Chemical Pathology 1- Define diabetes ketoacidosis?

Serious complication of diabetes that occurs when your body produces high levels of blood acids called ketones.

2-What is electrolyte Electrolytes are essential minerals in body that necessary for nerve and muscle function, it is electrical charge and are present in blood, plasma, urine, and other fluids.

3- Example of electrolyte in our body Sodium ion , chloride ion, potassium ion, chloride ion, calcium ion, magnesium ion, bicarbonate ion, phosphate ion, sulfate ion

4- Causes for electrolyte imbalance First factor is from medical condition such as diabetes, diarrhea, Kidney disease and vomiting. Secondly is serious or life-threatening example, dehydration and shock.

5- Describe kidney function in balancing electrolyte The largest portion of the body's sodium reserves is in the extracellular fluid, which includes the blood plasma. The kidneys function to control the sodium excreted in the urine thus the level of sodium in the body is relatively constant on a daily basis. The body maintains extracellular fluid sodium concentration homeostasis through the thirst mechanism and regulation of kidney water excretion by antidiuretic hormone (ADH). When sodium concentrations opposed to too much total sodiums too high, thirst water intake and, at the same time, the ADH signals to the kidneys to conserve water, by increasing water absorption by the organs and passing less water into the excretory system.

The kidney plays a major role in maintenance of electrolyte concentrations. The concentrations of some positively charged ions are particularly important these are vital for, nerve impulse transmission, muscle fiber contraction, regulation of Sodium ion example is aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption in kidney tubules. Then regulation of potassium ion example aldosterone also causes secretion of excess potassium ion into the urine. Regulation of calcium ion example is calcitonin decreases calcium levels by targeting distal kidney tubules to secrete excess calcium ion into urine. Then parathyroid hormone increases calcium levels by targeting kidney tubules to reabsorb calcium ion back into blood.

6- Describe body mechanism in balancing oxygen and carbon dioxide One mechanism the body uses to control blood pH involves the release of carbon dioxide from the lungs. Carbon dioxide, which is mildly acidic, is a waste product of the metabolism of oxygen (which all cells need) and, as such, is constantly produced by cells. As with all waste products, carbon dioxide gets excreted into the blood. The blood carries carbon dioxide to the lungs, where it is exhaled. As carbon dioxide accumulates in the blood, the pH of the blood decreases (acidity increases). The brain regulates the amount of carbon dioxide that is exhaled by controlling the speed and depth of breathing. The amount of carbon dioxide exhaled, and consequently the pH of the blood, increases as breathing becomes faster and deeper. By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing, the brain and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH minute by minute. Inhaling, is due to the contraction and flattening of the diaphragm, a domed muscle that separates thorax and abdomen. If the abdomen is relaxed, this contraction causes the abdomen to bulge outwards, expanding the volume of the body. This increased volume causes a fall in pressure in the thorax, which causes the expansion of the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes air leaves largely by elasticity of the lung. This is quiet, relaxed breathing needing little energy. When need increases the abdominal muscles resist expansion. The increased abdominal pressure then tilts the diaphragm and ribcage upwards with an increase in volume and the entry of air. Expiration follows relaxation of diaphragm and abdominal muscles, but can be increased by downward action of abdominal muscles on the rib cage. This forced expiration increases pressure across the

airway's walls and may lead to narrowing and perhaps to wheezing. Intercostal muscles are auxiliary, stiffening and shaping the rib cage. Speech depends on the balance between the two forms of breathing, and in man conscious change often modifies autonomous reaction to need. The pattern can vary with fear in anticipation of need, and so with anxiety, and may be conditioned to experience such as the loss of an inhaler. It is also affected by loss of lung elasticity in age or pulmonary disease, of abdominal expansion from obesity, or of muscle power to resist expansion or to pull the ribcage down. Ten muscles are used for inspiration:

7-Describe body mechanism in balancing pH value The kidneys are slower to compensate, but renal physiology has several powerful mechanisms to control pH by the excretion of excess acid or base. In response to acidosis, tubular cells reabsorb more bicarbonate from the tubular fluid, collecting duct cells secrete more hydrogen and generate more bicarbonate, and ammoniagenesis leads to increased formation of the NH3 buffer. In responses to alkalosis, the kidneys may excrete more bicarbonate by decreasing hydrogen ion secretion from the tubular epithelial cells, and lowering rates of glutamine metabolism and ammonium excretion. The human body is mainly water. The water is what assists in keeping the body in homeostasis so that the bodily processes function optimally. The pH can be tested to measure how well a body is staying in equilibrium. The pH, or potential hydrogen, is a scale between 0 to 14. If a body is functioning at its best, the pH will be close to 7, which is neutral. If a body is too acidic, it will be between 0 and 6.9, and if too alkaline, between 7.1 and 14. The pH level may change temporarily after such activities as eating, but the actual pH will be evident over several periods of testing and getting close to the same results. Homeostasis affects the body's pH level, and therefore the health a person can maintain.