. Therefore, if speed is held constant, torque and power are proportional. There are two general modes of prime mover operation: Steady state refers to the condition in which PD and TD match PL and TL. This could be a no load, full load, or an intermediate-load condition. Under steady-state conditions, no acceleration or change in speed occurs. Transient refers to the condition in which PD and TD do not match PL and TL. When, for example, the load (TL) is suddenly decreased, TD will momentarily remain unchanged. The excess TD immediately produces an acceleration of the prime mover and the speed increases. The essential role of prime mover control is to continue to operate the prime mover safely in a steady-state mode, while responding to the transient situation as fast as possible with a minimum of instability. An isochronous control system holds rotational speed constant under varying load conditions. When a control system allows a change in operating speed that is inversely proportional to a given change in load, it is said to be a droop system.

In all governing systems, at least two components are required: a speed sensing element and a device to operate the energy input valve. In the simplest governors, these may be one and the same. However, where considerable force is required, an additional device, i.e., a servo motor, is required to change the position of the energy-input valve. Control valve characteristics and rangeability may vary, for example, from 100 to 20% (5:1 turn down ratio), while the pressure drop in the system rises from 5 to 80%. The rangeability can be expressed in the form of an equation as: R = (Q1/Q2)(P2/P1)0.5 (13-1)

Where: R = Rangeability Q1 = Valve initial flow, percentage of total flow Q2 = Valve final flow, percentage of total flow P1 = Initial pressure drop across valve, percentage of total pressure drop P2 = Percentage of final pressure drop across valve In this case, the rangeability would be calculated as: R = (100/20)(80/5)0.5 = 20 Three characteristics in valve design and manufacturing are: 1. Linear Design: Typical flow rangeability is between 12-1, equal stem movement for equal flow change. 2. Equal-Percentage: Typical flow rangeability of 30-1 to 50-1, equal stem movement for equal percentage flow. 3. On-Off: Linear for first 25% of travel and on/off after that point, same as linear up to on/off range. Governors sense actual speed, compare it to a reference setting, and generate an error or difference signal. Its output adjusts the prime mover energy input until the actual speed returns to the required speed, at which PD and TD are again equal to PL and TL. The basic process involved with speed control with a transient in a closedloop system can be summarized as follows: 1. Change in TL (transient), causing

CONTROL GOVERNORS
A governor is a device that controls the speed, or some other parameter, of a prime mover. All prime movers are rotating machines that derive their power from the flow of some energy input, such as fuel or steam. Most commonly, prime mover speed is controlled by varying the flow of the energy input.

Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

2. Change in speed, which is sensed by the governor, causing 3. Change in governor output, causing 4. Change in energy input valve position, causing 5. Change in TD, causing 6. Return to steady state at governed speed This is a closed control loop, which is central to all

Fig. 13-1 Closed-Loop Control. Source: Woodward Governor

prime mover control systems. Figure 13-1 illustrates closed-loop control. Governors may feature mechanical or electronic designs. In mechanical governors, shaft speed is sensed by a fly-ball mechanism that exerts a force proportional to the rotational speed of the prime mover. Hydraulic relays provide input to the control valves. Figure 13-2 shows a governor used for Diesel or sparkignition engines and steam turbines in mechanical drive service. The unit features an internal oil pump, relief-valve, and accumulator system for controlling governor operating pressure. A centrifugal fly-weight-head and pilot-valve assembly controls oil flow to and from the governor assembly. A power cylinder (servo motor) positions the fuel rack, fuel valve, or steam valve of the engine or turbine. A pneumatically-operated bellows mechanism sets governor speed, with a knob for manual speed adjustment. An adjustable needle valve and spring-loaded buffer compensation system provide governor stability. In an electronic governor, sensors called magnetic

pickups measure operating parameters of the prime mover. The governor compares signals from the sensors with selected set points and provides a signal to the valve actuators. An actuator converts the output signal from the electronic control to a mechanical movement that positions the throttle valve, steam valve, or fuel rack of the prime mover. Actuators may receive the power to move their output shafts in the form of hydraulic pressure or mechanical drive from the prime mover, or from an independent electrical or hydraulic source. Figure 13-3 shows a proportional hydraulic actuator used for positioning steam and fuel-control valves requiring high-force linear input. Figure 13-4 is a cutaway illustration showing the actuator components. A torque-motor servo valve is energized by the electronic control to generate a pressure differential applied to the ends of a second-stage spool valve. Supply pressure is regulated by the spool valve to move a double-acting servo piston and provide one linear inch of output shaft travel. Internal mechanical feedback varies the location of the actuator shaft in direct proportion to the inputcurrent signal. Figure 13-5 shows a gas valve actuator combination designed for use with electronic controls for industrial gas turbines. Its open-loop positioning characteristic provides consistent valve positions from idle to full load. The output signal from an electric controller usually includes proportional, inte-

Fig. 13-2 Governor Used for Controlling Speed of Prime Movers Driving Pumps and Compressors. Source: Woodward Governor

266
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Controlling Prime Movers

Fig. 13-5 Gas Valve Actuator Combination Designed to Control Gas Turbines Used for Industrial Applications. Source: Woodward Governor

grating, and derivative response components. Proportional response is an output signal that changes in proportion to the error signal, or difference between speed Fig. 13-3 Proportional Electro-Hydraulic Actuator Used for Steam set point and measured speed. Proportional control always and Fuel Control Valves. Source: Woodward Governor results in some offset from a given set point. Integrating response eliminates the offset by considering the length of time that a given error has existed. Derivative response uses the rate of change of the error to produce a dampening signal that minimizes overshoot and oscillation around the set point value. Mechanical governors use proportional and integrating response in varying amounts to produce the net output signal. Electronic controls include all three responses in varying combinations and are often referred to as PID type control. Deadband is the amount of change a control system will allow in a controlled parameter before it responds with a correction. The smaller the deadband, the more accurately a parameter is controlled. Limiting a parameter allows it to vary within a specified range. A parameter may be limited in its maximum value, minimum value, or both. Figure 13-6 shows a digital electric-powered governor system Fig. 13-4 Cutaway Illustration of Actuator Components. Source: Woodward Governor
267
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Air-fuel ratios, for example, must be continuously adjusted on engines, based on such feedback, in order to stay within acceptable emissions limits. Many larger capacity systems require continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMs).

CONTROL PARAMETERS
Prime movers can be controlled in a variety of ways, depending on the requirements of the specific application. Control options can be categorized into one of the following general areas: Speed control Load control Prime mover parameters Drive equipment parameters Process parameters Regardless of the application, speed and/or load control are required. Speed control is the primary control loop for most prime movers. Speed control is used, for example, in mechanical drive applications where output power depends directly on running speed. In most electric generation applications, however, it is desirable to control the prime mover for load rather than speed. When the generator is feeding electricity into a grid system, the prime mover rotational speed is locked to the frequency of the grid once its generator has been synchronized to the grid and the breaker is closed. However, the load (kW) can be controlled by raising or lowering the speed reference to vary the energy input to the prime mover. With speed held constant, a change in energy input will produce a corresponding change in output power. In generator applications, the governor system may include an automatic synchronizer to adjust prime mover speed to match bus frequency and adjust generator phase to match bus phase and provide voltage matching. Import/export controls allow the governor to regulate the flow of power between the utility and the connected system and to limit output so that it does not exceed the generator rating. Driven equipment and process control parameters can include pressure, flow, temperature, level, or speed. Gas turbines frequently are controlled on the basis of exhaust temperature. A second example is the control of a reciprocating engine- or turbine-driven compressor pumping gas through a pipeline, where pipeline pressure may be the controlling parameter. When based on driven equipment or process parameters,

Fig. 13-6 Digital Electric Powered Governor System. Source: Woodward Governor

designed for reciprocating engines. This system includes a 16-bit microprocessor control and a limited-angle rotational actuator. Two complete control programs allow for operation on two different fuels, or for alternate parallel or isolated generating service. Adjustment is done through a hand-held programmer or a host computer. This unit provides 2.0 lbm-ft (2.7 N-m) of torque in steady state and 5.24 ft-lbm (0.725 kg-m) of work over 75 degrees of rotation. Sequencers or sequencer/monitors are programmable, microprocessor-based units that monitor several parameters of a prime mover or load and perform procedures such as starting, stopping, loading, or unloading. When a sequencer is teamed with a separate electronic speed control, complete automatic control may be achieved. Older electronic control systems were the analog type, using varying voltages or currents proportional to the value of some parameter. The most advanced control systems use microprocessor-based digital logic. Digital logic allows the control system to perform PID type control, as well as limiting, sequencing, and monitoring. Performance calculations allow dynamic control strategies to be used. Remote system monitoring and control is possible via telecommunications networks. The ability to control regulated air emissions from prime movers and related equipment is an important consideration in the selection and operation of the control system. Control systems must respond to feedback on emissions production parameters and adjust operations accordingly.

268
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Controlling Prime Movers

prime mover control may be accomplished in one of two ways: 1. Adjusting the actuator output signal can control parameters that are directly related to prime mover rotational speed. Typically, this would be limited to process parameters such as pressure or flow. Figure 13-7 illustrates this process for a steam turbine. As shown, the process control and the speed control functions both reside within the prime mover control. Each receives an input signal, compares it with the reference set point, and generates a corrective signal. The two controllers then compete for control of the actuator through a low-signal selector (LSS). The lowest corrective signal is selected and used to position the energy-input valve. 2. A remote speed set point can be used to control the prime mover. As shown in Figure 13-8, a process controller (or some remote control system) performs all reference calculations and sends a corrective signal through the remote speed set point to adjust the speed reference. Control algorithms are based on performance characteristics and limitations of the prime mover and the driven equipment. With steam turbines, for example, it is sometimes beneficial to maintain full-load design speed and limit output by throttling the driven load through its own control mechanisms. When driving equipment such as pumps, fans, and positive displacement type compressors, speed control may be effective, where the equipment performance gain will more than offset performance loss at the steam turbine. With a reciprocating engine, performance of both the engine and the driven equipment is enhanced through speed control, resulting in excellent part-load performance over a wide operating range.

Fig. 13-8 Remote Process Control.

With centrifugal compressors, the advantage of variable speed operation is not as significant. Although they can operate at variable speed, the turn-down range is limited because a minimum mass flow is required to prevent surge or back-flow in the compressor. In such cases, it may be advantageous to maintain full-load design speed or to use speed control over a more limited operating range. For large steam turbine systems, where most or all of the steam generation is dedicated to the turbine, both turbine and boiler must be controlled by the same system. Since the boiler cannot respond rapidly, the steam turbine valves modulate for initial load response at constant throttle pressure. The control system then acts to restore the proper rate of fuel flow to the boiler.

CONTROL LAGS

AND

GOVERNOR DESIGNS

Fig. 13-7 Low-Signal Selector.

All control systems include time lags. In particular, a time lag inherent to prime movers results from the relationship between speed and acceleration. A torque imbalance is proportional to acceleration, not speed, although speed is the desired control parameter. Since acceleration is the first derivative of speed (rate of change of speed), acceleration at any time is the angle of the tangent of the speed curve at that point. When speed is at a minimum, acceleration is zero. When acceleration is maximum, speed reaches its mid level, and when speed is at its maximum, acceleration returns to zero. Therefore, there is a 90 degree phase difference in time between acceleration reaching maximum and speed reaching maximum. For similar reasons, when a servo is added to a governor system to position the energy input valve, there can be a 90 degree lag between governor speed and energy input

269
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

valve position. Added to the phase shift described above, this results in a total phase shift for the prime mover system of 180 degrees. This means that the energy-input valve is closing to its minimum position while prime mover speed is increasing to its maximum. As soon as a change in load occurs, resulting in a transient condition, control becomes unstable, oscillating between maximum and minimum. In practice, because other factors introduce additional phase shifts within the prime mover, the governor design must achieve an actual phase lag well below 90 degrees to ensure stable operation. Figure 13-9 illustrates the workings of a droop governor. The unit has a feedback mechanism that reduces the tension in the speed reference spring (and decreases the speed setting) when the servo moves in the increase direction. The reverse occurs when the servo moves to the decrease direction. The feedback lever reduces the speed reference before the deviation reaches its maximum, reducing the phase shift in the governor as required. This results in speed eventually returning to steady state. After a transient caused by an increase in load, the power piston has to take a position that increases the energy input. The feedback lever will take a new position where the speed reference is lower. Therefore, the actual speed where the prime mover settles for steady state after the transient will be lower than before the load increase. This characteristic is illustrated by the droop curve shown in Figure 13-10. As shown, the governor achieves stable operation during and after a transient by adding a lead factor in the form of a change in speed setting. This is known as permanent droop. The ability to return to original speed after a change in load and maintain constant steady state speed regardless of load is called isochronous speed control. Figure 13-11

illustrates the workings of an isochronous compensated governor. This unit features a hydraulic feedback between the servo and the speed setting. When a load increase or decrease occurs, a temporary change in speed setting is produced, similar to the basic droop system. However,

Fig. 13-10 Illustration of Droop Curve and Corresponding Speed Settings.

this temporary droop leaks away across a needle valve, which equalizes pressure between the two compensation pistons, and the governor returns to its original speed setting. This results in isochronous operation at constant steady speed. Droop is a straight-line function, defined as the decrease in speed for a given increase in load: % Droop = Speed at no load Speed at full load Speed at full load x 100

Fig. 13-9 Illustration Detailing Workings of Droop Governor.

(13-2) A typical droop governor lowers the speed reference from 3 to 5% of the reference speed over the full range of engine output. Thus, a 3% droop governor with a reference speed of 1,854 rpm at no fuel would have a reference speed of 1,800 rpm at maximum fuel. All electronic controls have circuits that provide a form of temporary droop by adjusting the change in actuator position according to speed. More complex hydraulic governors have adjustable droop. Figures 13-12 and 13-13 illustrate various types of droop for generator and mechanical drive applications. Figure 13-14 is a governor used for numerous types of small-capacity prime movers that can operate isochronously or with droop. This type of governor may be applied to control engines or turbines driving generators, pumps, or compressors. Stability for isochronous control is achieved through pressure compensation. The temperature-compensated speeder spring minimizes speed drift

270
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Controlling Prime Movers

Fig. 13-11 Illustration Detailing Workings of Isochronous Compensated Governor.

caused by temperature change. Droop may be adjusted from 0 to 7% with a permanent movement inside the cover or with externally adjusted droop. This governor provides hydraulic-powered travel in the increase-fuel/steam direction, with a return spring. An isolated prime mover generator can operate in isochronous mode, changing speeds only temporarily in response to changes in load. The system can also operate in droop if a lower speed is permissible under loaded conditions. If, however, the generator is connected to an electric grid, the grid will determine the frequency. Should the governor speed reference be less than the utility frequency, power in the utility bus will flow to the generator and motor the unit. If the governor speed is even fractionally higher than the frequency of a utility bus, load will go to maximum in a futile attempt to increase the bus speed.

Isochronous governor control is thus impractical when paralleling a utility. In such cases, droop is effective. When operating in parallel with a grid, the load on the prime mover is determined by the reference speed setting on the droop governor. Increasing the speed setting cannot cause a change in speed, which is locked in, but will cause a change in the amount of load the prime mover is carrying. Droop may also be used to parallel multiple prime movers on an isolated bus. If all prime movers are operating in droop and variations in speed are acceptable, the voltage of the bus will vary with a change in load. Multiple prime movers can also be paralleled on an isolated bus with one unit in isochronous operation and remaining units operating with droop. These systems will be able to maintain a constant speed as long as the isochronous prime mover is capable of accommodating any load changes. In addition to the in-phase lags described above, there are numerous additional lags in response. These can vary widely, depending on prime mover type and design. Lags due to scan intervals and other factors are even present in digital controls. Three types of delays are associated with gas and steam turbines. Manifold lag is the time elapsed between energy inlet valve actuation and appearance of the new energy level at the turbine. For a gas turbine, the manifold lag depends on piping between the fuel valve and the combustors. Similarly, for a steam turbine, the manifold lag depends on piping between the steam valve and the first turbine stage. Turbine lag includes the time delay before the prime mover operates on a new power level. For a steam turbine, this lag is small because steam moves rapidly across the turbine stages. Gas turbines also experi-

Fig. 13-12 Speed Droop Illustrated for Generator Applications.

Fig. 13-13 Speed Droop Illustrated for Mechanical Drive Applications.

271
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

tions. However, under large load swings, it will also take more time for corrections to take effect.

EXAMPLES OF PRIME MOVER CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 13-15 is a block diagram of a Woodward Governor comprehensive multi-engine control system, a family of modules that include speed control, load control, engine control, monitoring, and sequencing. This system may be used with gas, Diesel, and dual-fuel engines in mechanical drive and power generation applications. The digital control application program is created in application block language software (ABLS), designed to be programmed by non-software engineers. The graphical application programmer (GAP) allows the ABLS to be programmed graphically, and it automatically creates the documentation for the software. Figure 13-16 shows a representative block diagram illustrating the control systems applied to a power generation system featuring an extraction steam turbine. The control system has a full range of turbine-control functions, including conditional sequencing based on the information it receives through its discrete and analog functions. The system receives redundant input signals from all three CPUs and, based on a comparison of data and a two-out-of-three voting system, generates outputs to the active coil of a dual-coil actuator for turbine control. Figure 13-17 shows a representative diagram of a control system for a gas turbine applied to mechanical drive service in a gas compression station. This system provides fuel control, automatic start/stop sequencing, temperature sensing and limiting, speed control, nozzle control, alarming functions, and compressor surge control. All of the control information is available through modem for remote control of operations and troubleshooting. Figure 13-18 shows a comprehensive integrated boiler/turbine-generator control system. This system would be applied in large capacity plants, such as central utility plants, to coordinate the boiler and turbine-generator for fast and efficient response to automatic load dispatch controls. In its basic form, the system consists of ratio controls that monitor pairs of controlled inputs, such as boiler energy input to generator energy output and fuel flow to feedwater flow.

Fig. 13-14 Speed Droop Governor for Controlling Speed of Small Prime Movers. Source: Woodward Governor

ence combustor lag, which is the time it takes to establish a new flame pattern. With reciprocating engines, time lags include the dead time between the charging of the cylinder with fuel and its conversion to torque and the time required for all of the cylinders to be firing at the new level. The dead time varies greatly and is least in Diesel-cycle engines and greatest in four-stroke Otto-cycle engines. Dead time decreases as engine speed increases. Natural gas and gasoline Otto-cycle engines also experience manifold lag due to the dead time associated with charging the manifold. Under large load changes, turbochargers also contribute to time lag. In all prime movers, transient behavior is affected by the polar moment of inertia, or flywheel effect. For a given torque difference, acceleration is inversely proportional to the systems moment of inertia. With twice the moment of inertia, the system will accelerate only half as fast. With more inertia, the governor has more time to make correc-

272
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Controlling Prime Movers

Fig. 13-15 Block Diagram of Comprehensive Multi-Engine System Digital Control System. Source: Woodward Governor

Fig. 13-16 Representative Block Diagram of a Steam Turbine-Generator Set Control System. Source: Woodward Governor

273
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.

Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications

Fig. 13-17 Diagram of Control System for a Gas Turbine Applied to Mechanical Drive Service. Source: Woodward Governor

Fig. 13-18 Integrated Boiler Turbine-Generator Control System. Source: Babcock & Wilcox

274
Copyright 2003 by The Fairmont Press.