3G

Introduction
Third generation (3G) networks were conceived from the Universal MobileTelecommunications Service (UMTS) concept for high speed networks for enabling a variety of data intensive applications. 3G systems consist of the two main standards, CDMA2000 and W-CDMA, as well as other 3G variants such as NTT DoCoMo's Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA) and Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access (TD-SCDMA) used primarily in China.

Data Speed
The data speed of 3G is determined based on a combination of factors including the chip rate, channel structure, power control, and synchronization. An example of calculating the theoretical 3G data speed is as follows:

W-CDMA assigned code 400-500 Kpbs/code. 6 codes X 400 > 2Mbps (UMTS target for 3G data speed in fixed location)

Actual data speeds will vary in accordance with several factors including:

Number of users in cell/sector Distance of user from cell User is moving or stationary Network operator capacity and network optimization requirements

1xEV-DO is a data-only solution, supporting a theoretical data speed of up to 2.457 Mbps 1xEV-DV is a data and voice solution, supporting a theoretical data speed of up to 3.072 Mbps FOMA has two operational modes, supporting a dedicated 64 Kbps connection or a 384 Kbps downlink/64 Kbps uplink best-effort connection. TD-SCDMA can operate in 1.6 MHz or 5 MHz mode for 2 Mbps or 6 Mpbs respectively

Comparison of W-CDMA to CDMA2000

Both use a coding scheme that separates each subscriber from other subscribers Both use control channels to manage the network

W-CDMA and CDMA2000 are not compatible from the perspective that they have different chip rates - 3.84 MCPS for W-CDMA vs. 1.2888 MCPS for CMDA2000. WCDMA uses a 5 MHz channel. Initially, CDMA2000 uses only a 1.25 MHz channel, but with CDMA2000 3x, three 1.25 MHz channels can be combined to form a super channel structure. W-CDMA is synchronous, relying on mobile station time measurements between two base stations, rather than using GPS as CDMA2000 does. There are three modes of operation for W-CDMA/CDMA2000:

Direct Sequence (DS) W-CDMA (UMTS) for Frequency Divsion Duplex (FDD) W-CDMA Time Division Duplex (TDD) CDMA2000 Multi-carrier FDD

Each of the three radio interface methods may be employed on either a GSM or ANSI-based Core Network (CN). IS-833 is a standard, developed by the 3GPP2, to support CDMA2000 1xRTT Radio Access Network (RAN) to interface with a GSM CN. RAN upgrade required includes CDMA base station and BSC. CN upgrade required includes CDMA PDSN and AAA server.

Impetus for 3G
The major impetus for 3G is to provide for faster data speed for data-intensive applications such as video. In addition, 3G to providing faster data speeds on a peruser basis, 3G is also helpful to provide greater overall capacity for voice and data users. For example, NTT DoCoMo's plan to migrate iMode users from the 2G PDC network to FOM is driven by overall capacity concerns, as apposed to individual user data speed requirement.

3G Architecture
W-CDMA uses the same CN as GPRS, utilizing existing infrastruture such as the GGSN and SGSN. W-CDMA, however, does require new RAN infrastructure such as the Node B, which replaces the BTS, and the Radio Network Controller (RNC), which replaces the BSC. Ultimately, the W-CDMA CN will evolve to comprise a full Mobile IP infrastructure including Media Gateway (MGW) and Media Gateway Controller (MGC) equipment for VoIP and other new equipment such as the HSS and CSDF. CDMA2000 starts with new channel cards and then migrates to a full Mobile IP infrastructure requiring new Core Network (CN) infrastructure such as the AAA server and Packet Data Server Node (PDSN).

Mobile IP
Introduction Mobile IP is the underlying technology for support of various mobile data and wireless networking applications. For example, GPRS depends on mobile IP to enable the relay of messages to a GPRS phone via the SGSN from the GGSN without the sending needing to know the serving node IP address.

The Impetus for Mobile IP With the advent of packet based mobile data applications and the increase of wireless computing, there is a corresponding need for the ability for seamless communication between the mobile node device and the packet data network (PDN) such as the Internet. Mobile IP Definitions Mobile Node: A device capable of performing network roaming Home Agent: A router on the home network which serves as the a point for communications with the mobile node. Foreign Agent: A router that functions as the mobile node's point of attachment when it travels to the foreign network. Care of Address: Termination point of the tunnel toward the mobile node when it is not in the home network. Correspondent Node: The device that the mobile node is communicating with such as a web server Mobile IP in Operation To accomplish this, mobile IP established the visited network as a foreign node and the home network as the home node. Mobile IP uses a tunneling protocol to allow messages from the PDN to be directed to the mobile node's IP address. This is accomplished by way of routing messages to the foreign node for delivery via tunneling the original IP address inside a packet destined for the temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node by the foreign node. The Home Agent and Foreign Agent continuously advertise their services on the network through an Agent Discovery process, enabling the Home Agent to recognize when a new Foreign Agent is aquired and allowing the Mobile Node to register a new Care of Address.

This method allows for seamless communications between the mobile node and applications residing on the PDN, allowing for seamless, always-on connectivity for mobile data applications and wireless computing. Mobile IP enabled Applications Mobile IP technology is embedded in the functionality of packet equipment for 2.5G and 3G. In addition, mobile IP enables advanced applications such as unified messaging.

2.5G
Introduction
CDMA2000's 1xRTT is the first technology for the evolution of cdmaOne 2G networks to 2.5G networks. GPRS represents the first packet-based technology for evolution from 2G GSM networks to 2.5G networks. Another GSM 2.5G packet technology, Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). Another 2.5G technology that is circuit based, High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD).

Impetus for 2.5G

The major impetus for 2.5G is the "always-on" capability. Being packet based, 2.5G technologies allow for the use of infrastructure and facilities only when a transaction is required, rather than maintaining facilities in a session-like manner. This provides tremendous infrastructure efficiency and service delivery improvements. Using GPRS as a bearer for WAP, for instance, will allow for the use of WAP on a per-transaction rather than a per-minute-of-use basis. More importantly perhaps is the ability for GPRS to allow for autonomous service realization through the alwayson capability. For example, a GPRS customer could receive content or services without actually manually invoking a service or transaction. This has significant implications for mobile commerce and location based services. Data Speed

GPRS data speeds are expected to reach theoretical data speeds of up to 171.2 Kbps. However, this is based on optimal conditions in terms of available cell/sector capacity in terms of available time slots, maximum coding scheme (CS-4) as well as moible phone availability to support the maximum number of time slots - eight. More practical data rates are currently in the order of 40-60 Kbps. CDMA2000 1xRTT data speeds are averaging about 70-80 Kbps. EDGE will boost data theoretical data rates to 384 Kbps if/when deployed. EDGE accomplishes these higher rates through introduction of a new modulation scheme known as Eight Phase Shift Keying (8PSK). 8PSK provides for up to 3 bits per symbol (rather than GPRS's 1 bit per symbol), facilitating an up to 3 X's improvement over GPRS. HSCSD will provide speeds of up to 64 Kbps. However, HSCSD perpetuates the inefficient use of spectrum and transmission that is relegated by any circuit switched mechanism. Prior to the introduction of these technologies, Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD), offered only up to 19.2 kbps on AMPS networks. Other current means of mobile data such as NTT DoCoMo's PDC network offer only 9.6 kpbs, such as used for the highly successful iMode. 3G technologies such as CDMA2000 (1xEV-DO and 3x) and W-CDMA will theoreticaly provide up to 2 Mbps in a fixed location. There will, however, be some significant limitations to this theoretical capacity.

2.5G Architecture and Issues

GPRS represents an overlay network deployment to GSM, thus new network elements are placed into the network while existing network elements, such as the HLR, simply require a software upgrade. CDMA2000 also represents an overlay network, with 1xRTT first requiring new channel cards, and later versions of CDMA2000 requiring new Core Network (CN) infrastructure such as the AAA server and Packet Data Server Node (PDSN) as part of a Mobile IP network infrastructure.

Wireless Application Protocol

Introduction

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is an enabling technology based on the Internet client server architecture model, for transmission and presentation of information from the World Wide Web (WWW) and other applications utilizing the Internet Protocol (IP) to a mobile phone or other wireless terminal.

Formation of WAP Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and Phone.com founded the WAP Forum in June 1997 to create license-free standards for the entire industry to use to develop products based on WAP. WAP Protocol Stack From top to bottom, the WAP protocol stack consists of the following:

Application layer Session layer Transaction layer Security layer Transport layer Network layer Deployment and Operation of WAP

Unlike iMode, WAP requires a gateway to convert between WAP's native language, Wireless Markup Language (WML), and HTML for operation between mobile networks and the WWW. WAP can be deployed using circuit switch or packet switch bearer facilities such as GPRS. The advantages of packet based WAP include faster speed and always-on capabilities. WAP and Roaming When initiating a WAP session while roaming, a connection is made between the visited network and the WAP gateway in the home network. While this provides for basic WAP services to the roamer as if he was in the home network, mobile IN technologies such as CAMEL are required to truly provide a virtual home environment. WAP and Prepay While WAP can be provided on a prepay basis with certain prepay techniques such as hot-billing, prepay WAP will benefit significantly better from the implementation of CAMEL phase 3 in conjunction with GPRS as a bearer. Evolution of WAP

While early implementations of WAP have been relatively unimpressive from a user experience, WAP is poised to leverage packet data networks, push based services, color and animation on the handset, and value-added services such as location based services.

General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)

Introduction
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a 2.5 generation packet based network technology for GSM networks.

Data Speed
GPRS data speeds are expected to reach theoretical data speeds of up to 171.2 Kbps. However, this is based on optimal conditions in terms of available cell/sector capacity in terms of available time slots, maximum coding scheme (CS-4) as well as moible phone availability to support the maximum number of time slots - eight. More practical data rates are currently in the order of 40-60 Kbps. 3G technologies such as W-CDMA will theoreticaly provide up to 2 Mbps in a fixed location. There will, however, be some significant limitations to this theoretical capacity. While 3G (and beyond) is expected to usher in the advent of highbandwidth, multi-media services, the real impetus for 2.5G and packet based mobile data lies elsewhere.

Impetus for GPRS

The major impetus for GPRS and other packet based mobile data technologies is the "always-on" capability. Being packet based, GPRS allows for the use of infrastructure and facilities only when a transaction is required, rather than maintaining facilities in a session-like manner. This provides tremendous infrastructure efficiency and service delivery improvements. Using GPRS as a bearer for WAP, for instance, will allow for the use of WAP on a per-transaction rather than a per-minute-of-use basis. More importantly perhaps is the ability for GPRS to allow for autonomous service realization through the alwayson capability. For example, a GPRS customer could receive content or services without actually manually invoking a service or transaction. This has significant implications for mobile commerce and location based services.

GPRS Architecture and Issues

GPRS architecture consists of Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) and a Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN). The GGSN acts as the gateway to other packet data networks such as the Internet. The SGSN is the serving node that enables virtual connections to the GPRS enabled mobile device and delivery of data. The blessing and curse of the SGSN is that it supports an attach state when a user is engaged in GPRS data usage and a detach state when idle. The idle state creates a particular challenge for attempting to position the unit for location based services. In addition, GPRS presents a challenge in terms of the ability to offer prepaid mobile data services, which may be overcome by the introduction of CAMEL and perhaps the use of Parlay. The evolution from GPRS to W-CDMA entails upgrade of the Radio Access Network (RAN) to include two new network elements. The Node B replaces the BTS and the Radio Network Controller (RNC) replaces the BSC in the RAN. However, mobile network operators will maintain their GPRS assets for that service and thus maintain the existing network elements along with the new ones for 3G. W-CDMA continues to use the same Core Network (CN) elements as GPRS.

Deployment and Operational Issues

Beyond the scope of this white paper, there are several significant issues associated with deployment and operation of GPRS systems. Those issues include:

Capacity and network optimization Handset availability and performance Quality of service Charging for services

AAA
Introduction
Sometimes referred to as "triple-A" or just AAA, authentication, authorization, and accounting represent the "big three" in terms of IP based network management and policy administration. Authentication provides a vehicle to identify a client that requires access to some system and logically precedes authorization. The mechanism for authentication is typically undertaken through the exchange of logical keys or certificates between the client and the server. Authorization follows authentication and entails the process of determining whether the client is allowed to perform and/or request certain tasks or operations. Authorization is therefore at the heart of policy administration.

Accounting is the process of measuring resource consumption, allowing monitoring and reporting of events and usage for various purposes including billing, analysis, and ongoing policy management Why is AAA Important? AAA is a fundamental aspect of IP networking. As mobile IP technology expands to enable a multitude of mobile, Internet-enabled devices, AAA servers will provide the means of administering policy to ensure proper use and management of resources. In a specific example, GSM location service (LCS) standards specify that the Gateway Mobile Location Center (GMLC) must administer AAA policy towards any LCS client that requests location information. In a more generic IT example, a AAA policy server would interact with network access and gateway servers, databases, and directories to provide policy direction to any mobile IP device that requests access or information within a virtual private network environment. AAA Standards and Administration AAA may be administered based on the agreed upon standards for communication and processing. In the preceding example, the LCS client must send the appropriate information over the API, allowing the GMLC to apply AAA policy. In a more generic IT example, many remote computer access servers utilize the RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service) protocol. However, with the potential multitude of remote computing devices enabled by mobile IP, a new protocol called DIAMETER is being developed by the IETF to better support the mobile IP environment.

Fading
This article is about signal loss in telecommunications. For the poetry book, see Fading (book). For other uses, see Fade (disambiguation).

Frequency-selective time-varying fading causes a cloudy pattern to appear on a spectrogram. Time is shown on the horizontal axis, frequency on the vertical axis and signal strength as grey-scale intensity.

In wireless communications, fading is deviation of the attenuation that a signal experiences over certain propagation media. The fading may vary with time, geographical position or radio frequency, and is often modelled as a random process. A fading channel is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, or due to shadowing from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading

Key concepts
The presence of reflectors in the environment surrounding a transmitter and receiver create multiple paths that a transmitted signal can traverse. As a result, the receiver sees the superposition of multiple copies of the transmitted signal, each traversing a different path. Each signal copy will experience differences in attenuation, delay and phase shift while travelling from the source to the receiver. This can result in either constructive or destructive interference, amplifying or attenuating the signal power seen at the receiver. Strong destructive interference is frequently referred to as a deep fade and may result in temporary failure of communication due to a severe drop in the channel signal-to-noise ratio. A common example of multipath fading is the experience of stopping at a traffic light and hearing an FM broadcast degenerate into static, while the signal is re-acquired if the vehicle moves only a fraction of a meter. The loss of the broadcast is caused by the vehicle stopping at a point where the signal experienced severe destructive interference. Cellular phones can also exhibit similar momentary fades. Fading channel models are often used to model the effects of electromagnetic transmission of information over the air in cellular networks and broadcast communication. Fading channel models are also used in underwater acoustic communications to model the distortion caused by the water. Mathematically, fading is usually modeled as a time-varying random change in the amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal.

[edit] Slow versus fast fading

The terms slow and fast fading refer to the rate at which the magnitude and phase change imposed by the channel on the signal changes. The coherence time is a measure of the minimum time required for the magnitude change of the channel to become uncorrelated from its previous value. Alternatively, it may be defined as the maximum time for which the magnitude change of channel is correlated to its previous value.

Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel can be considered roughly constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the receiver. The amplitude change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal distribution with a standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model. Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay constraint of the channel. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably over the period of use.

In a fast-fading channel, the transmitter may take advantage of the variations in the channel conditions using time diversity to help increase robustness of the communication to a temporary deep fade. Although a deep fade may temporarily erase some of the information transmitted, use of an error-correcting code coupled with successfully transmitted bits during other time instances (interleaving) can allow for the erased bits to be recovered. In a slowfading channel, it is not possible to use time diversity because the transmitter sees only a single realization of the channel within its delay constraint. A deep fade therefore lasts the entire duration of transmission and cannot be mitigated using coding. The coherence time of the channel is related to a quantity known as the Doppler spread of the channel. When a user (or reflectors in its environment) is moving, the user's velocity causes a shift in the frequency of the signal transmitted along each signal path. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler shift. Signals travelling along different paths can have different Doppler shifts, corresponding to different rates of change in phase. The difference in Doppler shifts between different signal components contributing to a single fading channel tap is known as the Doppler spread. Channels with a large Doppler spread have signal components that are each changing independently in phase over time. Since fading depends on whether signal components add constructively or destructively, such channels have a very short coherence time. In general, coherence time is inversely related to Doppler spread, typically expressed as

where Tc is the coherence time, Ds is the Doppler spread (Doppler shift). This equation is just an approximation[1], to be exact, see Coherence time.

[edit] Flat versus frequency-selective fading

As the carrier frequency of a signal is varied, the magnitude of the change in amplitude will vary. The coherence bandwidth measures the separation in frequency after which two signals will experience uncorrelated fading.

In flat fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is larger than the bandwidth of the signal. Therefore, all frequency components of the signal will experience the same magnitude of fading. In frequency-selective fading, the coherence bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the bandwidth of the signal. Different frequency components of the signal therefore experience decorrelated fading.

Since different frequency components of the signal are affected independently, it is highly unlikely that all parts of the signal will be simultaneously affected by a deep fade. Certain modulation schemes such as OFDM and CDMA are well-suited to employing frequency diversity to provide robustness to fading. OFDM divides the wideband signal into many slowly modulated narrowband subcarriers, each exposed to flat fading rather than frequency selective fading. This can be combated by means of error coding, simple equalization or adaptive bit loading. Inter-symbol interference is avoided by introducing a guard interval between the symbols. CDMA uses the Rake receiver to deal with each echo separately.

Frequency-selective fading channels are also dispersive, in that the signal energy associated with each symbol is spread out in time. This causes transmitted symbols that are adjacent in time to interfere with each other. Equalizers are often deployed in such channels to compensate for the effects of the intersymbol interference. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model.

[edit] Fading models

Examples of fading models for the distribution of the attenuation are:

Dispersive fading models, with several echoes, each exposed to different delay, gain and phase shift, often constant. This results in frequency selective fading and inter-symbol interference. The gains may be Rayleigh or Rician distributed. The echoes may also be exposed to Doppler shift, resulting in a time varying channel model. Nakagami fading Log-normal shadow fading Rayleigh fading Rician fading Weibull fading

[edit] Mitigation
Fading can cause poor performance in a communication system because it can result in a loss of signal power without reducing the power of the noise. This signal loss can be over some or all of the signal bandwidth. Fading can also be a problem as it changes over time: communication systems are often designed to adapt to such impairments, but the fading can change faster than the adaptations can be made. In such cases, the probability of experiencing a fade (and associated bit errors as the signal-to-noise ratio drops) on the channel becomes the limiting factor in the link's performance. The effects of fading can be combated by using diversity to transmit the signal over multiple channels that experience independent fading and coherently combining them at the receiver. The probability of experiencing a fade in this composite channel is then proportional to the probability that all the component channels simultaneously experience a fade, a much more unlikely event. Diversity can be achieved in time, frequency, or space. Common techniques used to overcome signal fading include:

Diversity reception and transmission MIMO OFDM Rake receivers Spacetime codes